SST is eu Reading Rhetorically ‘Academic readers read because they are captivated by questions and are challenged to find new or better answers They also read to pursue their research projects 0 see What other researchers are saying, and to postion themselves inn scholarly conversation, To read effectively, they have to read rhetorically by attending to both the content and the persuasive strategies in a text. Reading and Writing as Acts of Composing As pat oftheir background knowledge, thetorical readers know that reading ike writing, i an active process of Conposing. The idea that writing isan act of composing i probably familiar to you. Indeed, the terms writing and composing are often used interchangeably, Originally associated with fine arts such as painting, music, oF Titerary ‘eniting the term “composing” still carries with it the idea of originality or creativity even though it has come {0 nean the production of any kind of written text, from a memo to a Pulitzer-prize-winning novel. Uniike the term “suggests more than just i suggests & er of words and ideas fo make a new whole. Except fr literally recopying what someone else of selecting and arranging language to accomplish a purpose creative putting togeth ‘has written, all writing, even memo writing, is a matter that is unique toa particular situation and audience. ‘The idea that reading is an act of composing, however, may be less familiar. The ancients thought of reading as a author via the text deposited meaning in a reader; the test was metaphorically (or even Titerally) “consumed.” The Old Testament prophet Ezekiel, for example, has a vision in which he is instructed by the Lord to open his mouth and literally consume a book that gives him the knowledge he needs to speak to the rebellious Israelites. While the image of Ezekiel's eating a text seems fantastic, themistaken idea persists that ‘eeding is a one-way transaction’ author'=+ text» reader. To illustrate the flaws inthis model of the reading process, let's try a simple experiment described by reading researcher Kathleen McCormick. Read the following passage and jot down your interpretation of its meaning: passive activity in which the ‘going well. What bothered him most was being held, especialy sinee the charge against him had been weak He considered his present situation. The lock that held him was strong but he thought he could break it..He af Tony slowly got up from the mat, planning his escape. He hesitated a moment and thought. Things are not ing ridden unmercifly. He fel tha he was ready t0 make his move > was ere are two common intepretations: readers assume that Tony is either in jail or in a wrestling match. Unless you ‘are familiar with wrestling, you probably thought Tony was a prisoner planning a jailbreak. However if thi paragraph appeared in a short story about a wrestler, you would immediately assume that “mat,” “escape. ying held." and "lock" referred to wrestling even if you knew very litle about the sport. This experiment demonstrates two important aspects ofthe reading process: (1) readers use their previous experiences and knowledie a8 swereste meaning fom what hey readvand (2) context influences meaning Research such as MeCormick’s shows that readers make sense of atextnot by passively receiving meaning from it bout by actively composing a reading oft. This composing process links the reader's existing knowledge and ideas 4 bil the new infomation encountered inthe text. What the reader rings to the texas importance asthe text isl. I er words, reading is nota process in which an author simply transfers information tothe reader. Rather it 's dynamic process in which the reader's worldview interacts with the writer's worldview; the reader constructs inthe reader’s mind that reader's active reading or ‘and limits the range of possible meanings. On the other n or private set of associations with the text based on her charge,” ag Smeaning from the text, in effect creating a new “text sf interpretation of the text. On the one hand, the text hhand, each reader will have a slightly different interpreta BY orhisexperences, knowledge, and atitues ‘When college writing assignment ask you to explain nd support your eading of ext Jing of «ot, is important to distinguish tenn reasons haa ony lossy slated oot tnd iterations that wre publi defensible in Beh eet cece ae sco eS cea van are a es Xd! a ve noa - nero R nod add emenatn Xt sends you off into your own worl), causing you to lose track of the network of cues inthe whole. While 2 ss ie id indeed one of the pleasures of reading. if you are to ot bai intetprelation, Yu must engage in a two-way interaction witha tex, alending both to the text's network ot cues and {0 your personal responses and associations with the ex. In short, “good” or sound interpretations ae those that ae NS AN. . Supported by textual evidence and thus are suaderstandable and persuasive to other readers, whose experiences and Qo tle ey sitcom ours 'exts and Their Rhetorical Contexts KS _sscond piece of backaround now edge used by thetoricleaer their awarenes tat authors bse hie choices about content, structure, and style on their rhetorical contexi—what we define asthe combined factors of 7 tudience, gene, and purpose“ Recognizing the influence of context helps rhetorical readers understand a witr's & intentions regarding the subject matter and the intended audience, and thus to reconstruct the strategy behind the author's choices consumption. His strategy isto persuade different groups of voters to pressure their congressional representatives. If he writes fora scientific audience, his article can include technical data and detailed statistical analyses. Ife GLY addresses the general public, however, the style will have to be less technical and more lively, with staylike UK anecdotes rather than tabular data. If he writes for an environmental publication, he can assume an audience already <> supportive of his pro-environment values. However, ifhe writes fr a business publication suchas the Wall Sreer ws fournal, he will have to be sensitive to his audience’s pro-business values—perhaps by arguing that what's good for environment is in the long run good for business. ny For example, suppose a writer wants to persuade legislators to raise gasoline taxes in order to reduce fossil fuel Besides adapting content and style to differen audiences writers also adapt their war tothe gene in which they publish: The term genre refers to the conventions of structure, style, format, approach to subject matter, and [XY document design that distinguish different categories of writing from each other. Literatur, for example, includes 5) such genres as plays, novel, and poems, and within each of these broad literary genres are subgenres such asthe sonnet, epic poem, and haiku. Similarly, nonfiction includes a range of genves from technical reports to newspaper feature articles, Thus, a Popular Science article on genetic research will differ in structure, style. and presentation IV" trom an article on the same subject in a scholarly journal, The wording and layout of a magazine ancle about trends in athletic shoe design will be quite different from the wording and layout of a Web presentation of the same trends, ‘where hyperlinks and animation can be used. What's important about these different genres is that readers" expectations vary for different genres. QV when you recognize how a tex is shaped according tothe writer's purpose, audience, and genre, sou can decide text for yourown purpases. Say, fr instance, that you are reading a newspaper op-ed piece about Alig fr oi inthe Ala life Reserve (ANWR) to learn mare about what sat issue inthis controversy. Because itis ¢ for a general audience, you know that it is written in terms that should be ‘understandable to you, but now that since itis an op-ed piece, isthe writer's opinion and not an informal article that attempis to be neutral Thus, your challenge is to fead somewhat skeptical, not taking the author's representation ofthe issue has necessarily the only way the isue might be considered. Let's now tur toa more detailed example An Extended Example: Articles about Teenagers’ Sleeping Habits In this section we provide specific examples of how purpose, audience, and genre affect the way texts are presented. Consider how differently scientific findings are presented in specialized journals versus the popular press. An original scientific sty usally appears firs asa technical repor in a siete journal. Such tices ae writen for highly specialized experts and are accepted for publication only after being extensivel yserutinized ‘methodology and inepiy by expert peer reviewers (also called referees), When a published scientftesrsctecmfsins newsworthy findings, science writers for general circulation newspapers and magazines or for specialized professional organizations ans” the orginal techie mater nom and sv appropri fr ther tapetedauinses ‘actual content varies alsp since the ‘on some parts Gele and omit other parts oar Be ee Tard, DNAL GWM CHCdud Oman Tor ride | UeMHPIC. UWesandle arch DVOMAL) peopud To Undlerctnd 3aumors and wears mit UM? Comtradt prompts Wh eAnorUe Nat Wl apOMel to™PiOFA fWhal ALLY OF reactors In the original scientific article, the authors carefully review previous literature, describe their methodology in great detail, and usually express their findings cautiously. In the popular press articles, in contrast, the writer usually lavishes attention upon the findings, speculates on their potential usefulness to the rl ee the: iit al publications focus only on scientists caution, and says litle about methods. Writers for specialized profession ° field. For example, a scientific study about the effectiveness the Journal of Community Health Nursing in terms of patient ions. ‘ofa new chicken pox vaccine might be discusse care and in the Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law in terms of government regul tific study can take, we traced the work of slee} 1 information from a sei lustrate the different forms that Jecause these articles represent the variety of texts you are likely to encounter ration for your work as @ “Sleep Habits {when you do research for college papers, the following exercise will be good fer. In this exercise we provide the opening paragraph(s) of five articles concerning a rhetorical read Survey” that Wolfson and Carskadon published in 1998. The excerpts are from articles printed in five different Each introduction signals the kinds of interests the writers expect ~ periodicals that target five different audiences. their readers will bring to the articles. Read the excerpts rhetorically to see what you can discem about the intended readers for each (their interests, their values, their purposes for reading) and then try to match each introduction to its place of original publication on the list that follows the excerpts. To guide your analysis, consider the following questions: What implicit question or problem does each introduction address? Who, in particular, does each article seem to be targeting as readers? What does each introduction suggest about its author's credibility on the subject? How does the introduction draw the reader in? What shared understanding or values does the writer use as a starting point? ‘What beneficial knowledge does each introduction seem to be offering to reader? ‘What clues can you discern in each introduction about the article's gente—for example, scholarly article, newspaper story, magazine feature? ‘Article 1 | Ancpidemic of sleeplessness is taking a heavy toll on the nation’s children and their ability to ear. A majority of ids say they ae sleepy during the day and 15 percent admit vo falling asleep in schoo, a survey revels. “The problem, which his teenagers especialy hard, is of such looming concern that parents and schoo! districts ‘across the county are considering starting high schoo! hours late, so students wil not ony rise but shine, “Schoo! is staring at atime when their brains are still on their pillows,” said Mary Carskadon, an expert on. adolescent sleep and a profesor at Brown University. “They're just not there.” ‘Article 2) Our understanding ofthe development of sleep pattems in adolescents has advanced considerably inthe lat 20 ‘years. Along the way, theoretical models of the processes underlying the biological regulation of sleep have improved, ‘certain assumptions and dogmas have been examined and found wanting. Although the fll characterization of {cen sleep regulation remains tobe accomplished, our current understanding poses a numberof challenges for the tiation xen Tatcle3 | _ Adolescence isa tine of inporat physical, cogritive emotion, and social change when the Behavior in one development stage are ost lenge ty new bili, sie, and expectations of he ext sae lep i primary apt of adolescent developer. Th way akscens lp cally influences ter ably to think, Reha and fe! ding dytine hour, Likes, daytime acts, ehanges in he eviroment, and nid fas can have feat efts on adolescents sleeping patems. Over thelist wo decades, esas, cher, paren and adsescts themselves, hve cosy reported ta hey arena gating enough sep (Caradon, 1990a; Carskadon, Harvey, Duke, Anders, & Dement, 1980; Price, Coates, Thoresen, & Grinstead, 1978; Strauch & Meier 198) Highschool wil open at 30 AM this il, 5 mints tr han st yearn aia, Min, a Mineapalis abut School oficas hope the 130 std in gras 9 though 12 wl get more slp anda reste hp in a. sia ii rte on tn, ats Aco MA) te 0 srt suprinendnts in 199, noting that per res he ca logical cock, prompting ceages ogo bed liter and toned sp ater an younger cide, The MMA cid stad nada sep wth ower ‘grads and more frequent care crashes. It urged high schools to open at & AM or later. “When the medical community speaks out onan issue of health” sid Kenneth Dragseth, ina superintendent of Article 4[ school, it caries a Jot of elout™ Article & | Tired all he time? Is not your faut! Thee reasons why: 1. Teens naturally fall asleep alter than adults or young children. “People assumed this was because teens ‘wanted independence or had more going on socially,” says Mary Carskadon, PhD, professor of psychiatry and human behavior at Brown University School of Medicine. Recent studies show that teens secrete ‘melatonin, the hormone that induces sleep, about an hour alte than children and adult. ‘The five introductions you have just read appeared in the publications listed below. Which article introduction goes ‘with which periodical? one Lama ‘The Journal of the American Medical Association under the “Medical News and Perspectives” section. uf UE Sy Young and Modern (a teen magazine) ait? L. Child Development (published by the Society for Research in Child Development) aD The Arizona Republic (daily newspaper in Phoenix) ‘i L4H Delia Kappan (published by the educators’ honor society, Phi Delta Kappa) Bean, John C., Virginia A. Chappel, and Ace M. Gilam, “Chapter 2: Strategies for Reading Rhetoricaly Reeaing Rhetorcaly. New York: PearsonvLongman, 2004. 20+. Print. Senne,