INDUTRIAL PLANT ENGINEERING REVIEWER (LECTURE) 2012 Prepared By: Agerico U. Llovide - PMECONTENTS A. PUMPS B. FANS ANDLOWERS C. AIR COMPRESSORS D. MACHINERY FOUNDATIONS E. HEAT TRANSFER AND HEAT EXCHANGERS F. REFRIGERATION G. AIR CONDITIONING H. COOLING TOWERS 1. DRYERS J. EVAPORATORS . CONVEYORS L. INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES M. INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROLS N. METROLOGY ©. PIPING P. FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS Q. MATERIAL HANDLING R. AC AND DC MACHINERYA. PUMPS - LECTURE 1. Purpose of Pump ‘The purpose of a pump is to transfer a fluid from a region of low pressure to another region at the same or higher pressure. A pump is 3 machine that imparts energy into a liquid to lift the liquid to a higher level, to transport the liquid from one place to another, to pressurize the liquid for some useful purpose, or to circulate the liquid in a piping system by ‘overcoming the frictional resistance of the piping system, Classification of Pumps 2.1 Reciprocating a. Direct-acting b. Indirect-acting 2.2 Rotary 2.3 Jet 2.4 Centrifugal Definitions Total dynamic head or dynamic head ~ is the sum of the pressure and velocity heads at a given section stated in Units of feet of the fluid flowing. Total dynamic suction lift ~ is applied to pumps handling cold water and is the reading of a manometer or vacuum gage (converted to feet of the fluid flowing) Net positive suction head (NPSH) ~is the difference between the absolute dynamic pressure of the liquid measured atthe centerline of a pump and the saturation pressure corresponding to the temperature of the liquid at the seme point, all expressed ion terms of feet head of the fluid flowing. NPSH may also be defined as the pressure at the pump suction flange, corrected to the pump centerline, that prevents vaporization of the water. Developed head (DH) - is the difference between the sum of the absolute pressure head end velocity head (or absolute dynamic head) at the outlet of the pump and the sum of the absolute pressure head and velocity head (or absolute dynamic head) at the inlet, both corrected to the centerline of the pump and expressed in feet head of the fluid. Static head ~is the height of the surface of water above the gauge point. Pressure head is the static head plus geuge pressure on the water surface plus friction head Velocity head — is the head required to produce a flow of the water. Suction lift ~ the vertical distance in feet (meters) from the liquid supply level to the pump center line with the pump physically located above the liquid level supply. Suction head - the vertical distance in feet (meters) from the liquid supply level to the pump center line with the pump physically located below the liquid level supply.A. PUMPS - LECTURE Static discherge head - the vertical distance in feet (meters)between the pump center line and the point of free discharge on the surface of the liquid in the discharge tank, Total static head - the vertical distance in feet (meters) between the liquid level of the supply and the point of free discharge on the surface of the liquid in the discharge tank, Friction head - the head required to overcome the resistance to flow in the pipe and fittings. Total dynamic suction lift ~ is the static suction lift plus the velocity head at the pump suction flange plus the total friction head in the suction pipeline. Total dynamic suction head -is the static suction head minus the velocity head at the pump suction flange minus the total friction head in the suction pipeline. Total dynamic discharge head — is the static discharge head plus the velocity head at the pump discharge flange plus the total friction head in the discharge line. Capacity ~ is the rate of flow of fluid measure per unit time, usually gallons per minute (gpm) or liters per minute (lpm). Centrifugal pump —a pump in which the pressure is developed principally by the action of centrifugal force. End suction pump ~ a single suction pump having its suction nozzle on the opposite side of the casing from the stuffing box and having the face of the suction nozzle perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the shat. In Line pump ~ a centrifugal pump whose drive unit is supported by the pump having its suction and discharge flanges on approximately the same center, Horizontal pump — a pump with the shaft normally in a horizontal position. Vertical shaft turbine pump ~ a centrifugal pump with one or more impellers discharging into one or more bowls and a vertical educator or column pipe used to connect the bowls to the discharge head on which the pump driver is mounted. Horizontal split-case pump —a centrifugal pump characterized by a housing which is split parallel to the shaft. Booster pump ~ is @ pump that takes suction from a public service main or private use water system for the purpose of increasing the effective water pressure. Submersible pump ~ is a vertical turbine pump with the pump and motor closed coupled and designed to be installed underground, as in the case of a deepwell pump,A. PUMPS - LECTURE Static water level ~ the level, with respect to the pump, of the body of water from which it takes suction when the pump is not in operation. Pumping water level - the level, with respect to the pump, of the body of water from which it takes suction when the pump is in operation. Draw-down ~ the vertical difference between the pumping water level and the static water level. 4. Typical Pumping installation Reservoir Discharge Pipe Gate Valve Check Valve Lower Reservoir 5. Head and Power Calculation Pump CenterlineA. PUMPS - LECTURE 5.1 Continuity equation Q=AVv=constant Q=AY,=A,V, 5.2 Developed Head (DH) Developed head (DH) = static head + pressure head + velocity head + friction head DH =H=(2,-2,)+ Where: 2, [5 negative ifthe source is below pump centerline and puis negative if itis a vacuum. 5.3 Friction head Darey Equation fey’ Aol 5.4 Water power wP=7,QH 5.5 Brake power (BP) and Pump efficiency (7). gpa WP he _we "hap BP= WP P+ Port Pra + Pan Where: P.= power required to overcome leakage Paez power required to overcome disk friction Pa = power required to overcome hydraulic losses Pu= power required to overcome mechanical losses 6. Characteristics of Reciprocating Pumps. 6.1 Piston displacement, Vo. Piston rod neglected =A psn v7 Piston rod considered Zo: # sn ve -|40 a where: D= inside diameter or bore. d= piston rod diameter. L = piston displacement or length of stroke.A. PUMPS - LECTURE Strokes per minute. N= number of cylinders. 6.2 Volumetric Efficiency, E, Volumetric efficiency — is the ratio of actual volume to the piston displacement. a 2-2 Mp 63 Slip Slip—is one minus the volumetric efficiency. -E, 6.4 Actual discharge. Vv /,(1-slip) Characteristics of Centrifugal Pumps. 7.4 Specific speed - is defined as the speed in revolutions per minute at which a geometrically similar impeller would operate to develop 1 ft of head when displacing 1 gpm. n= at where: N,= specific speed, rpm N=speed, rpm = discharge, epm H=head, ft 7.2 Impeller Contours a. Radial or conventional b. Francis cc. Mixed flow d. Axial flowA. PUMPS - LECTURE 7.3 Range of Specific Speeds amare ifdih of go og Paeeihi #4 IMPELLER SHAOUDS IMPELLER SHROUDS i RADIALVANE AREA FRANCISVANE AREA MIXED-FLOW AREA AXIALFLOW AREA ROTATION Radial impellers have specific speeds up to about 3000 rpm, while Francis wheels go up to 4500 rpm. Mixed flow impellers range from the specific speed of the Francis wheels to about 10,000; for Propeller types the range is from 10,000 to 14,000 rem. 7.4 Similar Pumps where Dis the impeller diameter. 7.5 Affinity Law Affinity laws ~ these laws express the mathematical relationship and illustrate the effect of changes in pump operating conditions or pump performance variables such as pump head, flow, speed, horsepower, and pump impeller diameters at nearly constant efficiency.A. PUMPS - LECTURE b. Constant speed, variable impeller diameter 7.6 Centrifugal Pumps in Parallel and Series Operations, a. Parallel pumps — performance is obtained by adding the capacities at the same head. b. Series pumps - performance is obtained by adding the heads at the same capacity. Cavitation Cavitation ~ is a two-stage phenomenon consisting of the formation of vapor cavities resulting from low pressure and their collapse as they move out of the low-pressure into higher pressure regions. The higher pressure region causing the vapor cavity to collapse can be immediately following the formation of the vapor cavity or some distance downstream from the impeller inlet, depending on the downstream pressure conditions and the quantity of vapor formed. Net positive suction head (NPSH) ~ is the term used by the pump industry for describing pump cavitation characteristics. NPSH is defined as the pressure (head) in excess of the saturation pressure of the fluid being Pumped. NPSH is expressed as NPSH A (available) and NPSHR (required). NPSHBA is the NPSH available or existing at the pump installed in the system. NPSHR is a performance characteristic of a pump and is established through closed loop or valve suppression tests conducted by the pump manufacturer. Causes of Cavitation: a. Low suction pressure Low atmospheric pressure High liquid temperature High velocity Rough surfaces and edges Sharp bends Bad effects of Cavitation: a. Drop in capacity and efficiency b. Noise and vibration Corrosion and pittingA. PUMPS - LECTURE ‘TYPES OF PUMPS. CE ee EE er [pes of pops (From Hydraulic Inaze. Uaad with peemision)B. FANS AND BLOWERS - LECTURE 1. Definitions. Fan—isa machine used to apply power to a gas to increase its energy content thereby causing it to flow or move. Blower ~ is @ fan used to force air under pressure which means resistance to gas flow is imposed upon discharge. F Exhauster - is a fen used to withdraw air under pressure which means resistance to gas flow is imposed upon suction 2. Common Uses of Fans. Ventilation, air conditioning, force and induced draft service for boilers, dust collection, drying and cooling of materials, cooling towers, heating, mine and tunnel ventilation, pneumatic conveying and other industrial process work, Basic Differences According to the ASME. Pump~a machine which adds energy to liquid. Fan—a machine which adds energy toa fiuid at a pressure rise equal to or below 1 psig, Blower— a machine which add energy to a fluid at a pressure rise between 50 and 1 psig. Compressor ~_a machine which add energy to a fluid at a pressure rise above 50 psig. 4, Basic Element of Fan Design. a. Wheel or impeller — the rotating member. b. Housing ~ stationary member provided with an intake opening (inlet) and a discharge opening (outlet). ‘Types of Fan, LHI a | Propeller ‘Tubeaxi Vaneaxial Fan Fan Fan Centrifugal Fan: Housing Motor —_> —— t RotorB. FANS AND BLOWERS - LECTURE 6. Types of blades and performance curves used on centrifugal fans FAN BLADE TYPES — — (a) BACKWARD INCLINED (Aieoi) () STRAIGHT (o) FORWARD CURVED BACKWARD INCLINED v FLOW, cfm PERFORMANCE CURVES. S \ aaa Fan blade types sad pformance curves. (From The Gicen Fan Company. Used wih permision) sP_HP-SE sP—HP—Se ‘SP_HP-se FLOW, cten SE — STATIC EFACIENCY SP. — STATIC PRESSURE. HP. — HORSEPOWER cfm — CUBIC FEET PER MINUTE 7. Functions of Fans. To move air or gases through distribution systems and apparatus required for conditioning of buildings. For drying and cooling. For pneumatic conveying For duct collection, separation and exhaust. For mine and tunnel ventilation. For forced and induced draft of steam-generating units. 8. Factors Affecting Fan Selection. a. Quantity of gas (air) to be moved per unit time. Estimated resistance and expected variations. Amount of noise permitted Space available for the fan, Economic implications. 9. Fan Performance and Design. 9.1 Fan capacity, Q - volume handled by a fan expressed in cubic meter per sec at fan outlet conditions, @B. FANS AND BLOWERS - LECTURE 10. where Q= volume flowrate measured at outlet, m’/s A= fan outlet area, m? V= velocity at outlet, m/s 9.2 Fan static pressure head, h.— the total pressure diminished by the fan velocity pressure, pate Po where: fh, = static pressure head, meters of air manometer reading, meters of water += density of water = 9.81 kN/m3 or 1000 ke/m3 or 62.4 Ib/ft3. lensity of air at standard conditions = 1.2 kg/m3/ Standard condition: 101.325 kPa (29.92 in Hg) and 21.1 (70 F). 9.3 Fan velocity pressure head, h,~ corresponds to the average velocity determination from the volume of air flow at the fan outlet area. nave 2¢ where: h, = velocity head, meters of air elocity at outlet, m/s g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s 9.4 Total pressure head, fx the rise of the pressure head from fan inlet to fan outlet. Prous =, +h, 9.5 Power output is the power output of a fan developed based on total pressure. Power Output = p,APs 9.6 Static air power ~ air horsepower calculated from static pressure. Static Air Power = p,Qh, 9.7 Static efficiency 7,~static air power divided by the shaft power. _ Static Air Power °" Shaft Power 9.8 Mechanical efficiency 7, ~ power output divided by the shaft power. _ Power Output © Shaft Power Bernoulli's Equation Applied to Fans. Basic Assumptions: a. Considering inlet and discharge static pressure. b. Considering inlet and discharge velocities. & Constant temperatureB. FANS AND BLOWERS - LECTURE P: and fis is negative if below atmospheric pressure, Where: and hy = inlet static pressure reading. Poand hy. = discharge pressure reading. Pu density of water (10000 kg/m") Ps density of air (1.2 kg/m3 at 101.325 kPa and 21.11 C). Vi = inlet velocity, m/s. V;= outlet velocity, m/s. celeration due to gravity. 11, Fan Characteristics and Fan Laws Fan characteristics ~ is the term for the variation in fan capacity or volume pressure, power requirement, and fan efficiency, with degree of restriction or resistance to gas flow, at constant speed, Fan Laws - three basic relationships between fan size, fan speed, and gas density which are the bases for predicting full-size fan performance For fan efficiency equal 11.1 Variable fan speed - constant fan size, constant density12. B. FANS AND BLOWERS - LECTURE 11.2 Variable fan size ~ geometrically similar fans, constant density 13 Fan Combinations Fans in series ~ used to increase head with the same discharge. Fans in parallel — used to increase discharge with the same head hy=h, Qiopas =Q + Qe + End-C. AIR (GAS) COMPRESSORS - LECTURE 1. Introduction Air or Gas compressor - is a machine used to increase the pressure of air (or gas) by decreasing its volume. 2. Classification of air compressors. 2.1 Positive Displacement Compressors Positive displacement compressors ~ are those in which successive volumes of air are confined within a closed space and elevated to a higher pressure. 2.1.1 Reciprocating compressors - where the compressing and displacing element (piston or diaphragm) has @ reciprocating motion. 2.1.2 Screw (Helical o spiral lobe) compressors ~ are machines in which two intermeshing rotors, each in helical configuration displace and compress the air. 2.1.3. Sliding-vane compressors - are machines in which axial vanes slide radially a rotor motor mounted eccentrically within a cylindrical casing. 2.1.4 Two impeller straight-lobe compressors ~ are machines in which two straight, mating but non-touching lobes impellers trap the air and carry it from intake to discharge. 2.2 Dynamic Compressors Dynamic compressors ~ are rotary continuous-flow machines in which the rapidly rotating element accelerates ‘the air as it passes through the element, converting the velocity head into pressure, partially in the rotating element and partially in stationary diffusers or blades. 1 Centrifugal compressors ~ where acceleration of the air is obtained through the action of one or more rotating impellers. 2.2.2 Axial compressors - where acceleration of the air is obtained through the action of a bladed rotor, shrouded at the blade ends. 2. 3. Application of Air Compressors 3.1 Reciprocating compressors - for high-pressure, low-capacity applications. 3.2 Rotary compressors ~ for moderate (medium)-pressure, low-capacity applications, 3.3 Centrifugal compressors — for low-pressure, high-capacity applications. 4, Performance of Single-Stege, Single-Acting Reciprocating Compressor Pr Pr vvC. AIR (GAS) COMPRESSORS - LECTURE 4.1 Compression Process (1-2) pv! =p.V2 where n = polytropic exponent, = k for isentropic process (k = 1.4 for air and n =1 for isothermal process.) 4.2 Plton Displacement, Vo v-2 0's 4 where D = bore, m ;L = stroke, m; N= speed, rev/sec. 4.3 Capacity of compressors, V; Vj = compressor capacity =: 4.4 Volumetric Efficiency, 7.- _ Compressor capacity _ Vi, Displacement volume V,, where c= clearance = (V;— Vo)/Vo. 4.5 Mass of compresses air inside the cylinder, m’ m=m'+m, where: m= amount of air inside cylinder me.= clearance mass fy +e, =(1 + Leeli/n,) m=[l+eyn, 4.6 Compressor Work (Power) w, =2eM [a alia) where p; = suction pressure, kPaa; p. = discharge pressure, kPaaC. AIR (GAS) COMPRESSORS - LECTURE 4.7 Brake Power Brake power~ is the power required to drive the compressor Brake power = Compressor power / compressor efficiency Compressor Power = Brake power x compressor efficiency 4.8 Piston Speed Piston speed = 2LN m/s 4.9 Adiabatic Compressor Efficiency Adiabatic compressor efficiency = isentropic work /actual fluid work 4.10 Ideal Indicated Power Ideal indicated power = p,.V> where: pm = indicated mean effective pressure. 4.11 Transferred heat in the cylinder, Q Q=me,(T-T) where: (kon) 1-n} 0.72 ki/kg.K «, For air c,= 4.12 Free Air Capacity, Vo m,=m PVs _ pV RT, RT p\r. la ht where: p, V, T~actual or given conditions. Pa, Va, To standard conditions. If not given, use 14.7 psi, 68 F or 101.325 kPa, 20¢. 4.13 Probable actual volumetric efficiency, 1. n (218)C. AIR (GAS) COMPRESSORS - LECTURE 5. Double-acting, Single-stage Reciprocating Compressor Piston Displacement a. Piston rod neglected: (2) 99 =1Z\pw Vy 45 pu b. Piston rod considered: +2 (0° 6. Two-Stage Reciprocating Compressor. Two-stage Reciprocating Compressor P, Px Ideal (Optimum) Conditions a. No pressure drop in intercooler b. Perfect intercooling Work in first stage = work in second stage nme, (& = amar, |(o.)" at ile) fmt lad | Pe oF B= P\P> Pr Py Compressor work: w, =2neiMi [2B n=l |p, | Heat rejected in intercooler: a=me,(t,—T,) rf eM RTC. AIR (GAS) COMPRESSORS - LECTURE Three-Stage Reciprocating Compressor. P,— P t vy P, Py P: Py Vv W, = W, = W3; War = Wi2= Wis For ideal conditions, pressure ratios are equal: P,P) Po BB Py 2,=(pp.)" »=loei) Compressor work: 3np.¥;| 7 wy, = 20) (Pa | nal |Le J Heat rejected in intercooler: Q=2me,(T, -7,) Performance of Centrifugal and Rotary Compressors Pi \Wvt m/s r Ce) Pi << Vv, mis P.C. AIR (GAS) COMPRESSORS - LECTURE Compressor work: w, = 22M n-1|| End-D. MACHINERY FOUNDATIONS - LECTURE 1. Definitions Foundation ~ is that part of structure which transmit the loads to the supporting material. Monolithic Foundation ~ is a concrete foundation which is formed by pouring the entire concrete mixture continuously at one time and allowing the structure to harden as a whole unit. Grouting ~ a process of filing a small clearance between machine and foundation, after the machine is aligned and leveled, by using a special hardening mixture. 2. Functions of Foundations. 2-1 Support the weight of the engine, 2.3 Maintain proper alignment with the driven machinery, and 2.4 Absorb the vibration produced by unbalanced forces created by reciprocating revolving masses. 3. Materials The foundation should be concrete, of 1 part cement, 2 parts sand and 4 parts broken stone or gravel (50mm max). To produce 1 cu yd of conerete using 1:2:4 mixture, the following are needed: 6 sacks cement, 0.44 cu yd sand ‘and 0.88 cu yd stone, (To produce 1 m’ of concrete using 1:2:4 mixture, the following are needed: 7.8 sacks cement, 0.44 m* sand and 0.88 m’ stone). For given properties of concrete mixture use P.V.Aratio) ~~ $6p,, 4. Recommended Dimensions 4.1 The distance of the edges of the foundation from the bedplate must be 6 in (150 mm) to 12 in (300 mm) to secure the bolts within the foundation. 4.2 The vertical distance from the floor or soll level to the top edge of the foundation must be around 6 inches (150 mm) as minimum depth. 4.3 The foundation depth maybe taken to be 3.2 to 4.2 times the engine stroke, the lower factor for well-balanced rmulti-cylinder engines and higher factor got engines with fewer cylinders, or on less firm soil WaD. MACHINERY FOUNDATIONS - LECTURE 4.4 Foundations should be isolated from floor slabs or building footings at least 25 mm around its perimeter to eliminate transmission of vibration. Fill openings with watertight mastic 5. Weight of Foundation 5.1 The minimum weight required to absorb vibration could be expressed as a function of the reciprocating masses and the speed of the engine. However, for practical purposes itis simpler to use the empirical formula W, exw, <7 where : weight of foundation, kg weight of the engine, kg = empirical coefficient from PSME Code 2008, page 13. If not given and no table available, use e = 0.11. Values of “e” in Foundation Formulas Type of Engine Cylinder Arrangement chines —& Single-acting Vertical 1 0.48 Single-ectng Vertical 2 044 Single-ecting Vertical 3 one Single-acting Vertical 4.6.8 0.1 Single-acting Horizontal 1 0.28 Single-acting Horizontal duplex 2 026 Single-acting Horizontal twin duplex 40.28 Double-acting Horizontal 42 0.32 Double-acting Horizontal with tandem = 40.20 5.2 Foundation mass should be from 3 to S times the weight of the machinery itis supposed to support. 5.3 In computation 2,406 kg/m’ or 150 Ib/ft® may be used as weight of concrete. 6. Volume of Concrete Foundation. If the weight and speed of the engine are not known, the volume of concrete for the foundation may be estimated by the following data from PSME Code 2008, page 13. Volume of Concrete Foundation, m'/kW No. of cylinders 1 2 3 4 BB High speed engine 0.182 0.095 0.076 0.065 0.057 Medium speed engine 0.180 0.118 0.095 0.080 0.072 Low speedengine 0.228 0.152 0.114 0.099 0.087 7. Bearing Pressure The first objective is achieved by making its supporting area sufficiently large. The safe loads vary from 4,890 kg/m2 for alluvial soil or wet clay to 12,225 kg/ms, (The latter is assumed to be a safe load average).D. MACHINERY FOUNDATIONS - LECTURE The weight of the machine plus the weight of the foundation should be distributed over a sufficient soil area which is large enough to cause a bearing stress within the safe bearing capacity of the soil with a factor of safety of five (5) Knowing the bearing capacity of the soil, solve for the base width "b”. For machine foundation use only % of the given safe soil bearing capacity, ‘S,_We+We _We+We 2 A BL Then compute the depth of the foundation “h”, a+b) (he Make adjustment in the dimensions if necessary provided that the required volume is maintained and without reducing base area 8, Steel Bar Reinforcement Concrete foundations should have steel bar reinforcements placed both vertically and horizontally, to avoid thermal cracking. Weight of reinforcing steel should be from 14% to 1 of the weight of foundation. 9. Foundation Bolts Foundation bolts of specific size should be used and surrounded by s pipe sleeve with an inside diameter of at least three (3) times the diameter of the anchor bolt and a length of at least 18 times the diameter of the bolt. No foundation bolts shall be less than 12 mm diameter, To prevent pulling out of the bolts when the nuts are tightened, the length embedded in concrete should be equal to at least thirty (3) times the bolt diameter. The upper ends are surrounded by @ 50 mm or 75 mm sheet metal pipe, 460 mm to 610 mm long to permit them to bend slightly to fit the holes to the bedplate, - EndE. HEAT TRANSFER AND HEAT EXCHANGERS- LECTURE. 1. Definitions. Heat ~ is defined as energy in transition due to a temperature difference, Heat exchanger — is any device which effects a transfer of heat from one substance to another. Heat exchanger— the equipment used to implement heat exchange between two flowing fluids that are at different temperatures and separated by a solid wall Examples: boilers, evaporators, economizers, superheaters, condensers, coolers and heaters. Heat transfer ~ is the term applied to a study in which the details or mechanisms of the transfer of energy in the form of heat are of primary concern, Hear transfer - is energy in transit, which occurs as a result of a temperature gradient or difference. Modes of Heat Transfer. 2.1 Conduction - when the transition takes place because of contact of the particles of one or more bodies. Conduction ~is the transmission of heat through a substance without percestible motion of the substance itself. 2.2 Convection ~ when the energy is transferred because of the motion or mixing of the particles of a fluid. Convection ~is the term applied to heat transfer due to bulk movement of a fluid. Free convection ~ the substance moves because of the decrease in its density which is caused by increase | n ‘temperature. Forced convection ~ the substance moves because of the application of mechanical power such as that of a fan, 2.3 Radiation — when all matters receive or reject energy to some degree as a wave motion. Radiation — is the transfer of energy by electromagnetic radiation having a defined range of wavelengths. Fourier’s Law of Conduction: Q__ kat A dk Fourier’s law: “the heat flux resulting from thermal conduction is proportional to the magnitude of the temperature gradient and opposite to it in sign. 4. Conduction through Plane Wall k Q ‘ & =| : Plane Wall tals oaitte=t) 5 Where: Q=heat transmitted, W A= heat transfer area, m® ty surface temperature on hot side, C t= surface temperature on cold side, CE. HEAT TRANSFER AND HEAT EXCHANGERS- LECTURE. k= thermal conductivity, W/m-C 5. Conduction through Composite Plane Wall. ~Q A My i en Composite Plane Wall Where: k,= thermal conductivity of first layer. z= thermal conductivity of second layer. A= heat transfer area which is common to both layers. 6. Heat Transfer from Fluid to fluid Fluid —> | ky Q=hAlt,— O=hAlt, Where: +h: = surface film conductance on the hot side, W/m?-C. +hz= surface film conductance on the cold side, W/m*-C. ) vale, —,)E. HEAT TRANSFER AND HEAT EXCHANGERS- LECTURE. where: U= overall conductance or overall coefficient of heat transfer, W/m?-C. 7. Conduction Through Pipe where: L= length of pipe. 8. Conduction Through Composite Pipe. dake Ult,—t. one, See kk where: ermal conductivity of inner pipe. ermal conductivity of outer pipeE. HEAT TRANSFER AND HEAT EXCHANGERS- LECTURE. L= common length of the pipe. 9. Heat Transfer from Fluid to Fluid through Pipe. a=hAtt,-t,) a=h.A,(t,t.) Where: hy surface film conductance on the hot side, W/m?-C. ho = surface film conductance on the cold side, W/m?-C. As dant Ag= Orr Tale) Ah,” 2akL ” 2akl "ASA, 1 YT rinlern),, aint in), 4 flake /n) , alates), uv, oe lle, Jn) rales) nh, k, ke 'e Where: U;= overall conductance based on inside area. U. = overall conductance based on outside area. 10. Types of Heat Exchanger. . Concentric tube ~ counterflow and parallel flow. b. Crossflow Shell and tube ~ single-shell pass and double-tube pass, multipass and so on. 4E. HEAT TRANSFER AND HEAT EXCHANGERS- LECTURE. 11, Methods of Heat-Exchanger Analysis. a. Logarithmic mean-temperature-difference (LMTD) method. b. Number-of-transfer-units (NTU) method. 12, Mean Temperature Difference. a, Parallel Flow Heat Transfer ty } 1S b. Counter Flow Heat Transfer Arithmetic Ae, = At Ate Length Q=UAAt,, a. Arithmetic mean temperature difference. b. Logarithmic (True) mean temperature difference. At, —Aty Logarithmic At,, = 13, Heat Balance Q=m,.¢,E. HEAT TRANSFER AND HEAT EXCHANGERS- LECTURE. 14 Film Coefficient Film coefficient , h ~ is a function of a characteristic dimension of the containing surfaces D, the density of the fluid the conductivity of the fluid k, the velocity of the fluid V, the absolute viscosity 1, the specific heat of the fluid (at constant pressure in case of a gas) c,, and the length L of the pipe or duct in which flow and transfer of hest occurs, 15. Dimensionless Numbers Re — Reynolds number pe = PU u ‘Nu — Nusselt number _ AD ke Pr= Prandtl number Colt ok St=1/Pr—Stanton number st= Colt G2— Greetz number me, kL Gr—Grashof number Nu: Ge= 16. Film Coefficient, Turbulent Flow Inside Pipe For fluids being heated or cooled during turbulent flow inside pipes of internal diameter D, ot For limits: 0.7 < Pr< 120; 10,000 < Re < 120,000 for high viscosity liquids; Re > 2100 fer lew viscosity liquids and gases; L/D > 60; moderate At. Where subscript b indicates that the properties k, 4, and pshould evaluated at the bulk temperature , and hi is the inside film coefficient. Close approximation for gases and vapors, Re > 2100. h soa P 10. where: mass flow rate per unit time. Hy = viscosity of the fluid measured at the temperature of the inside wall of the pipe. L= heated length of a straight pipe. Go specific heat of the liquid. Sieder and Tate film coefficient h for laminar flow of liquid in a pipe. hove 7 p04 Ap 322) (4) 2 k Kw kK) In dimensionless groups where: 4s viscosity of the fluid measured at the inside pipe surface temperature. 18, Film Coefficients for Annular Space. Nu=0.023Re"™ Pr” or op)" “ AD k 024 Soft y where: n = 0.4 for heating and n = 0.3 for cooling, D. = equivalent diameter which is four times the hydraulic radius. ‘The hydraulic radius is the sectional area of the stream divided by the wetted perimeter. 0, =4 Rit wi). 9, 70,470, } 19. Film Coefficients for flow over outside of a Single Pipe, Forced Convection. (McAdams) ND. 9, 2 Save ky \ He ) where: 1000 <2"? < 50,000E. HEAT TRANSFER AND HEAT EXCHANGERS- LECTURE. utside diameter. t= the bulk temperature. t,,= the temperature of the pipe wall on the side whose film temperature is desired. 20. Film Coefficients with Free Convection. (McAdams) The form of equation applicable to many problems in free convection is ( D'p’ofat ) (a \T we NLR) hd ky where the subscript f indicates that the properties of the fluid are evaluated at the film temperature, Cand m are dimensionless constants, bis the coefficient of thermal expansion ( = 1/T for ideal gases}, and the other symbols have the usual meanings. Simplified equation for hot surface in atmospheric air, a. Vertical plates over 1 ft high. fh, = 0.279% Bru] fe —hr—F b, Horizontal pipes and vertical pipes over 1 ft high. a 0 | Btu/ fe? —hr—F 21. Film coefficient for Condensing Vapors on a surface. ‘Types of condensation a. Dropwise condensation — occurs when the vapor condenses as drops which are eventually removed from the surface by gravity. b, Film-type condensation ~ occurs when a vapor condenses and forms a liquid film over the cool surface, has much lower film coefficient for steam than the former. ms poh a galt | Btu/ ft? —hr—F where Wisthe numberof tubesin e vertical row of horizontal tubes, 22. Vaporization. Types of Veporization a. Film Boiling b. Nuclear Boiling 23. Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient. 1 “=Topy, {eBYMOOTDY, (0), 2 hy 24. Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient with scale coefficient. ye 1 *TODy (OD) ODINIODTOY, TT +O a (ior, * Woh, 2k he where h., and h,. is the scale coefficients.E. HEAT TRANSFER AND HEAT EXCHANGERS- LECTURE. 25. Radiation. Radiation ~ is a form of wave motion that obeys the same laws as other waves ~ light waves for example, Radiation ~ is a heat transfer in which invisible electromagnetic waves are passed from one body to another through space, Reflectivity, p ~is the fraction of the radiant energy reflected by a body. Absorptivity, «~is the fraction of the radiant energy absorbed by the body. Transmissivity, is the fraction of the radiant energy transmitted through the body, ptatt=l Perfect black body — is any body that would absorb all the radiant energy it received kirchhoff’s law ~ states that the ratio of the rate of emitting and absorbing energy is a constant for any body for a given temperature and wave length. Emissivity of any body — is the ratio of the rate of emission of radiant energy for that body to the rate of emission for @ perfect black body under the same conditions. Also called emittance & Gray Body ~ is the actual body that radiates less heat than a black body. 26. Stefan-Boltzmann Law The Stefan-Boltemann law states that the amount of radiation from a black body Is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature, Q,=0AT* where = 0.1713 x 10° is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant in Btu/ft"+ in SI units it is 5.669 x 10-8 W/m*-K*, 27. Heat Transfer Between Two Black Bodies, Q. azoa(r -7') where temperature of blackbody 1 remperature of blackbody 2 28. Heat Transfer Between Two Gray Bodies, Q. a=caat,(t} 7") where = emisshity F.= geometric view factor or configuration factor or angle factor or shape factor. Configuration center — is the fraction of diffuse radiant energy that leaves one surface in space and directly strikes another surface. Its value is based solely upon the manner in which the two surfaces are positioned. + End~F, REFRIGERATION - LECTURE 1. Definitions: 1. Reversed cycle is a system that receives heat from a colder body and delivers heat to s hotter body, not in Violation of the second law, but by virtue of a work input. 1.2 Refrigeration - is to maintain a cold region at a temperature below the temperature of its surroundings. 41.3 Refrigeration -is defined as the process of extracting heat from a lower-temperature heat source, substance, or cooling medium and transferring it to a higher-temperature heat sink. 1.4 Vapor compression systems - In vapor compression systems, compressors activate the refrigerant by compressing it to a higher pressure and higher temperature level after it has produced its refrigeration effect. The compressed refrigerant transfers its heat to the sink and is condensed to liquid form. This liquid refrigerant is then throttled to @ low-pressure, low temperature vapor to produce refrigerating effect during evaporation. Vapor compression systems are the most widely adopted refrigeration systems in both comfort and process air conditioning. 1.5 Absorption systems In an absorption system, the refrigeration effect is produced by thermal energy input. After absorbing heat from the cooling medium during evaporation, the vapor refrigerant is absorbed by an absorbent medium. This solution is then heated by direct-fired furnace, waste heat, hot water, or steam. The refrigerant is again vaporized and then condensed to liquid to begin the refrigeration cycle again. 1L6 Air or gas expansion systems ~ In an air or gas expansion system, air or gas is compressed to a high pressure by mechanical energy. It is then cooled and expanded to a low pressure. Because the temperature of air or gas drops during expansion, a refrigeration effect is produced. 1.7 Refrigerant ~ is the primary working fluid used for absorbing and transmitting heat in # refrigeration system, Refrigerants absorb heat at 2 low temperature and low pressure and release heat at a higher temperature and pressure 1.8 Cooling medium — is the working fluid cooled by the refrigerant to transport the cooling effect between a central plant and remote cooling units and terminals. 1.9 Liquid Absorbents ~ A solution known as liquid absorbent is often used to absorb the vaporized refrigerant (water vapor) after its evaporation in an absorption refrigeration system. This solution, containing the absorbed vapor, is then heated at high pressure. The refrigerant vaporizes, and the solution is restored to its original concentration for reuse. Lithium bromide and ammonia, both in a water solution, are the liquid absorbents used most often in absorption refrigerating systems. Reversed Carnot Cycle aT WUUUUUT} » 3} “Condenser “Turbine Compressor Evaporator iz oan Oy my ‘Carnot vapor refrigeration cycle. Wem ion eF, REFRIGERATION - LECTURE Heat Added = Q, =Q),= Teds Heat Rejected = Q, = Qu = Tus Coefficient of performance (Cooling): Coefficient of performance (Heating): t. con, =2— Net work = W= Q.~Q, 3. Tons of Refrigeration. Tons of refrigeration ~ is the amount of heat that must be extracted to freeze 1 ton of water at 32 Finto ice at 32 F {at 1 etm) in 1 day. Since the latent heat of fusion of water is closely 144 Btu/lb, we find (144)(2000) = 288,000 Btu/day = 12,000 Btu/hr. 4, Ideal Vapor Compression Cycle. bebo, The cycle consists of the following series of processes: Process 1-2: Isentropic compression of the refrigerant from state 1 to the condenser pressure at state 2. Process 2-3; Heat transfer from the refrigerant as it flows at constant pressure through the condenser, The refrigerant exits as a liquid at state 3, Process 3-4: Throttling process from state 3 to a two-phase liquid-vapor mixture at 4. Process 4=1; Heat transfer to the refrigerant as it flows at constant pressure through the evaporator to complete the cycleF, REFRIGERATION - LECTURE 4.1 Work of Compression We m(ho—h:) where efrigerant mass flow rate, ke/s = enthalpy entering compressor, kl/kg rthalpy leaving compressor, i/kg 4.2 Heat Rejected in the Condenser Qe= m{hz—hs) where: m= refrigerant mass flow rate, ke/s nnthalpy entering condenser, ki/kg nithalpy leaving condenser, kl/kg hy 4.3 Quality of flash gas during throttling pez hy he where: hs = enthalpy entering throttling device, ki/kg ha = enthalpy leaving throttling device, ki/kg hha.= enthalpy at saturated liquid conditions leaving throttling device, ki/kg hie = latent heat at wet vapor conditions leaving throttling device, KI/kg x= quality or weight of flash gas per unit weight of refrigerant. Ne Kage 4.4 Refrigerating Effect, Q=m(h:= he) where: m= refrigerant mass flow rate, ke/s nthalpy entering evaporator, ki/ke nthalpy leaving evaporator, ki/kg In tons of refrigeration: 4.5 Coefficient of Performance refrigerating effect work of compression h, —h, 4.6 Power in kw per ton Compressor power kw/ton = SOMPIESSON POWET Tons of refrigerationF, REFRIGERATION - LECTURE 4.7 Volume Flow Rate at Suction Vee mvs Where: m= refrigerant mass flow rate, ke/s specific volume, m°/s 4.8 Displacement Rate of Compressor vo=2 4 where: D= diameter of cylinder or bore, m L= length of stroke, m N= number of cycles completed per cycle Note: For single-acting compressor (makes one complete cycle in one revolution) Nen For double-acting compressor (makes two complete cycles in one revolution) Nz2n Where m is compressor speed: 4.9 Actual Volumetric Efficiency, tho where: /olume flow rate at suction, m’/s jolume displaced at suction, m’/s 4.10 Clearance volumetric efficiency, Me where: c= percent clearance for ammonia, use 4.11 Adiabatic compression efficiency, or simply efficiency, 7. isentropic work of compression Actual work of compression 4.12 Mechanical efficiency, hm Indicated power _ IP Brake power BP nF, REFRIGERATION - LECTURE 5. Actual Vapor Compression Cycle Actual vapor compression cycle - deviates from the ideal cycle primarily because of the inefficiency of the compressor. Possible Alternatives 12 Polytropic compression with friction and heat transfer. 23 Pressure drop at compressor discharge valve. a4 Pressure drop in delivery line. 45 Heat loss in delivery line 56 Pressure drop in the condenser, 67 Liquid subcooling in condenser. 78 Heat gain in the liquid line, 89 Isenthalpic (or throttling) expansion. 9-10 Pressure drop in the evaporator. 10-11 Supetheating of vapor in evaporator. 11-12 Heat gain in the suction line 12-13 Pressure drop in the suction line, 13-14 Pressure drop due to wire drawing at the compressor suction valve. 6. Basic Components of Refrigeration System 6.1 Compressor ~ compresses the low-pressure refrigerant ges to a high-pressure refrigerant gas anc! cause to to flow in the system. 6.1.1 Types of compressors: a. Reciprocating compressor b. Centrifugal compressor c. Rotary compressor— vane type and screw-type 6.1.2 Classification of compressor based on enclosure. 2. Open-type compressor — whose crankshaft extends through the compressor housing so that a motor can be externally coupled to the shaft.F, REFRIGERATION - LECTURE b. _Hermetically sealed compressor — a type in which the compressor and the motor are enclosed in the same housing, €. Semi-hermetic compressor ~ hermetically sealed compressor in which the cylinder head can be removed for servicing of the valve and pistons. 6.2 Condenser ~ receives the high-pressure refrigerant gas and then condenses while rejecting heat to the cooling medium which is either air or weter. 6.2.1 Types of condensers used in refrigeration. a. Air-cooler (Bare tube and finned tube) b. Water-cooled (Shell-and-tube and shell-and-coil. 6.3 Throttling Device or Expansion Device ~ reduces the pressure of the refrigerant so that low temperature will be attained; it also regulates the flow of refrigerant to the evaporator. 6.3.1 Functions of the Expansion Device + To reduce the pressure of the liquid refrigerant from the condenser in order to attain low temperature. + To control the flow of the refrigerant to the evaporator. 6.3.2 Types of expansion Devices 6.3.2.1 Capillary Tubes Inside diameter = 0.50 mm to 2mm Length = 1m tom Capacity = up to 10 kw 6.3.2.2 Expansion Valves + Gate valves - Constant pressure expansion valves - Thermostatic Expansion valves + Thermostatic Expansion valves with external equalizer. 6.4 Evaporator — where the liquid portion of the refrigerant evaporates while absorbing heat from the surrounding. Types of Evaporators 6.4.1 Dry-type compatible to all condenser types. 6.4.2 Flooded compatible to water-cooled condenser only (high-capacity system). 7. Refrigerants 7.1 Helocarbon refrigerants ~ contains one or more of the three halogens chlorine, fluorine and bromine. Rll CChF Trichloromonofluoromethane R12 CCF, Dichlorodifluoromethane R43 CIF; Monochlorotrifluoromethane R-22 CHCIF, Monochlorodifluoromethane R40 CH,Cl_ Methyl Chloride R113 CCLFCCIF, —Trichlorotrifluoroethane R114 CCIF,CCIF, —_Dichlorotetrafluoroethane 7.2 Inorganic refrigerants R717 NH Ammonia R718 H,0 WaterF, REFRIGERATION - LECTURE R729 Air R-744 CO; Carbon Dioxice R-764 SO) Sulfur Dioxide 7.3 Hydrocarbon refrigerants R50 CH, Methane R170 Coe Ethane R290 C:Hy Propane 7.4 Azeotropes Azeotropes ~ is a mixtures of two substances in which the components cannot be separated by distillation, (R- 502 is a mixture of 48.8% R-22 and 51.2% R-115}. 8. Desirable Properties of Refrigerant 8.1 Thermodynamic Properties a. Low freezing point b. Low condensing pressure ©. Low evaporating pressure d. Low power per ton fe. Low volume flow per ton High COP 8.2 Chemical Properties a. Non-toxic b. Non-flammable ©. Non-corrosive d. Not destructive to refrigerated products Physical Properties a. Low viscosity b. High thermal conductivity ©. Easy leak detection d. Miscible with oil e. Reasonable cost 9. Refrigeration Cycle with Liquid Subcooling and/or Suction Vapor Superheating. 3 2 P 3 2 4, L 4 1 h 83F, REFRIGERATION - LECTURE 10. a Advantages of subcooling: a, Reduces quality of gas vapor. b. Increases refrigerating effect of system How to employ subcooling? a. Use of water subucoolers b. Use of liquid refrigerant subcoolers ~ more expensive Refrigeration Cycle with Liquid Suction Heat Exchanger S NI Heat Belance in the Heat Exchanger HE mhz + mhe=mhy+ mhs Purposes of the heat exchanger 2, Tosuperheat the vapor going to the compressor, or to ensure pure vapor us entering the compressor. b. To subcool the liquid from the condenser, thereby eliminating the flash gas. Multi-Pressure Systems These are refrigeration systems with two or more low-side pressures. Low-side pressure is defined as the refrigerant pressure between expansion valve and compressor intake. Intercooler ~ reduces the work per kilogram of vapor between two stages of compression; may be accomplished by ‘a water-cooled heat exchanger or by using a refrigerant. Flash tank equipment in which vapor is separated from the liquid. 8F, REFRIGERATION - LECTURE a. Refrigeration system with Two-Stage Compressor Compressor Work = he hy) + (ha~ hy) b. Refrigeration system with One Compressor serving Two (or more) Evaporators By heat balance at junction imshe + (m= m)he= mb Refrigeration system with Two Evaporators and Two Compressors.F, REFRIGERATION - LECTURE 4. Refrigeration system with Flash Tank By heat balance in Flash Tank: mhg=mybs+ (m= m,)hy By heat balance at junction: mshe* (m=m)he= mhz 12. Cascade Refrigeration Systems These systems combine two-vapor compression units, with the condenser of the low-temperature system discharging its heat to the evaporator of the high-temperature system. aaa Closed-cascade system ~ where fluids in the high pressure and low-pressure are separate and could be distinct, 1 Evaporator 10F, REFRIGERATION - LECTURE Heat Balance in the cascade condenser: imalha ha) = m{hs~ he) Compressor work = ma(hz— hi) + mah he) Refrigerating effect = milh:—h.) 12.2 Direct-contact heat exchanger — where same fluid is used throughout the system. Evaporator Heat balance in the cascade condenser smi(h2— hs) = mahs— hs) Total compressor work = m,(h2~ hy) + (hs hs) 13. Air-Cycle Refrigeration System Air-cycle refrigeration system - is operating on the reverse Brayton cycle, it is the only air-cooling process developed commercially wherein a gaseous refrigerant is used throughout the cycle; an air cooler replaces the condenser and a refrigerator takes the place of an evaporator whereas the expansion valve is substituted by an expansion engine or turbine. Types: a. Closed or dense-air system b. Open-air system Schematic diagrams: Closed or Dense-Air SystemF, REFRIGERATION - LECTURE Open-eir system Expander Refrigerator Processes: 1:2 reversible adiabatic (or isentropic) compression 2.3 reversible constant-pressure (or isobaric) heat rejection 3-4 reversible adiabatic (or isentropic) expansion 4-1 reversible constant-pressure (or isobaric) heat addition Advantages: a. Light in weight which makes it ideal in cooling aircraft. b. It occupies less space as compared to vapor-compression systems. Cycle Analysis: a. Refrigerating effect or hear added in the refrigerant, Q. Q =me,(T—T.) where: p= constent-pressure specific heat; for aircy b. Heat rejected in the air cooler, Q,, a, =me,(T,—1) c. Work of compression in the compressor, Wx Isentropie work of compression 0062 kl/kg-K. 2F, REFRIGERATION - LECTURE ow, =k Polytropic work of compression |B) Talla] d. Work of compression in the expander, WE Isentropic work of compression Polytropic work of compression news| ( Bs Tn lhe fe, Net work, Wher Woee =W, We f. Coefficient of performance, COP cop=-& 14, Other Methods of Refrigeration 14a Absorption refrigeration system (NHs~ HO system). 1, Absorption Refrigeration System (Ex. NHz: BF, REFRIGERATION - LECTURE 12 Steam jet refrigeration. Cooling, Load 15. Cold Storage Brine — is water plus sodium chloride and/or calcium chloride mixture whose purpose of addition of impurities is to decrease the fluid freezing temperature. 15.1. Heat load in Cold Storage Room a. Heat conducted through the walls, ceiling and floor of the cold storage room. b, Heat generated from the mechanical and electrical equipment. Heat from the occupants d, Heat from infiltration and ventilation air. fe. Product heat load which is the largest load. 15.2. Heatreleased from the products (or commodities) in the Cold Storage Room a. Sensible heat during cooling of products from entering temperature to freezing temperature (or cooling above freezing). cry18.3 F, REFRIGERATION - LECTURE b. Latent heat of fusion (or enthalpy of freezing). c. Sensible heat during cooling of products below freezing. d. Heat of respiration — applicably only for fruits and vegetables. Total Heat Load, Qtotal Qa =m leaplt, —t We LHF +cat —t, +m, (HR) where: Mp = brine mass flow rate yj = specific heat before freezing cos= specific heat after freezing t.= entering temperature ty= freezing temperature t= storage temperature LHF = latent heat of fusion. HR = heat of respiration 16. Ice Plant 16.1 Heat to be removed from water to produce ice, Q = lease ty HLHF + eat ty] where: m,= refrigerant mass flowrate cay = specific heat of water before freezing, 4.187 kl/kg-K or 1.0 Btu/lb-R Gop = specific heat of ice after freezing, 2.093 kl/kg-k or 0.5 Btu/lb-R ty= freezing temperature, OC or 32 F tor = initial temperature of water, F tice final temperature, F LHF = latent heat of fusion 15F, REFRIGERATION - LECTURE 16.2 163 16.4 Allowance for heat losses Usually 10 to 20% of the heat to be removed; if not given, use higher value thus. Oya =1.20 Empirical Equation for Freezing Time, in hours FT 32-t, where: c= empirical constant in the range of 5.75 to 7; if not given, use c= 7.0 X= average or mean thickness of ice block (ice cake), inches ‘Common in the Philippines, 300-Ib ice block, mean x= 11 inches. ty brine temperature, F Number of ice cans per ton of ice, N. 1000FT 24Wee where: FT = freezing time, hours Wee weight of ice block, Ibs. 17. Units of Refrigerating Capacity The standard unit of refrigeration is ton of refrigeration (or simply ton), denoted by the symbol TR. In English units, 1 TR = 12,000 Btu/hr = 200 Btu/min In Metric units 2 TR= 3,024 keal/hr = 50.4 kcal/min In tunits, A TR= 211 ki/min = 3.516 kW ~ End~ 16G. AIR CONDITIONING - LECTURE Definitions Air conditioning ~ implies the automatic control of an atmospheric environment either for the comfort of human beings or animals or for the proper performance of some industrial or scientific process. Peychrometry — is the science of involving thermodynamic properties of moist air and the effect of atmospheric moisture on materials and human comfort, Psychrometric chart ~ provide a graphical representation of the thermodynamic properties of moist air, various air conditioning processes, and air conditioning cycles Psychrometer — is the instrument used in the study of the properties of air Atmospheric air ~is a mixture of many gases plus water vapor and countless pollutants. Saturated air~ air whose condition is such that any decrease in temperature will result in condensation of the water vapor into liquid Moist air— is a binary mixture of dry air and water vapor. Dry air—a non-condensing components of a mixture mainly nitrogen and oxygen. Vapor ~a condensable components of the mixture, Unsaturated air— air containing superheated vapor, Heating ~ is the transfer of energy to @ space or to the air in a space by virtue of a difference in temperature between the source and the space or air. Humidifying ~is the transfer of water vapor to atmospheric air. Cooling ~ is the transfer of energy from a space, or air supplied to a space, by virtue of a difference in temperature between the source and the space or air. Dehumidifying — is the transfer of water vapor from atmospheric air. Sensible heat factor ~is the ratio of sensible to total heat, where total heat is the sum of sensible and latent heat. Room sensible heat factor ~ is the ratio of room sensible heat to the summation of room sensible and room latent heat.G. AIR CONDITIONING - LECTURE Grand sensible heat factor ~ is the ratio of the total sensible heat to the grand total heat load that the conditioning apparatus must handle, including the outdoor air heat loads. Bypass factor ~ represents that portion of the air which is considered to pass through the conditioning apparatus completely unaltered. Effective room sensible heat factor ~ is the ratio of effective room sensible heat to the effective room sensible and latent heats. Functions of Air Conditioning 2. Control the temperature b. Control the humicity Control the purity, that is, removal of duct and other impurities d. Control of air movement or circulation. Moist Air Properties 3.1 Temperatures Dry bulb temperatures (D8) ~ is the actual temperature of the air or the temperature of air as registered by an ordinary thermometer, Wet bulb temperatures (WB) ~ is the temperature of air if it is saturated or temperature of air as registered in a wetted wick thermometer and exposed to a current of rapidly moving air. Wet bulb depression ~ is the difference between the wet bulb and dry bulb thermometers. Dew point temperature - it the temperature at which condensation of moisture begins when the airs cooled 3.2 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure P=Pag +P, where: p= total mixture pressure, aa = partial pressure exerted by dry air 1p. = pattial pressure exerted by water vapor. 3.3 Humidity Retio (Specific Humidity or Moisture Content) The humidity ratio of moist air Wis the ratio of the mass of water vapour m,, to the mass of dry air m, contained in the mixture of the moist air, in lb/Ib (kg/kg). wa 0622. Pp, For moist air at saturation: 0.6227, PP. W,=G. AIR CONDITIONING - LECTURE where: p= total pressure of alr-water vapor mixture, P. = partial pressure of dry air. P= partial pressure of water vapor. 3.4 Relative Humidity The relative humidity @ of moist air, or RH, is defined as the ratio of the actual water vapor pressure of the air ‘to the saturated water vapor pressure of the air at the same temperature. 2 », 3.5 Degree of Saturation (Percent Saturation) The degree of saturation 1 is defined as the ratio of the humidity ratio of moist air W to the humidity ratio of the saturated moist air W,, at the same temperature and pressure. 3.6 Enthalpy The enthalpy h of a mixture of perfect gases is equal to the sum of the enthalpies of each constituents, h=h,+Wh, And for the air-water vapor mixture is usually referenced to the mass of dry air. Enthalpy a thermal property indicating the quantity of heat in the air above an arbitrary datum. In English units. c,, =0.240 Btu/(lbm—F), ¢,, =0.444 Btu/(lbm—F) Enthalpy of saturated water vapour /, at 0 Fis 1061.2 Btu/lbm. h=0.240t +1/(1061.2+0.444¢) Btu/lema In Slunits. ¢,, =1.0Ki/(kg-C), ¢,y =1.86ki/(kg-C) Enthalpy of saturated water vapor /, at 0 Cis 2501.5 ki/kg. h=1.0t+W(2501.3+1.86t) ki/kga 3.7 Specific Volume (Moist Volume) The moist volume of moist air v, ft’/Ib (m°/kg), is defined as the volume of the mixture of the dry air and water, ‘vapour when the mass of the dry air is exactly equal to 1 lb (1 kg), that is, where, V = total volume of mixture, ft3 (m3).G. AIR CONDITIONING - LECTURE 1ass of dry air, Ib (kg). Then, V__R,T,(1+1.6078W) 3.8 Density The air density ,, in Ib/ft* (kg/m’), is defined as the ratio of the mass of dry air to the total volume of the mixture, i.e, the reciprocal of moist volume. 3.9 Specific Heat of moist air at constant pressure The specific heat of moist air at constant pressure C,,. is defined as the heat required to raise its temperature 1 F (0.56) at constant pressure, 243 Btu/lb—F (020 4/kg-K 4, The Psychrometric ChartG. AIR CONDITIONING - LECTURE 5. Basic Psychometric Processes. on Sensible Cooling 0-2 Heating (Dryer) 03 Humidifying (Isothermal dryer) oa Dehumidifying os Cooling and Dehumicifying (Air conditioner) O68 Heating and Humidifying (Cooling tower) 07 Cooling and Humidifying (Adiabatic dryer) os Heating and Dehumidifying (Chemical Dehumidification). 6. Air Mixing By heat balance: imshy + mghs= (m, + mabhs By moisture balance: mW + mW = (rm, + m:)Ws By temperature balance (dry bulb): imsT, + mT = (ma, + m,)T>G. AIR CONDITIONING - LECTURE 7. Applications of Psychrometry a. Air conditioner b. Cooling tower c. Dryer 8, The Air Conditioner yw Refrigerating Capacity = m(h;—h:) Rate of moisture removal = m(W;~W) 9. Air conditioning calculations a, outside air (Ventilation) piace Air Recireuated Ae = ms — —— al" B] ] conttionea m Space [ - End- 2K. CONVEYORS - LECTURE 1. Definition Conveyors = are defined as either fixed or portable devices for moving materials between two fixed points at the same or different elevations, with continuous or intermittent forwerd movement. 2. Types of Conveyors 2.1 Belt Conveyors ~ continuous system; belt usually troughed; high capacities possible. 2.2 Spiral Conveyors ~ endless helicoids screw in @ trough. Can easily be made dust-tight. Not having a return strand, it required a minimum of space. Limited in length. Considerable weer. 2.3 Flight or Scraper Conveyors ~ low in first cost but having large energy consumption. There is considerable wear, caused by abrasion 2.4 Pivoted Bucket Carriers ~ material is carried and buckets are supported on rollers which reduce friction to a minimum. The pivoted bucket carries can both elevate and convey. Since itis run at low speed, the operation is both silent and free from vibration. 2.5 Larries ~ suspended rail types are generally used because even though they require more headroom than the floor type, they leave the boiler aisle free from obstruction. 3. Belt Conveyors Belt conveyors ~ is probably more universally used than any other. The first cost is reasonable and the power consumption is low. It is widely used for horizontal movement of coal and, to a certain extent, for inclined runs. Let pull to move the weight of material on loaded run pull to move conveyor parts on loaded run ull to move conveyor parts on empty run P = total chain pull = P1+P2+P3 Powel ‘otal Chain Pull x Velocity - End-L. INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES - LECTURE 1 Flow Diagram or Flow Sheet Flow Diagram — is a diagram showing the flow of materials through the various equipment or processes involved in the manufacture of a certain product. 4. Process flow diagram — indicates only the processes involved, drawn in block diagrams. b. Equipment flow diagram — shows the various equipment used in the processing, ¢ Equipment-Process flow diagram — combines the equipment and processes in the diagram. Industries in the Philippines Sugar manufacturing (raw and refined sugar) Cement manufacturing (wet and dry process) Rice and corn milling Pulp and paper manufacturing Plywood manufacturing Glass manufacturing Beer manufacturing Copper milling Steel manufecturing Coconut oil milling Fertilizer manufacturing Flour milling Foundry Equipment 3.1 Melting furnaces used in foundry a b. « Crucible furnace ~ suitable for non-ferrous metals; the metal is melted inside a crucible heated by an oll- fired burner, Cupola furnace ~ for melting iron; the heat comes from coke burning inside the cupola itself. Induction furnace ~ for ferrous and non-ferrous metals, uses electric current for melting the scraps or ingots. 3.2 Methods of casting used in foundry b. c d e Sand casting Pressure die casting Metal mold casting Centrifugal casting Plaster mold casting - End-M. INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROLS - LECTURE 1 INSTRUMENTATION Instrumentation ~ refers to a collection of instruments for the purpose of observation, measurement and controls. Instruments — are devices used directly or indirectly to measure and/or control a variable. Definitions Accessible ~ a term applied to a device of 2 function that can be used or be seen by an operator for the purpose of, performing control actions, e.g., set point changes, automatic-manual transfer, or on-off actions. Alarm ~ a device or function that signals the existence of an abnormal condition by means of audible or visible discrete change, or both, intended to attract attention. Assignable — a term applied to a feature permitting the channeling (or direction) of a signal from one device to another without the need for switching, patching, or changes in wiring. Auto-Manual Station ~ synonym for control station. Balloon ~ synonym for bubble. Behind the Panel —a term applied to a location that is within an area that contains (1) the instrument panel, (2) its associated rack-mounted hardware, or (3) is enclosed with the panel, Binary ~ a term applied to a signal or device that has only two discrete positions or states, Board - synonym for panel. Bubble - the circular symbol used to denote and identify the purpose of an instrument or function. It may contain a tag number, Computer device - @ device or function that performs one or more calculations or logic operations, or both, transmits one or more resultant output signal. A computing device is sometimes called the computing relay. Configurable ~ a term applied to 2 device or system whose functional characteristics can be selected or rearranged through programming or other methods. The concept excludes rewiring as a means of altering the configuration. Controller - 2 device having an output that varies to regulate a controlled variable in a specified manner. A controller may be a self-contained analog or digital instrument, or it may be the equivalent of such an instrument in a shared-control system. Control station - a manual loading station that also provides switching between manual and automatic control modes of a control loop. It is also known as an auto-manual station.M. INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROLS - LECTURE Control valve ~ a device, other than 2 common, hand actuated ON-OFF valve or self-actuated check valve, that directly manipulated the flow of one or more fluid process streams. Converter ~ 2 device that receives information in one form of an instrument signal and transmits an output signal in another form Digital ~ a term applied to 2 signal or device that uses binary digits to represent continuous valve or discrete states, Distributed Control System ~ a system which, while being functionally integrated, consist of subsystems which may be physically seperate and remotely located from one another. Final Control Element ~ the device that directly controls the value of the manipulated variable of a control loop. Often the final control element is a control valve. Function ~ the purpose of, or an action performed by a device Identification - the sequence of letters of digits, or both, used to designate an individual instrument or loop. Instrument ~ a device used directly or indirectly to measure and/or control a variable, Instrumentation ~ a collection of instruments or their application for the purpose of observation, measurement, control, or any combination of these. Local - the location of an instrument that is neither in nor on a panel or console, nor it is mounted in a control room. Local Panel ~ a panel that is not a central or main panel. Local panel are commonly in the vicinity of plan subsystems or sub-areas. Loop ~ 2 combination of two or more instruments or control functions arranged so that signal pass from one to another for the purpose of measurement and/or control of a process variable. Manual Loading System ~ a device or function having 2 manually adjustable output that is used to actuate one or more remote devices Measurement — the determination of the existence or the magnitude of the variable. Monitor a general term for an instrument or instrument system used to measure or sense the status of magnitude of one or more variables for the purpose of deriving useful information. Monitor light - synonym for pilot light.M. INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROLS - LECTURE Panel ~ A structure that has @ group of instruments mounted on it, houses the operator-pracess interface, and is chosen to have a unique designation. Panel-Mounted ~ 2 term applied to an instrument that is mounted on a panel or console and is accessible for an operator's normal use. Pilot Light ~a light that indicates which of a number of normal conditions of a system or device exists. Primary Element ~ synonym for sensor. Process ~ any operation or sequence of operations involving a change of energy, state, composition, dimension, or other properties that may be defined with respect to a datum. Process Variable ~ any variable property of a process. Program ~ a repeatable sequence of actions that defines the status of outputs as a fixed relationship to a set of inputs, Programmable Logic Controller ~ a controller, usually with multiple inputs and outputs, that contains an alterable program. Relay —a device whose functions is to pass on information in an unchanged form or in some modified form. Scan ~to sample, in a predetermined manner, each of a number of variables intermittently. Sensor ~ that part of a loop of instrument that first senses the value of a process variable, and that assumes a corresponding, predetermined, and intelligible state or output, Set Point —an input variable thet sets the desired value of the controlled variable. Shared Controller ~ a controller, containing programmed algorithms that are usually accessible, configurable, and assignable, Shared Display ~ the operator interface device (usually a video screen) used to display process control information from a number of sources at the command of the operator. Switch ~ a device that connects, disconnects, selects, or transfers one or more circuits and is not designated as a controller, @ relay, or a control valve. Test Point ~a process connection to which no instruments is permanently connected.M. INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROLS - LECTURE Transducer ~a general term for a device that receives information in the form of one or more physical quantities, modifies the information and/or its form, if required, and produces a resultant output signal Transmitter — a device that senses a process variable through the medium of a sensor and has an output whose steady-state value varies only as a predetermined function of the process variable, - End-N. METROLOGY - LECTURE Definition Metrology — concerns with the fundamental standards and techniques of measurements, and with the scientific principles of the instrumentation involved. Correctness / Accuracy ~ degree of conformity of @ measured or calculated value to some recognized standard or specific value Error of measurement — the difference between the measured and true value. Precision ~ is the repeatability of the measuring process, or how well identically performed measurement agree, which concept applies to a set of measurements. Tolerance -is the amount of variation permitted in the part of total variation allowed in a given dimension. Allowance ~ is the minimum clearance space intended between the mating parts and represents the conditions of tightest possible ft. Standard — something that is set up and established by authority as a rule for the measure of quantity, weight, extent, value or quality. Sensitivity ~ is the ability of a measuring device to detect small differences in a quality being measured. Readability -is the susceptibility of a measuring device to having its indication converted to meaningful number. ‘Common Measuring Instruments Physical Quantity Measured Instrument Used Pressure Bourdon pressure gauge Compound gauge Vacuum gauge Manometer Draft gouge Barometer Temperature Mercurial thermometer Bi-metallic thermometer Thermocouple Radiation pyrometer Optical pyrometer Weight Platform balanceN. METROLOGY - LECTURE Density; specific gravity Heating value of fuel Viscosity Area of irregular plane figures Rotetional speed Vibration intensity and frequency Linear speed Distance travelled by a vehicle Velocity of flow Flow rate Indicated power Brake power Spring balance Analytical balance Beam balance Pendulum scale Hydrometer Pycnometer Westphal balance Bomb calorimeter Gas calorimeter Viscosimeter Planimeter Tachometer Centrifugal, vibration, electric Stroboscope Vibrometer Speedometer Odometer Velometer Rotameter Anemometer Flowmeter Engine indicator Dynamometer Absorption dynamometer Prony brake Water brake Transmission dynamometer Electric dynamometer Electric cradle dynamometerN. METROLOGY - LECTURE Analysis of flue ges Orsat apparatus (Gas analyzer) Quality of steam Steam calorimeter -throttling, separating, condensing barrel, electric Dry Bulb and Wet Bulb Temperature of air Psychrometer ~ Sling, aspiration Moisture content (humidity) of air Hygrometer Relative humidity of air Humeter Hardness of steel Brinell Hardness tester Rockwell hardness tester Vickers hardness tester Surface roughness Profilometer Angle Protractor Linear distance (thickness, depth, etc.) Rule, depth gauge, vernier caliper, micrometer caliper Inaccuracy in alignments, eccentricities Dial indicator Space clearance, gap Feeler gauge Graduated Manual Measuring Tools Rules ~ the most generally used graduated measuring instrument in the industrial metrology field for approximately determining linear dimensions. Shrink Rules - commonly employed in the pattern-making trade where the casting of metals are involved Hook Rule ~ frequently used to assure the user that the end of the workpiece is flush with the end of the rule. Tapered Rules ~ used in measuring inside of small holes, narrow slots, and grooves. Slide Calipers ~ consist of a stationary integral with graduated beam on which the movable jaws slides, with a reference point for inside and outside reading. Vernier Celiper ~ @ measuring instrument which can be used for taking both inside and outside dimension Dial Caliper— directly reading calipers which are accurate up to the thousandth of a centimeter. 3N. METROLOGY - LECTURE Vernier Height Gages - vertically-positioned vernier calipers used in tool rooms, inspection departments, or Wherever layout and jig and fixtures work necessitate accurately measuring or marking off vertical distances. Vernier Depth Gages — provide long range accuracy for determining the depths of holes, slots, and recesses as well ‘as measuring from a plane surface to toolmaker’s buttons in locating center distances. Gear Tooth Vernier Calipers ~ use to check the pitch line thickness of gear teeth by measuring the tooth chord at a specific distance (chordal addendum) from the top of the gear tooth. Micrometer Calipers ~ most useful close tolerance measuring devices for quick and accurate measurements to the thousandth part of a centimeter. Outside Micrometer ~ precision measuring instrument used in determining outside measurements. Direct Reading Micrometers ~ are read directly in thousandths from figures appearing in small windows on the barrel of the micrometer. Blade Type Micrometer — are an adaptation of standard micrometers in which the anvil and spindle ends are thinned to a blade shape which are used for checking the root diameter of circular form tools as well as the diameter and depth of narrow slots, keyways, recesses, etc. Quick Adjusting Micrometers ~ allow spindle to be slid quickly to any point within their range which makes them particularly efficient thousandths-reading micrometers for checking work where # variety of dimensions are involved. ‘Screw Thread Micrometers — are designed to measure the pitch diameter of screw threads to thousandths accuracy by the use of a pointed spindle and double V-anvil which are available for varying diameters of work and each size normally covers a range of the threads-per-centimeters. Inside Micrometer ~used for measuring the diameters of holes and other inside dimensions, consist of @ permanent contact micrometer head and a set of interchangeable rods in various increments which are seated snugly in the opposite end of the head against a shoulder and locked securely. Protractor — consists of a rectangular head graduated in degrees along a semi-circle, with a blade pivoted on the center pin, any angle from 0 to 180 degrees can be set. Combination Protractor and Depth Gage — is a combination of a movable graduated blade (depth gage) and a graduated protractor head Universal Bevel Protractor ~ consist of a round body with a fixed blade, on which a graduated turret rotates.N. METROLOGY - LECTURE Dial Indicator ~ composed of a graduated dial, spindle, pointers and a satisfactory means of supporting or clamping it firmly, which is used to measuring inaccuracies in alignment eccentricity, and deviations on surfaces supposed to be parallel Dial Test Indicator ~ commonly known as toolmaker’s indicator which are smaller than the smallest A.G.D. standard indicator, Planimeter ~ is a tool for checking the flatness of plane surfaces to tenths-of-thousandths of a centimeter and consist of a diabase straight edge, and adjustable mounting for the straight edge, ,and @ 0.00005 cm reading indicator. Non-Graduated Manual Measuring Tools Calipers follow @ progression which originates with standard inside and outside calipers and are non-graduated tools for measuring the distance between two points of contact on the work piece. Standard Calipers ~ consist of two movable metal legs attached together by a spring joint at one end and with formed contacts at the other, and so designed as to take inside readings, or readings from one point to another and these are called inside calipers, outside calipers, and dividers, respectively. Bevels ~ consists of two three-non-graduated slotted blades with one or two screws and knurled nuts connecting them, by loosening the nuts, the blades can be set to varying angles. Trammels ~ used in sizes beyond the range of dividers, consist of @ long bar on which two arms or trammels slide Gage - is a device used to determine whether the part has been made to the tolerance required and does not usually indicate a specific dimension. Straight edges — are flat length of tools or stainless steel, ground to extremely fine tolerance, particularly along the edges. Special-Purpose Measuring Tools Tap and Drill Gages ~ consist of a flat rectangle of steel with holes accurately drilled and identified according to their size. Wire Gages ~ are round steel plates with slots of ascending width along their edge. Screw Pitch Gages ~ consist of a metal case containing many separate leaves. Radius Gages ~ are individual leaves or a set of leaves in a case and are designed to check both convex and concave radiN. METROLOGY - LECTURE Thickness / Feeler Gage — consists of a number of thin blades/leaves of different thickness and used in checking clearances, backlash in gears and for gaging in narrow points or places, Pressure and Vacuum Measurements U-type Liquid-Column Gage ~ is made of glass or some other type of transparent tubing with an inner bore of 6 mm or larger diameter and a wall thickness adequate to withstand the pressure for which the manometer was in design. Well-Type Liquid-Column Gage ~is similar to the U-type, however, one leg of the U-type is replace by a well Inclined Manometer or Draft Gage ~ is @ well manometer whose vertical leg is placed in an almost horizontal position so that a very slight difference of change in the pressure of the gas or air in the well causes a very large change in the measured level of the liquid in the inclined tube. Barometer —is an upright measuring tube which is vacuum sealed on the upright end and the open end and inserted in a well filled with liquid mercury. Limp-Diaphragm Gages — are used for measuring low pressure in boiler houses and on other implications where low pressures must be accurately measured, Bell-Type Gages ~ designed for measuring low pressures. This type of gage utilizes the large area of a liquid-sealed bell chamber to provide the force necessary to actuate an indicating or recording mechanism and can be made sensitive to the smallest change of pressure likely to be significant in an industrial application. Piston Gages ~ suitable for pressure up to 350 kg/sq cm and higher but limited largely to hydraulic applications Where oils the fluid under pressure, Bourdon Tube Gage ~ is the most widely used in industrial pressure gage applied to both pressure and vacuum, either separately or in a compound gage. Helical Type of Pressure Gage ~ a variations of the simple Bourdon type of pressure gage wherein the element or tube is wound in the form of a spiral having four or five turns. Spiral Type of Element in Bourdon Type of Pressure Gage ~ the elements is of Bourdon type of tube wherein it is wound in the form of a spiral having several turns rather than restricting the length of the tube to approximately 270 deg of arc. Metallic-Diephragm Pressure Gage ~ consists of a metal diaphragm built into diaphragm housing with one side of the diaphragm exposed to the pressure to be measured and the other under atmospheric pressure. Cam and Roller Arrangement - employs a can sector and a helicoids roller to which a pointer is attached.N. METROLOGY - LECTURE Electromechanical Pressure Instruments - employ 2 mechanical means for detecting the pressure, and electrical means for indicating or recording the detected pressure. Electronic Pressure Measuring Instruments ~ depends on some physical change that can be detected and indicated or recorded electronically. Vacuum Gages - used primarily for measuring pressure below atmospheric pressure. McLeod Gage ~ is a mercury gage for the measurement of absolute pressure. Pirani Gage ~ is a hot wire vacuum gage. This gage employs a wheatstone bridge circuit to balance the resistance of a tungsten filament or resistor sealed off in a high vacuum against that on a tungsten filament which can lose heat by conduction to the gas whose pressure is being measured. Knudsen Type Vacuum Gage - operates on the principle of heated gases rebounding from a heated surfece end bombarding a cooled movable surface spaced less than a mean free path length from the heated surface, Phillips Vacuum Gage ~ are cold cathode ionization gages which provide direct measurement for pressure values both above and below tim. Alphatron Gage - uses a radium source sealed in @ vacuum chamber where it is in equilibrium with its immediate decay products, ‘Thermometry and Pyrometry Indicating and Recording Thermometer ~ pressure actuated instrument that uses the energy available in the form of increase pressure or volume of a substance to indicate and record the change in temperature that liberated this energy. ‘Thermocouple Pyrometers — in which the voltage, generated at the junction of two dissimilar metal wires indicates the degree of temperature, the voltage at the junction increasingly proportionally with the temperature. Copper-Constantan - commonly used in the 185 to 300 C temperature range. Iron-Constantan ~ used in reducing atmosphere where there is a lack of free oxygen and useful in the -18 to 760 C. Chromel-Alumel ~ shall be used extensively in oxidizing atmospheres where there is an excess of free oxygen and shall be used to measure temperature up to 1320 C, but are most satisfactory at temperatures up to 11509 ¢ for constant service, Platinum-Platium-Rhodium ~ normally designated noble metal thermocouples, shall be used for higher temperature range (700 to 1500 C) and are adversely affected by atmospheres containing reducing gases and shall be protected by an impervious tube when used at temperatures above 540 C when such gases are present. 7N. METROLOGY - LECTURE Resistance Thermometers - in which the resistance of calibrated wire changes with the temperature, the resistance change being proportional to the increase in temperature. Thermistor ~ are electronic semiconductors whose electrical resistance varies with temperature and are useful industrially for the automatic detection, measurement, and control of physical energy. Liquid-filled Glass Thermometers ~ in which there is an expansion or contraction of a liquid corresponding to the changes in temperature, the expansion of the liquid being proportional to the increase in temperature, the liquids commonly used of which are mercury, alcohol, or pentane. Bourdon Tube Thermostat — which operate by the expansion of a fluid (liquid or gas). Radiation Pyrometers ~ in which there is @ small body capable of absorbing radiation of all wave lengths, the radiation absorbed being proportional to the temperature. Optical Pyrometers ~ by which the temperatures is determined by matching the luminosity of the hot body of which the temperature is to be determined with the luminosity of calibrated source of light. Pyrometer Cones ~ by which the temperature is determined by the bending over of a graded set of ceramic cones, each having a definite heat resisting value. Bimetallic Thermometers ~ depends on the differential expansion of two solids, the differential expansion being proportional to the increase in temperature. Constructed of two thin strips of dissimilar metal which are bonded together for their entire length. Electronic Thermometers ~ the latest breakthrough in the measurements of temperature with very high accuracies, fast speed of response and above average linearity. Flow Metering Inferential Type Flow Meters ~ obtains a measurement of the flow of e fluid or gas not by measuring the volume or eight of the medium but by measuring some other phenomenon that is a function of the quantity of fluid passing through the pipe. Rotameter — consist of a tapered glass tube set vertically in the fluid or gaseous piping system with its large end on top and a metering float which is free to move vertically in the tapered glass tube. Anemometers ~ are instruments for measuring the flow of ges or air consisting of a set rotating vane placed at an angle of about 45 degrees to the axis flow and free to rotate about an axis set in jeweled bearings Hot Wire Anemometers ~ which consist of a small resistance wire inserted in the steam of gas whose velocity is to be measured,N. METROLOGY - LECTURE Thomas meter — which consist of wire grid inserted in the pipe line or duct and supplied with a current of sufficient magnitude to heat the air passing through the pipe. Electromagnetic Flowmeter - where an electromotive force is induced in the fluid by its motion through a magnetic field provided by the electromagnet. Piston-Type Volumetric Flow Meter ~ used to inject an exact amount of fluid into flow line or collecting vessel. Nutating-Disc Pump — 2 positive displacement flowmeter wherein the piston is the only moving part on the measuring chamber. Rotary Sliding-Vane Flowmeter ~ a volumetric meter constructed similar to the standard vane type of vacuum pump, wherein the design requires that the meter body be in the shape of a closed drum with shaft carrying a smaller cylinder arranged to rotate inside the meter body. Oscillating-Piston Flowmeter ~ consists of the hollow piston arranged to oscillate about the center abutment which is encircled by # confining ring housed in # drum-shaped meter body. Rotating-Bucket Flowmeter — a positive-displacement of a volumetric meter consisting of a meter with a drum type of boy having the outlet and inlet ports side by side with a dividing baffle between them. ‘Screw Type of Flowmeter — consist of three meshed screws or rotors mounted vertically and rotating in a measuring chamber. Spiral-Vane Flowmeter ~ consists of metering chamber in which a rotor is mounted with 2 hollow shaft which admits the liquid into a meter. Bellows-Type Gas Flowmeter —design primarily and exclusively for gas-receiving bellows having metal slides and tanned sheepskin flexible connections between the metal slides. Water-Sealed Rotary Gas Meter — consists of a drum-shaped meter body slightly more than half full of water. Roots Type of Volumetric Gas Meter - consist of @ set of two rotors having cross-sectional area in the approximately shape of a figure eight. Turbine-Type Current Flowmeters ~ used for measuring flows ranging from 0,003 to 15,000 gpm as standard liquid flow meters, and 20 to $000 cu. ft/min as gas flow meters. Measurement of Weight Platform Scale ~ used in the laboratory and consists of a compound leverage system,N. METROLOGY - LECTURE 10. a Pendulum Scales — give automatic indication on over @ wide range and are extensively used when speed is important. Electrical Scales ~ are combinations of mechanical elements and electrical measuring devices. Rational Speed Measurements Counter and Timer ~ a common type of revolution counter wherein the rubber of steel tip is applied directly to the shaft center and friction is relied upon to drive the spindle. ‘Tachometer ~ gives a direct and continuous indications of speed and is therefore the most convenient for observing speed variation or fluctuations and for general observations in which a high degree of accuracy is unnecessary. Stroboscope ~ utilizes the phenomenon of persistence of vision when an object is viewed intermittently. Environmental and Pollution Measurements Humeter ~ instrument to measure the relative humidity of the etmospheric air which is important as comfort factor and is measurable of how many airborne particulates are held in suspension where we can take them into our lungs as we breathe. Hygrometer / Psychrometer — instrument to measure also the relative humidity of the environment, which utilized the physical or electrical change of certain materials as they absorbed moisture. Hygrometers ~ depend on physical chenges employ by human hair, animal membrane, or other materials that lengthen when it absorb water, Electrical Hygrometers ~ use transducers that convert humidity variations into electrical resistance changes. - End- 10O. PIPING - LECTURE Definitions The fundamental difference between pipe and tube is the dimension standard to which each is manufactured. Pipe — is a tube with @ round cross section conforming to the dimensional requirements for nominal pipe size as tabulated in table for pipe schedules. Tube is @ hollow product of round or any other cross section having a continuous periphery. Black Pipe - steel pipe that has not been galvanized. Bell and Spigot Joint ~ the commonly used joint in cast-iron pipe. Each piece is made with an enlarged diameter or bell at one end into which the plain or spigot end of another piece is inserted when laying. The joint is then made tight by cement, oakum, lead or rubber caulked into the bell around the spigot. Bull Head Tee ~a tee the branch of which is larger than the run. Butt Weld Joint ~ a welded pipe joint made with the ends of the two pipes butting each other, the weld being around the periphery. Carbon Steel Pipe ~ steel pipe which owes its properties chiefiy to the carbon which it contains. Check Valve ~a valve designed to allow a fluid to pass through in one direction only. Compression Joint ~ 2 multi-piece joint with cup shaped threaded nuts which, when tightened compress tapered sleeves so that they form joint on the periphery of the tubing they connect. Cross-Over—a small fitting with a double offset, or shaped like the letter U with the ends turned out, Expansion Loop ~ @ large radius bend in @ pipe line to absorb longitudinal expansion in the pipe line due to heat. Galvanized Pipe — steel pipe coated with zinc to resist corrosion. Gate Valve ~ 2 valve employing a gate, often wedge-shaped, allowing fluid to flow when the gate is lifted from the seat. Such valves have less resistance to flow than globe valves. Globe Valve — one with a somewhat globe shaped body with a manually raised or lowered disc which when closed rests on 2 seat so as to prevent passage of @ fluid. Header ~a large pipe or drum into which each of a group of boilers is connected. Manifold - a fitting with @ number of branches in line connecting to @ smaller pipes. Used largely as an interchangeable term with header. Medium Pressure ~ when applied to valves and fittings, implies they are suitable for a working pressure of from 862 to 1207 kPa (125 to 175 psi).O. PIPING - LECTURE Mill Length ~ also known as random length, Run-of-mill pipe is 4880 mm to 6000 mm in length. Some pipe are made in double lengths of 9150 to 10,68=75 mm. Relief Valve ~ one designed to open automatically to relieve excess pressure. Run ~a length of pipe made of more than one piece of pipe. Saddle Flange — a flange curved to fit a boiler or tank and to be attached to a threaded pipe. The flange is riveted or welded to the boiler or tank. Socket Weld ~a joint made by use of a socket weld fitting which has a prepared female end or socket for insertion of the pipe to which it is welded. Standard Pressure ~ formerly used to designate cast-iron, flanges, fittings, valves, etc, suitable for a maximum working pressure of 862 kPa, Street Elbow —an elbow with male thread on one end, and female thread on the other end. Stress-Relieving — uniform heating of a structure or portion thereof to a sufficient temperature to relieve the major Portion of the residual stresses, followed by uniform cooling. Wrought Iron = iron refined to @ plastic state in 2 puddling furnace Wrought Pipe - this term refers to both wrought steel and wrought iron. Wrought in this sense means worked, as in the process of forming furnace-welded pipe from skelp, or seamlell pipe from plates or billets. Fluid Flow Velocities Water = = = 15t03.0m/s High Pressure Saturated Steam 25 to 50 m/s High Pressure Superheated Steam : 50t0 77 m/s Atmospheric Exhaust Steam : : 40 to 60 m/s Low Pressure Exhaust Steam : : 100 to 120 m/s,O. PIPING - LECTURE 3. Identification Colors for Pipes Water Steam Cit-mineral vegetable or animal, Flammable or Combustible Gases in either gaseous or liquitied form, vapour and pneumatically conveyed fumes and materials ‘Acid and alkalis Other fluids, including drainage pipes unless the drain is to a Particular service Fire fighting materials, including detection and suppression system Hazardous services (generally with other identification of contents) Electricity, Communications ‘Siveray ‘Yow Oem Ugh Bue Setoty Red ‘Satay Yotow ph range veiO. PIPING - LECTURE 4. Schedule Number Schedule number ~ standard designation for pipes and is approximated by Schedule Number =. 1000p where: p= gauge pressure S= working stress Pipe Wall Thickness for Power Piping System __9D 25+¥P where: minimum pipe wall thickness p= maximum internal service pressure t= nominal pipe wall thickness utside diameter of pipe allowable stress in materials llowance for threading, mechanical strength or corrosion depending on the type of pipe. Y= coefficient for type of steel and temperature, Since all pipe furnished by the mill is subject to 12 4% variation in wall thickness, the thickness t should be multiplied by 8/7 to obtain the nominal wall thickness t 6. Pipe Wall Thickness for Industrial Gas and Air Piping System, for Refrigerant Piping System. = po +e 25+0.8P where: tm = minimum pipe wall thickness b= maximum internal service pressure t= nominal pipe wall thickness D outside diameter of pipe S= allowable stress in materials C= allowance for threading, mechanical strength or corrosion. ty 7. Classification of piping systems based on the fluid carried a. Steam b. Cold Water Hot Weter 8. Classification of piping systems based on the service conditions. a. High-pressure superheated or saturated steam b. High-pressure drip piping c. Low-pressure steam piping 4. Boiler feedwater piping e. Heater pipingO. PIPING - LECTURE f. Blow-off piping g. Condensate piping h. Hot and cold water service piping 9. Commercial Pipe 9.1 Cast iron — is principally used for drainage or for resistance to corrosion and abrasion. 9.2 Wrought steel - most power plant piping, low-cost and strong. 9.3 Alloy steels — are steels which owe their special properties to alloying elements other than carbon. 9.4 Wrought iron ~ is @ two-component metal consisting of iron permeated with 1% to 3% of finely divided and Uniformly distributed iron silicate, 9.5 Copper and Brass ~ the use of itis limited by its cost to piping in which flexibility, appearance, or resistance to certain forms of corrosion are important. 10. Pipe Connections a. Packed joints ~ such as leaded bell-and-spigot, or plain end coupling, b. Screwed joints ~ such as couplings and unions. Flanged Joints - with companion flanges either loose or screwed, shrunk, riveted, or welded to the pipe. d. Welded joints - weld made by the fusion process using gas or metal arc welders. 11. Pipe Fittings Fittings — consist of the pieces required to make turns, junctions, and reductions. The straight size fittings are the 45 deg and 90 deg elbows, the tees, crosses, Y's, laterals, and reducers. 12. Common Valves qa Globe valves (straight or angle) a. Inside screw; outside screw b. Screw bonnet top; bolted yolk top 122 Gate valves (straight or angle) a. Rising stem; nonrising stem b. Wedge valve (split and solid); parallel seat valve 123 Check valves (lift and swing types} 2. Forvertical pipe b. For horizontal pipe 13, Common Valves Materials a. Bronze valves ~ noncorrosive, very malleable b, Iron valves ~ iron body, bronze mounted (I8BM); or all iron Cast steel high strength carbon or alloy steel with special high-temperature duty seat trim 14, Special Valves a. Safety Valves ~ are primarily the boiler safety valves which constitute the ultimate line of defense against the occurrence of hazardous steam pressures in the boiler. b. Relief Valves ~ is a form of safety valve, but usually intended for less severe service and of less importance from the safety viewpoint. <.Blow-off Valves ~ together with their connected lines, are to rid the mud drums of sediment accumulations, to drain the boiler, to reduce concentration of boiler water, and to provide a means for rapidly lowering the boiler water level in case the feedwater regulator becomes deranged or hand regulation has been careless.O. PIPING - LECTURE d. Control and Regulating Valves - are for water level, steam pressure, water flow, etc. Some makes are thermostatically controlled, others mechanically, as by a float, others by pressure either steam, hydraulic, or pneumatic. e. Boiler Outlet Valves ~ are of the stop-check or automatic non-return type so as to prevent one of boilers in parallel receiving backflow from the others should its pressure become substandard. 15, Steam Traps Continuous float traps — are primarily a float-operated valve, quite simple in principle and operation. Intermittent float traps ~ the bucket trap is @ well-known exemple, this being seen in upright end inverted bucket traps. Upright bucket traps ~ floats on the incoming condensation and holds the discharge valve closed until the accumulating water rises in the trap body far enough to spill into the bucket. Inverted bucket traps — vents both the condensate and air through the main valve. ‘Thermostatic traps ~ @ temnperature-sensitive element is used to detect whether steam or condensate surrounds it. Expansion, or orifice traps ~ have a flash chamber, or expansion chamber, between two restrictions in the flow line. + End~P. FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS - LECTURE 1. General Fire protection engineering ~ involves designing devices, systems and processes to serve # particular function. In this, case the function is protecting people, property and business operations from the results of fire. 2. Commodity Classification Class |~is defined as essentially non-combustible product on wood pallets, or in ordinary corrugated cartons with or without single thickness dividers, or in ordinary paper wrapping, all on wood pallets, &, Metal Products, Foods. Class Il - is defined as products in slatted wooded crates, solid wooden boxes, or equivalent combustible packaging materials on wood pallets. x, Incandescent lamps or fluorescent bulbs, beer or wine up to 20 percent alcchol Class Ill - is defined as wood, paper, natural fiber cloth, plastic products on wood pallets, products may contain a limited amount of plastics. x. Wood dresserd with plastic drawer glides, handles, and trim. Class IV ~ is defined as products containing an appreciable amount of plastics in paper board cartons on wood pallets. x, Small appliances, typewriters, and cameras with plastic parts. Definitions Available Height for Storage ~ the maximum height at which commodities, packaging or storage can be stored above the floor and still maintain adequate clearance from structural members and the required clearance below sprinklers. Ordinary Combustibles - this term designates commodities, packages or storage aids which have heats of combustion kilojoules per kilogram similar to wood, cloth or paper and which produce fires that may normally be extinguished by the quenching and cooling effect of water. Exposure ~ the exterior presence of combustibles which, if ignited, could cause damage to the storage building or its contents. Fire Wall — a wall designed to prevent the spread of fire having a fire resistance rating of not less than four hours and having sufficient structural ability under fire conditions to allow collapse of construction on either side without collapse of wall Horizontal Channel ~ any uninterrupted space in excess of 1524 m in length between horizontal layers of stored commoditiesP. FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS - LECTURE Non-combustibles ~ this term designates commodities, packaging or storage aids which will not ignite, burn or liberate flammable gases when heated to a temperature of 745 C for five minutes. Packaging — this term designates any commodity wrapping, cushioning or container. Storage aids ~ this term designates commodity storage devices such as shelves, pallets, dunnage, decks, platforms, trays, bins, separators and skids. Warehouse ~ any building or area within a building used principally for the storage of commodities. Extra Combustible - materials, which, either by themselves or in combination with their packaging, are highly susceptible to ignition and will contribute to the intensity and rapid spread of fire. Moderate Combustible ~ materials or their packeging, either of which will contribute fuel to fire, Non-Combustibles ~ materials and their packaging which will neither ignite nor support combustion. Approved ~ acceptable to the “Authority having jurisdiction"/ Authority Having Jurisdiction installation or procedure. is the organization, office or individual responsible for approving equipment, an Class A Fire ~ fire involving ordinary combustible materials such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber and plastics. Class B Fire ~fire in flammable liquids and gases. Class C Fire ~fire involving energized electrical equipment. Class D Fire ~ fire involving combustible metals, such as magnesium, sodium, potassium, titanium, and other similar metals, Dry Stand Pipe- a type of stand pipe system in which the pipes are not normally filed with water. Fire Service ~ an organization or a component of the Philippine National Police Fire Department personnel in-charge with the mission of fire prevention, fire protection: Means of Egress ~a continuous and unobstructed route of exit from any point in a building, structure or facility toa safe public way. Occupant Load - the maximum number of persons that may be allowed to occupy a particular building, structure, or facility or portion thereof.P. FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS - LECTURE Shall indicate @ mandatory requirement. Should indicates a recommendation or that which is advised but not required. Sprinkler system — is an integrated system of one or more water supplies for fire use, underground and overhead piping designed in accordance with fire protection engineering standards. Classification of Storage Type I is that in which combustible commodities or noncombustible commodities involving combustible packaging or storage aids are stored over 4,550 mm but not more than 6,400 mm high in solid piles or over 3,650 mm but not more than 6,400 mm high in piles that contain horizontal channels, Type II~is that in which combustible commodities or noncombustible commodities involving combustible packeging or storage aids are stored not over 4,500 mm high in sold piles or not over 3,650 mm high in piles that contain horizontal channels. Type Ill ~ is that in which the stored commodities packaging and storage aids are noncombustible or contain only @ small concentration of combustibles which are incapable of producing a fire that would cause appreciable damage to the commodities stored or to noncombustible wall, floor or roof construction. Classification of Sprinkler Systems Wet Pipe System - a system employing automatic sprinklers attached to a piping system containing water and connected to a water supply so that water discharges immediately from sprinkles opened by @ fire, This is the type of sprinkler system commonly used and adaptable to the climate in our country. Deluge system - a system employing open sprinklers attached to a piping system connected to @ water supply through which is opened by the operation of a fire detection system installed in the same areas as sprinklers; when this valve opens, water flows into the piping system and discharges from all sprinklers attached thereto. Classification of Occupancies Light Hazard Occupancies - occupancies where the quantity and/or combustibilty of contents are low and fire with relatively low rate of heat release are expected. x. Churches, Clubs, Educational Ordinary Hazard Occupancies: a. Ordinary Hazard Group 1 - occupancies where combustibility is low, quantity of combustible is moderate, stockpiles of combustibles do not exceed 2,400 mm and fire with moderate rate of heat release are expected. Ex, Automobile parking garages, Bakeries, Beverages manufacturing b. Ordinary Hazard Group 2~ occupancies where quantity and combustibility of content is moderate, Stockpiles do not exceed 3,700 mm and fire with moderate heat release is expected &. Machine shops, Metal working, Cold storage warehouses.P. FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS - LECTURE € Ordinary Hazard Group 3 ~ occupancies where quantity and/or combustibility of contents is high, and fire of high rate of release are expected. x, Feed Mills, Pulp and Paper Mills, Paper Process Plants. Extra Hazard Occupancies ~ occupancies where quantity and combustibility of contents is very high, and flammable and combustible liquid, dust, lint or other materials are present introducing the probability of rapidly developing fire with high rate of heat release a. Extra Hazard Group 1 ~ include occupancies with little or no flammable or combustible liquids. &x. Die Casting, Metal Extruding, Plywood and Particle Board Manufacturing, b, Extra Hazard Group 2 ~ include occupancies with moderate to substantial amount of flammable or combustible liquids or where shielding of combustible is extensive x, Asphalt Saturating, Flammable Liquids Spraying 7. Establishment to be protected with automatic water sprinkler system (Fire Code of the Philippines) a. High Rise Buildinigs b. Places of Assembly Educational Building d. General storage €, Institutional Occupancies or Residential Areas Mercantile Occupancies g. Business Occupancies h. Industrial Occupancies i. Pier and Water Surrounded Structure is Cellulose Nitrate Plastics (Pyroxilin) k. High Piled Combustible Stock Dip Tanks 8. Portable Fire Extinguishers Portable Fire Extinguishers ~ are appliances to be used by the occupants of @ building or area, primarily for immediate used on small fires. 9. Basic Types of Fire 2. Class A Fires b. Class B Fires Class Fires d. Class D Fires - End-Q. MATERIAL HANDLING - LECTURE boom a ber or metal section or strut which is pivoted or hinged at the heel (lower end) at a fixed point on a frame, mast, or vertical member. Boom Type Extractor ~ a power operated excavating crane-type machine used for digging or moving materials. Booming, Luffing or Topping ~ raising or lowering the head of a boom. Brake (Electric) - an electric motor acting as a brake by regenerative, counter-torque, or dynamic means. Brake (Electrically Operated) ~ @ friction brake actuated or controlled by electrical means, Bridge (of an Overhead, Gantry, or Storage Bridge Crane) - structural member or members supporting one or more trolleys. Buffer -2 cushioning device at the end of trolley, bridge, or other moving part of a crane operating on rails to minimize shock in the event of collision. Bumper ~ @ device which stops the moving part at the limit of travel of a trolley, bridges, or crane operating on rails, and prevents further motion beyond thet point. Cab ~ an enclosure for housing the operator and the hoisting mechanism, power plant, and equipment controlling crane. Cage an enclosure for housing the operator and equipment controlling a crane, Crane ~ 2 machine for lifting or lowering load and moving it horizontally, in which the hoisting mechanism is an integral part of the machine. Boom Type Mobile Crane ~ a self-propelled crane equipped with a boom and mounted on a chassis which is supported on either rubber tires, endless belts or treads, or railway wheels running on railroad tracks. Cantilever Gantry Crane ~ a crane in which the bridge girders or trusses are extended transversely beyond the crane runway on one or both sides. Crawler Crane —a boom type mobile crane mounted on endless tracks or tread belts. Gantry Crane ~ 2 crane similar to an overhead traveling, except that the bridge for carrying the trolley or trolleys is rigidly supported on two or more movable legs running on fixed rails or other runway. Hammerhead Crane ~ a rotating counterbalanced cantilever equipped with one or more trolleys and supported by a pivot or turntable on a traveling or fixed tower. Jib Crane ~ a fixed crane consisting of a supported vertical member from which extends horizontal swinging arms carrying a trolley hoist or other hoisting mechanism. Locomotive Crane ~a boom type mobile crane consisting of a self-propelled car operating on a railroad track.Q. MATERIAL HANDLING - LECTURE Motor-Tractor Crane ~ see crawler crane. Motor Truck Crane — a boom type mobile crane mounted on a motor truck frame or rubber-tire chassis, Overhead Travelling or Bridge Crane ~a crane on 2 pair of parallel elevated runways, adapted to lft and lower a load and carry it horizontally parallel to, or at right angles to, the runways, or both. Pillar Crane ~ a fixed crane consisting of a vertical member held at the base, with horizontal revolving arm carrying @ trolley. Pillar Jib Crane ~ a fixed crane consisting of a vertical member held at the base, with horizontal revolving arm carrying a trolley, Pintle Crane ~ a crane similar to the hammerhead, but without a trolley, and which supports the load at the outer end of the cantilever arm. Portal Crane a gantry crane without trolley motion, which has the boom attached to 4 revolving crane mounted on a gentry, with the boom capable of being raised or lowered at its head (outer end) ‘Semi-Gantry or Single Leg Crane ~ a gantry with one of the bridge rigidly supported on one or more movable legs, running on a fixed rail or runway, the other end of the bridge being supported by a truck running on an elevated rail or runway. Semi-Portal Crane ~A portal crane mounted on a semi-gantry frame instead of a gantry frame. ‘Tower Crane —a portal crane, with or without an opening between the legs of its supporting structure, adapted to hoist and swing load over high obstructions and mounted upon a fixed or mobile tower-iike gantry. Tractor Crane (Caterpillar Crane) ~ see crawler crane. Wall Crane ~ a crane having jib with or without a trolley and supported from a side wall or line of columns of @ building so as to swing through an arc. Crane Runway ~ the structure upon which a crane runs. Derrick ~ a structure or building appurtenance for hoisting, but does not include a hoistway nor a car or platform traveling thorough guides. Hoist ~ a mechanical contrivance for raising or lowering a load by the application of a vertical pulling force, but does not include a car or platform traveling through guides. Base-Mounted Electric Hoist ~ ¢ hoist similar to an overhead electric hoist, except that it has a base or feet and may be mounted overhead, on a vertical plane, or in any position for which itis designed Clevis Suspension Hoist ~ 2 hoist whose upper suspension member is a clevis or a U-shaped structural member designed to carry pulling loads. Hook Suspension Hoist ~ a hoist whose upper suspension member is @ hook. 2