English Didactics

Dedication
This work is dedicated to my close friends who seek to become teachers.

Likewise, to all those people who wish to become English language
teachers.
Special thanks, of course, are given to my mother, who has always

supported me tirelessly.
I hope that you use this booklet to your advantage in order to pass the
teaching entrance exam successfully.
Didactic of Teaching English Language Otman Ezarfi
Content :
I. The Difference between an Approach, Method, Technique and Methodology............................... 1
II. Learning theories ........................................................................................................................... 2
1. Behaviourism............................................................................................................................... 2
2. Cognitivism ................................................................................................................................. 4
3. Constructivism ............................................................................................................................. 4
4. Social Constructivism .................................................................................................................. 6
5. Humanism ................................................................................................................................... 6
III. Approaches of Learning English language ................................................................................... 7
1. Competency- based approach ....................................................................................................... 8
2. Standard Based approach ............................................................................................................. 8
3. The Natural approach ................................................................................................................. 10
4. The Humanistic approach........................................................................................................... 10
5. Content based approach ............................................................................................................. 10
6. Eclectic approach ....................................................................................................................... 11
IV. Teaching Methods ........................................................................................................................ 11
1. Grammar-Translation Method (GTM) ........................................................................................ 11
2. The Direct Method ..................................................................................................................... 13
3. The Audio-lingual Method ......................................................................................................... 15
4. The Total Physical Response...................................................................................................... 17
5. The Silent Way .......................................................................................................................... 19
6. Suggestopedia ............................................................................................................................ 21
7. Community Language Learning Method .................................................................................... 23
V. Learning styles ............................................................................................................................. 25
VI. Multiple intellignces ..................................................................................................................... 26
1. Definition of intelligence ........................................................................................................... 26
2. Types of intelligences ................................................................................................................ 27
VII. Teaching the four skills................................................................................................................ 28
a. Listening Skill ........................................................................................................................... 28
b. Speaking Skill ............................................................................................................................ 30
c. Reading Skill ............................................................................................................................. 32

d. Writing Skill .............................................................................................................................. 35
VIII. Teaching Language Components ......................................................................................... 37

 Deductive and inductive ............................................................................................................. 37
a. Vocabulary ................................................................................................................................ 37
b. Grammar ................................................................................................................................... 39
c. Functions ................................................................................................................................... 42
IX. Classroom Management .............................................................................................................. 44
X. The Pedagogical Contract ........................................................................................................... 46
XI. Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation .............................................................................................. 47
XII. Assessment and Testing ............................................................................................................... 47
1. Assessment ................................................................................................................................ 47
2. Testing....................................................................................................................................... 48
XIII. Error & Mistake................................................................................................................... 50
XIV. Lesson Plan ........................................................................................................................... 52
1. Definition of Lesson Plan ........................................................................................................... 52
2. The elements of a good Lesson Plan ........................................................................................... 52
3. The purpose of the Lesson Plan .................................................................................................. 53
4. Principles of a good Lesson Plan ................................................................................................ 53
XV. Frameworks of teaching language components or aspects ......................................................... 54
1. PPP framework .......................................................................................................................... 54
2. ECRIF Framework..................................................................................................................... 55
XVI. The Qualities of a good Teacher .......................................................................................... 55
XVII. Teacher’s Documents ........................................................................................................... 56
XVIII. Teacher’s roles and responsibilities ..................................................................................... 57
XIX. Top-down and Bottom-up strategies ................................................................................... 59
XX. Bloom Taxonomy ................................................................................................................. 59
XXI. Didactic Concepts ................................................................................................................. 61
I. The Difference between an Approach, Method, Technique and Methodology

The erms approach, method, and technique are interrelated words. These concepts have been
discussed by various scholars, among of which is Douglas Brown. The discussions were/are
mostly intended to make a distinction between the three terms and to show the correlation
between them.
a. Approach
An approach is a set of assumptions, beliefs and theoretical views about the nature of
language (Brown). In lay words, It’s Generally, a theory that attempts to explain how languages
are learned. For example, behaviourism is a language learning theory that suggests that learning
language occurs through a process of stimulus/response and reinforcement.
 “An approach is an integrated set of theoretical & practical beliefs embodying both
syllabus and method” (how learning a language takes place).
b. Method
A method is a set of techniques or procedures that are used systematically with the aim of
reaching efficient learning. A method is often based upon the premises of an approach (es). The
audiolingual method is an example of teaching method; it is based on the premises of
behaviourism. “how to conduct teaching and learning”.
c. Technique
If a method is a set of techniques/procedures that are intended to make the process of

learning fruitful, a technique is one single technique of a method. “It is a way of carrying out a
task”. For instance; spider map, mind map, brainstorming, jigsaw… It can be kind of exercises,
activities, or devices used in the language classroom for realizing lesson objectives.
d. Methodology
A methodology is a set of classroom techniques, procedures irrespective of the particular

method the teacher is using. A methodology is related to the teacher’s style and choice, it
‘spersonal and flexible and designed and adopted by the teacher according to the classroom
circumstances, so the latter is using various techniques from diverse methods i.e. he does not
stick to one specific method.
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II. Learning theories

The ongoing debate as to how languages are acquired has resulted in the emergence of
many theories, all of which intend to explain the intricate nature of language acquisition. Each of
the theories proposed have tried to look at language from a different standpoint with the aim of
having a full understanding of how languages are acquired. Generally, there are five main
learning theories;
 Behaviourism
 Cognitivism
 Constructivism
 Social constructivism
 Humanism
1. Behaviourism
Behaviourism is the theory that students can learn language through the process of
stimulus and response; it is a learning theory that considers language to be a learned behaviour or
habit which we acquire through a process of stimuli-response and positive reinforcement or
punishment.
The pioneers of this theory, namely, Ivan Pavlov, John Watson and B.F. Skinner
considered learning as a matter of “habit formation”. For them effective learning was a matter of
reinforcing good habits, while errors were seen as bad habits.
i. Operant Conditioning by Skinner
Skinner assumed that learning happened through a three steps reinforcement cycle. This
cycle starts with a stimulus, which triggers a response in the organism, in our case humans, if the
response was correct, it was to be reinforced positively. However, if the response were incorrect,
it would be punished or negatively reinforced.
He invented ‘the operant conditioning chamber’ a maze with levers where rats and
pigeons were put in order to study them, the process involved the animals trying to get out of the
maze by going through it. At some point, there were levers which animals were supposed to
press. If they press the right lever they got food (positive reinforcement), but if they press the
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wrong one they got an electric shock (negative reinforcement). Over time the animals learned to
press the correct lever and stayed away from the wrong ones.
There for we can deduce that operant conditioning is the use of pleasant consequences
to control the occurrence of a behaviour. Skinner said “the reinforced actions are more likely to
be repeated”.
ii. Classical Conditioning by Pavlov
Pavlov observed that if a piece of meat was placed in or near the mouth of a hungry
dog, the latter would salivate because the meat provoked this response automatically.
- The piece of meat is referred to as an unconditioned stimulus.

- The response of salivating is referred to as an unconditioned response.
- Other stimuli like a bell won’t produce salivation because these stimuli have no effect on
the response in question. A bell referred to as neutral stimuli.
Pavlov's experiment showed that if a ‘previously neutral stimulus is paired with an

unconditioned stimulus’, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus and gains the
power to prompt a response similar to that produced by the unconditioned stimulus. In other
words, after the bell and the meat are presented together, the ringing of the bell alone causes
the dog to salivate. This response is referred to as Classical Conditioning.
iii. The law of Effect by Thorndike
In many of his experiments, Thorndike placed cats in boxes from which they had to
escape to get food. He noticed that over time cats learned how to get out of the box more and
more quickly by repeating the behavior that led to escape and not repeating the behaviors that
were ineffective for them to flee from the box.
Based on this experiment, Throndike states that ‘if an act is followed by a satisfying
change in the environment (favourable effect) the likelihood that the act will be repeated in
similar situations increases’ and vice versa.
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2. Cognitivism
Cognitivism was coined by Canny. It came as a reaction to the behaviorist thought which
ignores human’s innate capacity to acquire language which also neglects the mental process of
learning. Cognitivism argues that language is not just a learned habit devoid of creativity. It also
suggests that humans are endowed (gifted) with LAD (Language Acquisition Device) which
helps them not only learn whatever language they want but also use them creatively and not just
imitate what is being said around them, this is because they are constantly using their cognitive
abilities to think and creatively manipulate language.
Cognitivism emphasize the idea “of making knowledge meaningful and helping
learners to organize and relate the new information to the existing knowledge in Memory”.
3. Constructivism
Constructivism was coined by Jean Piaget. It is the theory that equates learning with
creating meaning from experience. Learners do not transfer knowledge from their external world
into their memories; rather they build personal interpretations of the world based of individual
experiences.
According to this theory, learners of language should construct knowledge of the

language by themselves through exposure to the world or people. Think of language as a house,
the components of language are the bricks. Learners pick up the bricks (components of language)
through exposure to their environment and build up the house (language) themselves. As people
grow up and are exposed to the world and language, they improve their linguistic knowledge.
Therefore, we can say that people learn from one another and not in isolation from others.
Discovery approach (inductive); a teacher should not give knowledge to students but let
them find it out by themselves. So, a teacher here is just a Guide.
 Basic principle of the constructicvist theory:
Development precedes learning: humans need to develop their cognitive abilities then
they can learn. In other words, until learners reache a cognitive stage in which they have certain
mechanisms that will enable them to understand the language very well.
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Shemes: every child is born with innate cognitive structres that enable him to interact
with the external world. For example, most young infants will discover that one thing you can do
with objects is bang them.When they do this, the object makes a noise, and they see the object
hitting the surface. Their observations tell them something about the object.
Schemata (proir knowledge) : the things a child already knows. Students connect new
knowlegde to an existing schema. Also students learn by doing rather than by being told.
According to Piaget, children shape their own conceptions of reality through continuous
interaction with their environment.
Assimilation and Accomodation: Piaget carried out his studies with children and
adolescents and concluded that learning is a matter of two interrelated processes: Assimilation &
Accommodation.
Piaget carried out his studies with children and adolescents and concluded that learning
is a matter of two interrelated processes: Assimilation & Accommodation. Assimilation is the
taking of new information or experiences and incorporating them into our existing knowledge
bank or schemata. Encountering this new information causes an imbalance in our schemata.
Hence, through the experiential process, we progressively accommodate this new knowledge or
experience so as to re-establish balance in our cognitive through a process called
Accommodation. This process entails changing our existing schemata or ideas as a
consequence of new knowledge or experience.
For example : If you give an egg to a baby who has a banging scheme for small things,
what will happen to the egg is obvious. Less obvious, however, is what will
happen to the baby’s banging scheme. Because of the unexpectedd
consequences of banging the egg, the baby might change shceme. In the
futute the baby might ban some object hard and others softly.
Piaget outlined several principles for building cognitive structures. During all
developmental stages, the child experiences his/her environment using whatever mental maps
she/he has constructed so far. If the experience is a repeated one, it fits easily (assimilated) into
the child’s cognitive structure, so that the child maintains mental equilibrium. However, if the
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experience is different or new, the child loses equilibrium hence disequilibrium, and alters
his/her cognitive structure to accommodate the new conditions.
 The constructivist approach is based on the premise that: By reflecting on our

experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in.
4. Social Constructivism
Vygotsky posited that children learn their first languages by interacting with more
linguistically knowledgeable people, that is to say, they learn by interacting with people who
know the language better than children do, and through engaging within society.
Unlike the constructivist theory, socio-constructivists argue that learning precedes

development.
He also believed that both first and second languages are learned via social interaction.
The environment is crucial in learning, so a learner has to be in a productive interactive
relationship with his/her peers, colleagues, and parents…
Learning a language requires a mediation by the more able party (parent, teacher, more
knowledgeable peer) who provides a supportive framework for the learner until the new
knowledge is appropriated at which point learning has occurred and the mediation can be
removed.
 Learning precedes development, that is to say, learning helps students to develop their
mechanisms.
5. Humanism
The humanistic theory approach engages social skills, feelings, intellect, artistic skills,
practical skills, and more as part of their education. Self-esteem, goals, and full autonomy are
key learning elements in the humanistic learning theory.
The humanistic learning theory was developed by Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and
James F. T. Bugental in the early 1900's. Humanism was a response to the common educational
theories at the time, which were behaviourism and psychoanalysis.
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In this theory, Abraham Maslow suggested that before individuals meet their full
potential, they need to satisfy a series of needs. However, Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs can
provide teachers a reminder and framework that our students are less likely to perform at their
full potential if their basic needs are unmet.
The role of the teacher : Humanistic teachers believe that knowledge and feelings go
hand-in-hand in the learning process. Cognitive and affective learning are both important to
humanistic learning. Lessons and activities should focus on the whole student and their intellect
and feelings, not one or the other.
The role of the student : Students are responsible for learning choices, so helping them
understand the best ways to learn is key to their success. Provide motivation for classroom tasks.
Humanistic learning focuses on engagement, so teachers need to provide motivation and exciting
activities to help students feel engaged about learning.
Application of humanism in classroom : The humanistic learning theory developed

further and harnesses the idea that if students are upset, sad, or distressed, they're less likely to be
able to focus on learning. This encourages teachers to create classroom environment that helps
students feel comfortable and safe so they can focus on their learning.
Positives of humanism in teaching : It considers emotional states and how they impact
learning, unlike many other theories
III. Approaches of Learning English language
Macro VS Micro – approaches.
Approach: the way we do something.
Macro: general, overall.
Micro: specific, small.
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Macro approaches Micro approaches
- Inductive/ deductive (grammar)

Competency-based approach - Productive/Process approach (Writing)
Strandard-based approach. - Bottom up/ Top down approach
(listening and reading)
- Lexical approach (vocabulary).
1. Competency- based approach

This approach is adopted for secondary school (9 Grade Students). It focuses on the
competencies of students; it aims at teaching and mastering one skill and then moving to
another skill. For example, In the Moroccan educational system, English is taught to students
when they get 14, and 13 years old. So, they need to know the very basics of the English
language like Alphabets and how to greet each other, and so on before moving on to learn how
to write complete sentences and speak correctly. Hence, this approach goes step by step with the
learner. Before learning a harder lesson or competency we should learn and master the less
harder one.
 Principles / Charactiristics :
 Learner centredness (engaged, pair work…)
 Task-based (real life situation, relevant…)
 Performanc-based (what students do with language…)
2. Standard Based approach

According to the English Guidelines of teaching foreign languages in Morocco, this approach is
adopted for Secondary School (Common Core, First Year, and Second Year Baccalaureate).
Standards-Based Approach addressed what students should know and be able to do and
demonstrate at the end of the process of the language study. There are three types of standards:
 Content standards: it is a statement about what learners should know and be able to
do with English.
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 Performance standards: shows how the learners have achieved the standards
targeted.
 Proficiency standards: tell us how learners should perform.
 Standards-Based Approach “SBA” is concerned with developing the following five
areas Cs5:
 Communication: learners will communicate in both oral and written forms, and
understand and interpret both oral and written messages to various audiences for a
variety of purposes. The three modes of communication are interpersonal
(functions: advice, suggestion, opinion), interpretive (receptive skills: reading
and listening), and presentational (productive skills: writing and speaking)
communication.
 Culture: learners will gain a deeper understanding of their culture and the target
culture in terms of their perspectives (ideas, attitudes, etc.), practices, and
products like books, laws, and music. One of the main goals is to interact with
others, to understand the way they think and to avoid misunderstanding and
embarrassment..
 Connections: learners will make connections with other subject areas such as
history, and Arabic... (what we’ve learned in a specific subject, we relate it to

other subjects for us to understand well).
 Comparison: learners will gain awareness of cross-cultural similarities and
differences in culture that exist between the target culture and language and their
own through comparing.
 Communities: learners will extend their learning experiences or knowledge from
the EFL classroom to the outside world through activities such as the use of the
internet. We apply what we’ve learned in the classroom, in other situations and
contexts outside the class. And this process is known as ‘Learner Training’ which
is the focus of the Standard-based approach.
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3. The Natural approach

The natural approach was developed by Tracy Terrell and Steven Krashen in 1977. It
adopts techniques and activities from different sources but uses them to provide comprehensible
input, (focusing on the comprehensible input=knowledge is what matters most).
 There must be a good environment in which there will be no blocks and barriers that
may prevent the input to be grasped.
 Using L1 to make things clear and easily understood.
 Listening is crucial to Learning.
 The use of a language that is just in advance of the current level of proficiency input plus
one level advanced (i+1) exposure to advance comprehensible input.
4. The Humanistic approach

It is a scientific approach that aims to teach language scientifically with regard to the
learners' readiness and centredness. In this approach, learners are treated as humans who can
talk, participate, react and express their feelings and personal opinions. They can even decide
what they like to study.
 The humanistic approach empowers the role of the learner in the language learning
process. It is based on the learner-centredness principle.
 The teacher is more of an enabler and a facilitator while students are involved in socio-
affective learning activities.
 Consider the learner as humans.
 No anxiety in learning.
 To promote love and self-esteem.
 To care about the psychology of the learners in general.
 The teacher’s role is to facilitate, support, and encourage learners.
5. Content based approach

It is an approach to language teaching that focuses not on language itself but rather on
what is being taught through the language. That is to say, language becomes the medium through
which something new is learned. The students here are active not passive learners. They are
learning through being active and participating in the process of learning. Here using the target
language in the process of learning is necessary, unlike the natural approach that integrates L1.
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6. Eclectic approach
It combines various approaches and methodologies to teach language depending on the
aims of the lesson and the abilities of the learners. Applying multiple methods and approaches to
achieve the targeted objectives. Personally, I prefer this approach.
IV. Teaching Methods

There are many teaching methods, but we will project only the most common ones:
• Grammar-Translation Method
• The Direct Method
• The Audio-lingual Method
• The Total Physical Response
• The Silent Way
• Suggestopedia
• Community Language Teaching Methods
1. Grammar-Translation Method (GTM)

 Definiton
GTM is a traditional way of teaching a foreign language, in which the study of grammar is very
important and very little teaching is in the foreign language.
 History
Proposed by Prof. Karl Plotz (1819-1881), GTM is one of the oldest teaching methods in foreign
language teaching. The strategies were based on learning the strict rules of grammar of the target
language, to compare the syntax of the native and target language, and to extract specific
sentences or paragraphs to be translated back and forth.
 Goals
The primary objective or goal of this method is to make students able to read classical literature
or literary texts for intellectual development. The purpose of this method is also to develop
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students' reading, writing and translation skills through rote learning of vocabulary lists and
grammar rules.
 The role of the teacher

 The teacher just asks and gives instructions to students to state the grammar rule.
 The primary goal of teacher who uses this method is to make students able to read
literature in target language.
 The teacher also plays a role of initiator of interaction in the language classroom.
 The role of the student
The role of the student is to focus on exercises translating sentences or texts from mother tongue
to the target language and vice versa.
 Application in classroom
In grammar-translation classes, students learn grammatical rules and then apply those rules by
translating sentences between the target language and the native language. Advanced students
may be required to translate whole texts word-for-word. Much vocabulary is taught in the form
of lists of isolated words.
 The role of the native language
Grammar–translation classes are usually conducted in the students' native language.

Grammatical rules are learned deductively; students learn grammar rules by rote, and then
practice the rules by doing grammar drills and translating sentences to and from the target
language.
 What skills are emphasized?
In Grammar-Translation Method, vocabulary and grammar are emphasized. Reading and writing
are the primary skills that the students work on.
 Error correction
- The teacher corrects the errors strictly.
- Errors are not tolerated.
- Accuracy is emphasised strictly.
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- Accuracy means grammatical correctness.

 Evaluation
Almost all the evaluations are accomplished through written tests. The teacher corrects students'
errors strictly because errors are not tolerated. This method is not considered as a humanistic
approach.
 Positives of GTM
Translation from one language to another plays a certain part in language learning. In the
Grammar-Translation Method, comparison between two languages helps students to have a
better understanding of the meaning of abstract words and complicated sentences.
 Negatives of GTM
o No oral work takes place in the class room due to this method.
o The main focus remains only on the mother-tongue and the target language remains
ignored.
o No speaking in the target language is possible.
o The students don't develop the power of thinking in the target language.
2. The Direct Method

 Definition
The direct method is way of teaching a foreign language using only that language and not
treating the study of grammar as the most important thing.
 History
The Direct Method, also called Natural Method, was established in Germany and France around
1900. It appeared as an answer to the shortcomings of the Grammar Translation Method. It is a
method for teaching foreign languages that uses the target language, discarding any use of
mother tongue in the classroom.
 Goal
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The direct method was developed in response to the grammar translation method, which
involved very little spoken communication and listening comprehension. The primary objective
of the direct method is to teach L2 learners how to use language for communication purposes.
In this method, the role of the teacher is to direct the class activities, encourage students to
participate in class by asking them questions constantly, and corrects their mistakes immediately.
Something really important in this role is that students and teachers are partners in the learning
process.
In direct method, the students observe the target language used by the teacher in teaching and
they try to get the meaning based on the demonstration given and then they will practice the
target language they observed and they use it to communicate with their friends and teacher in
classroom.
 Application of the method
The direct method focuses on full immersion in the classroom environment where not one word
of the students' native language is spoken. The focus is not on grammar but instead on learning
through listening and speaking.
 What skills are emphasized?
In the direct method the main emphasis is on listening and oral communication skills. The
approach to grammar teaching is deductive in GTM and inductive in DM. In the former, the role
of the teacher is to translate words and texts for students, and students need to be accurate in
translating into another language.
 Evaluation & assessment
The teacher assesses his students through oral interviews and writing paragraphs.
 Error correction
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• The teacher provides self-correction of the students if possible in that case.
• The teacher is generally aware of the students difficulties and errors are therefore corrected
immediately.
 Positives
Direct Instruction allows students to progress at their own natural pace. As the year progresses
the instructor begins to get a feel for each individual student’s strengths and weaknesses and is
able to help the students with their particular challenges.
 Negatives
Because direct instruction is often associated with traditional lecture-style teaching to classrooms
full of passive students obediently sitting in desks and taking notes, it may be considered
outdated, pedantic, or insufficiently considerate of student learning needs by some educators and
reformers.
3. The Audio-lingual Method

 Definition
ALM is a method of language teaching that teaches speaking and listening rather than reading or
writing.
 History
The Audio-Lingual method of teaching English as a second language had its origins during
World War II when it became known as the Army method. The AudioLingual method is based
on the theory that language learning is a question of habit formation. It has its origins in Skinner
s principles of behaviour theory.
 Goal
The goal of the Audio-Lingual method is, via teaching vocabulary and grammatical patterns
through dialogues, to enable students to respond quickly and accurately in spoken language.
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In the Audio-lingual Method the teacher has an active role as he is the sole authority to control
and direct the whole learning programme. He monitors and corrects the students' performance.
He is also responsible for providing the students with a good model for imitation.
In the Audio-lingual method the students play a passive role as they don't have any control over
the content or the method of learning.
Audio Lingual Method uses repetition, replacement, and question answer to drill speaking skill
especially student's vocabulary. The teacher is easier to control the student's behaviour and
student's vocabulary. After that, the teacher can know the memorization of the students'
vocabulary.
 Students' feelings
They are not dealt with.
 What skills are emphasised?
The skills of writing and reading are not neglected, but the focus throughout remains on listening
and speaking. Dialogue is the main feature of the audio-lingual syllabus. Dialogues are the chief
means of presenting language items.
Like the direct method, the audio-lingual method advised that students should be taught language
directly, without using the students' native language to explain new words or grammar in target
language. The idea is for the students to practice the particular construct until they can use it
spontaneously.
 Evaluation & assessment
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Students are not going to memorize grammar rules directly. They will learn through examples.
Teachers will evaluate if the examples they provide are correct. Teachers will evaluate students
pronunciations at the moment students repeat the words.
 Treatment of errors
The teacher corrects the errors immediately.
 Positives of the method
There are many advantages of this method. This method helps the students learn and develop
listening and speaking skills quite efficiently. Visual aids help in the enrichment of vocabulary.
This method is very easy and convenient to teach large group of students.
 Negatives of the method
This method is based on mechanical learning and there is no room for error.
4. The Total Physical Response

 Definition
TPR is a method of teaching a language in which students learn words and phrases by doing
activities which are connected with what they are learning.
 History
James Asher developed the total physical response (TPR) method as a result of his observation
of the language development of young children. Asher saw that most of the interactions that
young children experience with parents or other adults combine both verbal and physical aspects.
 Goal
The purpose of the total physical response is to create a brain link between speech and action to
boost language and vocabulary learning.
The teacher plays an active and direct role in Total Physical Response. "The instructor is the
director of a stage play in which the students are the actors". It is the teacher who decides what to
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teach, who models and presents the new materials, and who selects supporting materials for
classroom use.
Learners' role in TPR is to listen and perform what the teacher says, they monitor and evaluate
their own progress. They are encouraged to speak when they feel ready to speak. This is when a
sufficient basis in language has been internalized (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Total Physical Response (TPR) is a method of teaching language or vocabulary concepts by

using physical movement to react to verbal input. The process mimics the way that infants learn
their first language, and it reduces student inhibitions and lowers stress.
 Students’ feelings
Lowering the student's anxiety and stress reduction: This is achieved through the following: (1)
students are not required to produce in the new language before they feel ready, (2) the teacher's
commands are often zany and humorous in order to make language learning as enjoyable as
possible.
 Emphasised skills
Reading and writing activities may also be employed to further consolidate structures and
vocabulary, and as follow-ups to oral imperative drills. Learners in Total Physical Response have
the primary roles of listener and performer. They listen attentively and respond physically to
commands given by the teacher.
The native language is used only for introducing the TPR.
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There is little error correction in TPR. Asher advises teachers to treat learners' mistakes the same
way a parent would treat their children's. Errors made by beginning-level students are usually
overlooked, but as students become more advanced teachers may correct more of their errors.
 Positives of the method
Total Physical Response (TPR) has many benefits. These include helping learners understand
target languages and aid in long-term retention in a stress-free approach. This method can be
used to teach vocabulary connected to actions, classroom directions, and storytelling.
 Negatives of the method
• It is not a very creative method. Students are not given the opportunity to express their own
views and thoughts in a creative way.
• It is easy to overuse TPR.
• It is limited, since everything cannot be explained with this method. It must be combined with
other approaches.
5. The Silent Way

 Definition
The Silent Way is a method of teaching a foreign language in which the teacher does not speak
much, but uses movement, pictures and wooden rods to explain meaning
 History
The Silent Way was founded in the early 1970s by the Egyptian mathematician and educator
Caleb Gattegno. It is based on the idea that language learning can be enhanced in three main
ways: discovery rather than teaching; problemsolving in the target language; the use of physical
tools.
 Goals
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The general goal of the Silent Way is to help beginning-level students gain basic fluency in the
target language, with the ultimate aim being near-native language proficiency and good
pronunciation.
Gattegno anticipates that using the Silent Way would require most teachers to change their
perception of their role. More generally, the teacher is responsible for creating an environment
that encourages student risk taking and that facilitates learning.
The Silent Way student is expected to become "independent, autonomous and responsible"
(Gattegno 1976) - in other words, a good problem solver in language. Gattegno takes an openly
sceptical view of the role of linguistic theory in language teaching methodology.
Silence can be used to help students correct their own errors. Teachers can remain silent when a
student makes a mistake to give them time to self-correct; they can also help students with their
pronunciation by mouthing words without vocalizing, and by using certain hand gestures.
 Student’s feelings
The are no principles concerning this area.
 Skills
This method focuses most on listening and speaking.
Native language's sound structure is used in order to provide new sounds for target language.
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Silence can be used to help students correct their own errors. Teachers can remain silent when a
student makes a mistake to give them time to self-correct; they can also help students with their
pronunciation by mouthing words without vocalizing, and by using certain hand gestures.
 Evaluation and assessment
Evaluation in the Silent Way is carried out primarily by observation. Teachers may never give a
formal test, but they constantly assess students by observing their actions.
 Positives
The Silent Way shares a great deal with other learning theories and educational philosophies.
Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what
is to be learned. Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects.
 Negatives
The Silent Way is often criticized of being a harsh method. The learner works in isolation and
communication is lacking badly in a Silent Way classroom. With minimum help on the part of
the teacher, the Silent Way method may put the learning itself at stake.
6. Suggestopedia
 Definition
Suggestopedia is a method of teaching a foreign language in which students learn quickly by

being made to feel relaxed, interested and positive.
 History
Suggestopedia is a teaching method, developed by the Bulgarian scholar Professor Georgi

Lozanov – a physician, psychiatrist and brain physiologist. The term was coined and
published for the first time in Bulgarian in 1965 and in English in 1967.
 Goals
The goal of Suggestopedia is to enable the students to learn a foreign language at an

accelerated pace for everyday communication by tapping mental powers and overcoming
psychological barriers.
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 The role of the teacher and student
This method enables students to learn the language in the nice, calm environment in the
classroom during the lessons. Thus, role of the teacher is to encourage students to speak even
with their mistakes. He may correct the errors but at the end of the certain task.
His role is to encourage students to speak even with their mistakes. He may correct the errors
but at the end of the certain task. He can't disturb the students' speech or disturb while they
are speaking. It is also important to mention that homework is not very important unlike the
other methods.
Suggestopedia encourages the students to apply language more independently, takes more
personal responsibility for their own learning and get more confidence. Peripheral
information can also help encourage students to be more experimental, and look to sources
other than the teacher for language input.
 Student’s feelings
This method emphasizes the power of students' feelings and puts the main focus on them.
 Skills
Learning vocabulary and grammar is the main goal in the language. Reading and writing are
the primary skills compared to listening and speaking. Pronunciation is considered a little.
All four skills are emphasized but oral works come first.
In this method, students are tolerated to make mistakes.
 Positives
This method enables students to learn the language in the nice, calm environment in the
classroom during the lessons. The teacher’s role is to encourage students to speak even with
their mistakes. He may correct the errors but at the end of the certain task.
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 Negatives
Suggestopedia also has limitation since there is no single teaching method that is categorized
as the best based on some consideration such as: the curriculum, students motivation,
financial limitation, number of students, etc.
7. Community Language Learning Method

 Definition
Community language learning is a language-teaching method in which students work

together to develop what aspects of a language they would like to learn. It is based on the
Counselling-approach in which the teacher acts as a counsellor and a paraphraser, while the
learner is seen as a client and collaborator.
 History
Community Language Learning(CLL) is a teaching method developed in the 1970s in the

USA by Jesuit priest, psychologist and educator Charles Curran. The teacher plays the part of
"counsellor", while the learners are encouraged to work together, interacting and helping
each other personally in a supportive community.
 Goal
In Community Language Learning, the aim is to involve the learner’s whole personality.
Affective and intellectual well-being are given equal weight. CLL draws its insights and
rationale from counselling techniques. A learner whispers, in his or her native language, what
he or she wants to say to the teacher.
 Teacher and student’s roles
Communicative Language Teaching(CLT) is a learner-centred approach for language

teaching and learning. Again, L2 learners are supposed to learn the language by using it for
different tasks, and taking part in pair work, group work, role play, and discussion inside
classrooms.
 Application of CLL
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Translation: learners form a small circle. A learner whispers a message or meaning he wants
to express. The teacher translates or interprets it into the target language and then the learner
repeats the teacher’s translation.
Group work: learners may engage in various group tasks, such as a small group discussion
of a topic, preparing a conversation, preparing a summary of a topic for presentation to
another group, preparing a story that will be presented to the teacher and the rest of the class.
Recording: students record conversations in the target language.
 Skills emphasised
Although each course is unique and student-dictated, there are certain criteria that should be
applied to all CLL classrooms, namely a focus on fluency in the early stages, an undercurrent
of accuracy throughout the course and learner empowerment as the main focus.
 Native language
This area of method is already covered in the application of the method in classroom.
• Praise them, and be genuine about it.
• Make sure your corrections are educational.
• Give understandable feedback.
• Give them a model.
• It's all about the process, NOT natural ability.
• Think about timing.
• Consider 'sandwiching' corrections.
 Evaluation and assessment
• No particular mode of evaluation
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• A test at the end of a course
• Writing a paragraph or interview
• Encouraging students to self-evaluate
 Positives
The CLL emphasizes the sense of community in the learning group, encourages interaction
as a vehicle for learning, and considers as a priority the students' feelings and the recognition
of struggles in language acquisition.
 Negatives
• The counsellor/teacher can become too non directive. Students often need directions .
• The method relies completely on inductive learning. It is worthwhile noting that deductive
learning is also a viable strategy of learning.
• Translation is an intricate and difficult task.
V. Learning styles
Learning styles are simply different approaches or ways of learning.
Generally, an individual's learning style refers to the preferential way in which the
student absorbs, processes, comprehends, and retains information. Individual learning styles
depend on cognitive, emotional, and environmental factors, as well as one's prior experience.
Mainly, there are three learning styles:
Visual learning Seeing
Auditory learning Listening
Kinaesthetic learning Touching and doing
 Visual learning
 Visual learners learn through seeing.
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 They like written instructions and prefer to take detailed notes as they listen to
lectures.
 Visual learners remember visual details with ease & prefer to see what they
are learning.
 They learn best with visual materials such as pictures, charts, videos,
illustrated textbooks, and handouts.
 They like to use colourful highlighters to make notes & texts.
 Auditory learning
 Auditory learners learn through listening and speaking.
 They like to read aloud and often like to talk to themselves or create musical
jingles to help them learn new material.
 They remember by talking out loud and they like to have things explained
orally rather than written instructions.
 Kinaesthetic learning
 Kinaesthetic learners learn through moving, doing, and touching.
 They need to take frequent study breaks.
 They like to chew gum or to snack while they study.
 They like to stand rather than to sit when learning something new.
 They are explorers at heart & like to learn through active participation in what
they are learning.
 Kinaesthetic learners like to move around when talking.
Note again that the teacher should include different activities in his classroom so that all students
with different learning styles can benefit well from his teaching process.
VI. Multiple intellignces
1. Definition of intelligence
Intelligence is the ability to learn and understand new knowledge and information, or to
deal with a new situation. Being able to acquire what you’ve acquired and learned so as to find
solutions to new situations/ dilemma, and adapt with new environment. According to Gardner:
“we are all so different largely because we all have different combinations of intelligences”.
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2. Types of intelligences
Verbal-Linguistic intelligence: the ability to think in words and to use language to
express and appreciate complex meaning. It is the capacity to use words effectively,
whether orally or in writing. This involves good mastery of language.
Logical-Mathematical intelligence: the ability to calculate, quantify, consider, and carry
out complete mathematical operations. It is the capacity to detect patterns, reason
deductively and think logically, develop equations and proofs, make calculations and
solve abstract problems.
Visual-Spatial intelligence: the ability to think in three dimensions, to perceive all the
elements necessary to create a mental image of something. It’s the capacity to sense form,
space, colour, line and shape. It has to do with pictures, either pictures in one’s mind or in
the external world, photos, movies, drawings, graphic symbols, idiographic language.
(use of imagination; to create a mental image of the external world).
Bodily-Kinaesthetic intelligence: the capacity to manipulate objects and use variety of
physical skills, use of non-verbal language to express one’s feelings and thoughts. It’s the
ability to use one’s whole body to express ideas and feelings, and facility in using one’s
hands to produce and transform things. (people with such intelligence have control of
their bodies and are able to handle objects in a skilful way).
Musical intelligence: the capacity to design pitch, rhythm,and tone. It Is the ability to
produce, remember and make meaning of different patterns of sounds, and to be able to
recognize simple songs, and vary speed, tempo and rhythm in simple melodies. (they
express their feelings when exposed to music).
Interpersonal intelligence: the ability to understand,and interact effectively with others.
To harmonize with others, to understand, perceive, discriminate between people’s moods,
feelings, motives.
Intra-personal intelligence: the capacity to understand oneself and one’s thoughts,
desires, fears, capacities, feelings and to use such knowledge in planning and directing
one’s life. (within oneself).
Naturalist intelligence: the ability to discriminate among living things (plants,
animals…) The ability to identify and distinguish among different types of plants,
animals and weather formation that are found in the natural world. (understanding and
passion for nature and its elements).
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Existential intelligence: Sensitivity, capacity to tackle deep question about human

existence as the meaning of life and death…
VII. Teaching the four skills

There are four skills: Listening, speaking, reading, and writing. They are divided into two types:
receptive & productive skills. Each skill has its subskills.
We can teach the four skills using different models/ techniques, but the most preferable one by
teachers is PWP (Pre, While, Post). Therefore, we shall follow this model concerning presenting
the activities.
a. Listening Skill
o What are the listening sub-skills?
1-Listening for a gist
2-Listening for specific information
3-Listening in detail
Listening for gist: It is extensive listening for skimming. This happens when we listen to get
a general idea.
Listening for specific information: This happens when we listen to something because we
want to discover one particular piece of information. For example, we listen to the weather
report to only discover the weather in our city.
Listening in detail: It is intensive listening for scanning. This is when we listen closely,
paying attention to all the words and trying to understand as much information as possible.
o How to teach listening?
There are three stages the teacher should follow to teach listening:
1- Pre-listening
2-While-listening
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3-Post-listening
1-Pre-listening: teacher starts by contextualizing the topic using proverbs ,or short discussions ,
etc… And asks them for their predictions about the topic of listening.
o What are the pre-listening activities?

Pre-teaching vocabulary
Predicting content
Generating interest in the topic
Pre-teaching vocabulary: In this activity, the teacher introduces students to new vocabulary
words before listening to an audiotape.
Predicting content: This is an activity in which learners use their own experiences to anticipate
what they are about to listen to. The teacher might introduce a picture to help students predict the
topic.
Generating interest in the topic: Your role here is to make your students interested and excited
about the topic.
2-While-listening: Students get their first listening in order to check their predictions. Then get
second listening in order to answer the comprehension questions and third listening for
discussing and giving their opinions and so on.
o What are the while-listening activities?

Listening for gist
Listening specific information
Listening in detail
Inferring
Note-taking
Dictation
Listening for gist: students listen to get the general meaning of the audiotape.
Listening for specific information: students listen to get one particular idea.
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Listening in detail: students try to pick up works, intonation, and other clues to guess the
meaning.
Inferring: inferring is an activity in which students reach an opinion based on what has been
said in the audiotape.
Note-taking: students take notes of the most important things.
Dictation: students write what they hear.
3-Post-listening: In this stage teacher can ask his students to give their opinions about the topic
of listening or summarize the main idea of the topic or any activity that is appropriate to the
listening task.
o What are the post-listening activities?

Summarizing
Discussions
Information exchange
Problem-solving
Summarizing: the best way to check to understand is to ask students summarize the information
they heard. This can be done orally or in writing.
Discussions: the topic for discussion should be taken from the listening task that they previously
did and must be interesting enough to inspire comments and debates.
Information exchange: students share the information and make sure they understand the
message from the text.
Problem-solving: students take what they already know to discover what they don't know.
b. Speaking Skill
o What are the speaking sub skills?
1-Fluency
2-Accuracy
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Fluency: it is the quality of being able to speak (or write) a language, especially a foreign
language, easily and well.
Accuracy: it is about using correct grammar in speaking and writing. It is also about
understanding the deeper meaning and usage of vocabulary and the correct pronunciation of
words.
o How do we teach speaking?
To teach speaking, we should follow three stages.
1-Pre-speaking
2-While-speaking
3-Post-speaking
1-Pre-speaking: this stage prepares students for getting them to think about the topic or situation
before they speak about it. The teacher’s role here is to get students think about what they are
going to speak.
o What are the pre-speaking activities?

Discussion or brainstorming
Vocabulary preparation
Prediction
Discussion and brainstorming: students collect all their ideas on the topic.
Vocabulary preparation: the teacher pre-teaches key vocabulary to help comprehension.
Prediction: students guess what they may learn about.
2-While-speaking: this stage is the time for students to practice speaking. Communicative
activities are used in this stage for the aim of helping students practice speaking skill.
o What are the while-speaking activities?

Role play
Games
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Discussion
Role play: role play in teaching speaking is very important, because it gives students an
opportunity to practice communication in different social contexts and in different social roles. In
addition, it also allows students to be creative and to put themselves in another person’s place for
a while.
Games: there are many games the teacher can use during speaking. “Taboo", “scattergories",
and “guess who" are some of the games.
Taboo: the player takes a word from the container and tries to describe it his teammates without
actually saying the word or using the native language. If the word is successfully guessed then
students put it to one side. If not the word goes back in the hat and the player takes another.
Scattergory: you give the students a letter such as “A" and “B" and you give them some topics.
For example, the teacher gives the letter “B" and students have to come with words of animals
starting with “B”.
Discussion: Students practice speaking through discussing some aspects of a subject.
3-Post-speaking: it is the time when students reflect upon their while – speaking performance.
The activities includes the teacher giving feedback to students and students upon their
performance.
c. Reading Skill
o What are the reading subskills?
1-Scanning
2-Skimming
3- Reading for detail (intensive reading)
4- Inferring
Scanning: reading the text thoroughly to find a specific information.
Skimming (reading for gist): quick reading of the text to get the main idea.
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Reading for detail (intensive reading): reading through every word of a text from beginning to
end
Inferring: guess about something from a text. Students get it from their understanding of the
text. (reading between the lines) something that’s not mentioned in the text. Using what you
know to make a guess about what you do not know.
o How to teach reading?
There are three stages:
1-Pre-reading
2-While-reading
3-Post-reading
1-Pre-reading: Each reading passage we expose our students to falls within the scope of the
theme or the topic of a unit. It is always helpful and effective for a teacher to put students in the
context using either a picture, a video, a quote, or a question. The means used (picture or video)
will help students activate their prior knowledge (schemata) of the topic at hand. For example; if
you have a reading passage about the dangers of eating unhealthy food, a picture of an obese
person eating unhealthy food would be sufficient to not only put students in the context but also
trigger their schemata (prior knowledge) about the topic. By using the picture or the title of the
reading passage, you may ask your students to predicate what the reading passage will be about.
o What are the pre-reading activities?

Showing pictures, videos, realia…
Asking questions
Predicting the content of a text from headline/introduction/pictures attached.
Pre-teaching complex vocabulary
2-While-reading: Having made their predications, students would ideally be interested in

reading the passage in order to check whether their forecasts are true or not. In the first reading,
students just try to pinpoint the general idea of the passage. Then, once they do that, they move
to answer comprehension questions (True/false, Matching, Multiple choice questions...) making
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references or inferences. For example; students would be instructed to infer the meaning of some
words from the context or to identify what some pronouns refer to (take a look at the English
BAC Exam). After doing all of this, students would be fully aware of the main ideas of the text
and would have at least learned some new words.
o What are the while-reading activities?

Confirm Prediction
Skimming
Scanning
Inferring
Confirm Prediction: Check whether or not predictions and guesses are confirmed.
Skimming: Skimming is reading rapidly in order to get a general overview of the material. For
example ; Teacher gives the text to students and asks them to read it silently and check their
predictions (this process called skimming).
Scanning: Scanning is reading a text quickly in order to find specific information, e.g. figures or
names. For example; teacher asks them to read again to answer the comprehension questions
(this process called scanning).
Inferring: When students use the strategy of inferring, they are making meaning of the text.
They are adding pieces that are not explicitly there, often sharing personal opinions and forming
interpretations. For example; teacher asks students to infer the meaning of a word using
contextual clues.
3-Post-Reading: The post-reading activity gives teachers the chance to be creative. In this stage,
a teacher may instruct students to write a paragraph about the topic raised in the passage, spark a
debate, create a poster, and have a discussion.
In this stage, the teacher may open a debate or a role play, discussion, ask them to summarize the
text, or give their opinion about the topic. Here teacher can integrate many skills like writing,
speaking, and listening
o What are the post-reading activities?
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Writing a paragraph
Debating
Discussion
Summarizing the text
d. Writing Skill
o How to reach the writing skill?
There are three main stages:
1-Pre-writing
2-While-writing
3-Post writing
1-Pre-writing: At this stage, it is essential that the teacher puts students in the context first (using
whatever technique he sees fits). Then, students are usually supposed to work on a worksheet
that typically contains a text with questions to answer. Students first answer comprehension
questions and then they explore the features of the type of writing they are exposed to by doing
tasks (ex: narrative or expository). For example, an argumentative essay has its features and its
distinctive structure. Therefore, as a teacher, you need to help our students identify its main
components through tasks. Once students identify the features of the target lesson, you may
introduce the topic that they are required to write about, brainstorm some ideas, and write
them on the board.
o What are the pre-writing activities?

Brainstorming
Mind mapping
Semantic map
Outlining
2-While-Writing: Students have by now developed a clear image of what to do and how.
Following the model text given to them, students will start their first draft. Once they finish, the
teacher may students to exchange their writings and correct each other’s mistakes based on a
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checklist that a teacher provides his students with. Then, students, who identify their mistakes,
may proofread or edit their writings so as to finalize them.
o What are the while-writing activities?

Drafting
Revising
Editing
3-Post-Writing: Having finally finalized their writings, a teacher may be creative in how he asks
his students to display their writings. A teacher may ask his/her students to read them in front of
the class group, or he may establish a writing exhibition wherein students stick their final
products on the walls of the classroom and tour around to read each other’s works.
o What are the post-writing activities?

Publishing
Feedback
 There are five main stages in teaching writing:
1. Brainstorming: the teacher asks his students about their prior knowledge about the topic using
mind up, spider map, charts, asking Wh. Qs, etc...
2. Planning: teacher and students identify the plan or outline.
3. Drafting: the teacher gives the students chance to write their first draft, writing all that comes
to their mind.
4. Revising: the teacher gives to students a checklist to revise the content, the meaning of their
production, and the ideas if they are organized or not.
5. Publishing: students read their productions and they may put them in their portfolios.
 There are two types of teaching writing:

 Process approach: the teacher’s main goal is to help Ss develop their writing skills by
providing them techniques and strategies to write e.g. brainstorming, editing... It’s a
method for teaching writing that takes learners through the stages of pre-writing, drafting,
and revision.
 Product approach: the main aim is to have Ss produce a writing product at the end.
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VIII. Teaching Language Components

Vocabulary, grammar, and functions are three components or aspects of language.
There is one common model that teachers use to teach these aspects. It is called Presentation,
Practice, and Production. The acronym is PPP.
Before we get deep into how to teach vocabulary, grammar, and functions using the PPP
model, we should know about two very important approaches that can be used to teach them;
Deductive and inductive

A deductive approach: deductive approach is simply when the teacher starts by giving the rule
directly and students learn the rule, then they practice it and use it.
• The focus is on the teacher
• The teacher explains every single item of the lesson without engaging students.
• Students are passive.
 Students are passive recipient whereas the teacher elicits the rules on the board.
An inductive approach: inductive approach is the opposite of deductive. In inductive approach
the teacher provides the context or examples and the students infer and notice the rule from the
context and examples .
• The focus is mainly on the students
• The teacher engages students in the lesson by eliciting answers from them.
• Students are active.
 Students are active as they are responsible for exploring the rules themselves with just
the help of the teacher.
a. Vocabulary
o How to teach vocabulary?
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1-Presentation
2-Practice
3-Production
1-Presentation: In this stage, the teacher introduces the new vocabulary to students. Below are
some best ways to present the new words;
o What are the activities used in the vocabulary presentation stage?

Pictures and videos
Relia
Asking questions
Pronounce the word
Pictures and videos: showing students pictures or videos of the targeted vocabulary that is being
taught
Relia: showing students concrete things about the vocabulary item that is being taught. For
example, if the lesson is about fruits, you show students a real apple and make them guess the
name of it. Remember this stratergy very well, it is called REALIA
Asking questions: teacher asks students about their opinions/knowledge/experience about the
target vocabulary in order to elicit answers from them (and write them on the boeard)
Like brainstorming ideas. This strategy is basically called elicitation but we named it “asking
questions” because we elicit answer through those questions.
Pronounce the word: Show students how the new words are pronounced. Proper pronunciation
is the key to mastering the English language. Without correct pronunciation, the vocabulary that
you know will be less effective when communicating. It is always better to know fewer words
and pronounce them well than to know a lot of words and pronounce them badly.
2-Practice: This is the time when students have to practice the words they have learned in the
presentation stage.
o What are the activities used in the vocabulary practice stage?

Matching
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Ordering
Fill in the blanks
Synonyms and antonyms
Matching: Asking students to match a certain word to the right correct picture.
Ordering: Asking students to order a sequence of words from the first to the last.
Fill in the blanks: Here students are required to make some cognitive efforts to get the correct
answer because they are asked to fill the missing parts in a particular text or sentence.
Synonyms and antonyms: The teacher uses synonyms and antonyms to motivate students
mentally. For example; the teacher can ask students about the opposite word for Happy (while he
smiles), and makes students guess the correct word (which is Sad).
3-Production: in this stage, students are expected to produce.
o What are the activities used in the vocabulary production stage?

o Exit ticket
o Producing (the new vocabulary learned)
Exit ticket: Before getting out of the classroom students are required to name, for example, three
things they leaned in class today.
Producing: asking students to come up with spoken or written sentences containing the new
vocabulary learned.
b. Grammar
o How to teach grammar?
1-Presentation
2-Practice
3-Production
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1-Presentation: In this stage the teacher presents the new language (tenses, conditionals,
passive voice, etc…) in a meaningful context.
o What are the activities used in the grammar presentation stage?

Building up stories on the board
Realia
Flashcards
Miming
Here, instead of explaining each of the above concepts, I will give you a real-world
example to make it a bit clearer for you.
For example, when presenting the 2nd conditional, it is a good idea to draw a picture of
yourself with thought bubbles of lots of money, a sports car, a big house and a world map. After
that, I ask my students what I'm thinking about and then introduce the target language (the 2 nd
conitidional).
If-Clause Main Clause
"If I had a lot of money, I would buy a sports car and a big house."
I practise and drill the sentence orally before writing it on the board (positive, negative, question
and short answer). Then, I focus on the form by asking the students questions. E.g."What do we
use after 'if'?" and also focus on the meaning by asking the students questions to check that they
have understood the concept (E.g."Do I have lots of money?" No. "What am I doing?"
Imagining.) When I am satisfied that my students understand the form and the meaning, I move
on to the practice stage of the lesson. During this stage of the lesson it is important to correct
phonological and grammatical mistakes.
2-Practice: There are numerous activities which can be used for this stage
o What are the activities used in the grammar practice stage?

Gap-fill exercises
Substitution drills
Multiple choices
Sentence transformations
Split sentences
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Picture dictations
Reordering sentences.
Matching sentences to pictures
It is important that the activities are fairly controlled at this stage as students have only
just met the new language (2nd conditional in our case). Many students' books and workbooks
have exercises and activities which can be used at this stage. When teaching the 2nd conditional,
I, personally, would use split sentences as a controlled practice activity. I give students lots of
sentence halves and in pairs, they try and match the beginnings and ends of the sentences.
Example: "I'd travel around the world." …. "If I won the lottery,"
Main Clause If-Clause
3-Production: in this stage, students are expected to produce the language learnt ( 2 nd
conditional)
o What are the activities used in the grammar production stage?

Role plays
Interviews
Paragraph writing
Games
Discussions
Personalisation activities
When teaching the 2nd conditional, I would try to personalise the lesson at this stage by
giving students a list of question prompts to ask others in the class.
Example: do / if / win the lottery?
Ss are expected to formulate questions such as What would you do if you win the lottery?
Ss are expected to answer answers like If I won the lottery, I would buy a Ferrari car.
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Although the questions are controlled the students are given the opportunity to answer
more spontaneously using other language items and thus the activity becomes much less
predictable.
It is important to monitor and make a note of any errors so that you can build in class
feedback and error analysis at the end of the lesson.
The next example that I’m going to show you is a YouTube video about how to teach
Present Continuous Tense inductively and deductively made by Prof Samad. I would like to
take this opportunity to thank him for his efforts because I was one of his followers before I
passed the CRMEF exam. Click here to watch the video.
c. Functions
o How to teach functions?
Just as stages of teaching vocabulary and grammar, there are three stages of teaching
language functions;
1-Presentation
2-Practice
3-Production
1-Presentation: The aim of this stage is to activate students’ schemata, contextualize the
language function, isolate its exponents and Comprehension check.
o What are the activities used in the functions presentation stage?

Presenting the Function in a Dialogue
Highlighting the Function in the Dialogue
 Selecting real interactions between real
Presenting the Function in a Dialogue: speakers.
 Setting and indicating the role relationship
between the speakers.
 Letting the target function occur naturally and
represent the one that native speakers use most
frequently in that situation.
 Avoiding the dialogues that seem an artificial
42context for the function.
Highlighting the Function in the Dialogue: Here, the teacher should highlight the target
function that is used. For example; make a circle around the target language on the board. Let's
say that the target language or the lesson is about "Making and Responding to Apologies", the
teacher should highlight the items that represent apologizing within the dialogue taught. Let’s
suppose that Reda came late at morning to the classroom;
Reda: Good morning sir.

Highlighted Dr. Ennassiri: Oh! Why are you late ?
Reda: I’m sorry sir, I came on the bus; that's why I'm late. Can I get in?
Dr Ennassiri: You can, but you may not.

2-Practice: This is the second stage in which students are given opportunity to practice language
functions presented in the first stage.
o What are the activities used in the functions practice stage?

Information gap tasks
Opinion gap tasks
Interviews
Discussion
Information gap tasks: Students have a problem and must communicate to solve it.
Opinion gap tasks: Students state their personal preferences, attitudes or feelings.
Interviews: Students obtain information from each other.
Discussion: Students discuss a specified topic; sides may or may not be assigned.
3-Production: This is the final stage of teaching language functions in which the learners use the
language functions freely as in the real-life situations. This stage is also known as
communicative stage as the learners focus on fluency rather than accuracy.
o What are the activities used in the functions production stage?

Role play
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Role-play: Students freely act out roles and situations after initial cues, often simulating real-life
actions and experiences.
IX. Classroom Management

Of all the tasks teachers are required to do is managing a class of 30 to 40 students which
is surely no easy task, especially if it is a class of teens who are undergoing certain physical and
psychological changes. Like any good manager, a teacher must be an effective leader in the
classroom who inspires awe and respect in students. The first encounter a teacher has with Ss is
one of the most important moments that actually determine how students perceive a teacher.
Therefore, a teacher must be charismatic, well-spoken, and extremely confident. Unlike popular
belief, students can sense a lack of confidence or hesitation; if a teacher is perceived as shy or
lacking confidence, Ss will likely think poorly of him. However, if Ss perceive the teacher to be
self-assured and charismatic, they will definitely be willing to respect him and follow his
instructions.
1. The definition of classroom management
It refers to “the multidimensional and varied ways in which learner behaviors, movements,
and interactions are organized by the teacher during the lesson” to make teaching conductive to
effective learning. As a teacher has to create the conditions in which learning can take place.
2. How to prevent disruptive behaviour

 Careful planning of the lesson: when a lesson is clearly planned and organized students’
attention will be kept on the task and the formation of a vacuum will not be allowed
which may be filled by distracting activities. If not, teacher might get lost and
confused,and Ss will recognize his/her weakness.
 Fairness: teacher should always try to avoid having favourites or picking particular
individuals. The major part of their job is not to show these preferences or prejudices in
the classroom.
 Interpersonal relationships: if students respect their teacher and each other, they are
more likely to cooperate.
 Methodology: a teacher must not give boring classes. She/He should vary his/her
teaching techniques and should time activities very carefully.
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 Professionalism
3. How to deal with rising problems
 Immediate action: react immediately, don’t wait.
 Do not use threats.
 Deal with it quietly, avoid shouting.
 Do not raise your voice.
 Talk after the class.
4. How to deal with disruptive students
Some teachers are inclined to act impulsively and engage in verbal quarrels with disruptive
students, which sometimes amount to physical fights. Such strategy to deal with disruptive
students is not effective in handling successfully with disruptive behaviour. The perfect way to
do so is to talk to them privately, get to know their reasons, and try to get close them in a tactic
way. Sometimes, such students seek to get your attention, but they don’t use the favourable ways
to do so. Hence, it is suggested that disruptive students are always engaged in the process of
learning, so as to minimize the chances of them acting irresponsibly.
5. How to deal with conflict between students
Like dealing with disruptive students, handling conflicts between students begins by
speaking to them privately, listening to both sides’ stories, and make a judgment that is fair and
in accordance with the classroom rules that you and your students have set forward.
6. How to cater for students’ needs and different learning styles
It is commonly known that students have different learning styles and needs. As teachers of
English, we must not only cater to these needs and learning styles, but also make use of them in
the process of learning. Therefore, when planning a teacher must include activities, games, and
tasks that include movement, speaking, listening, and thinking so that students with various
learning styles actively engage in the process of learning.
7. How to engage shy students in class activities
There is no better way to engage shy learners in the process of learning than group work
tasks or activities. Within groups, shy students are more likely to interact actively with others
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and make use of their potentials. This has proven to be a successful educational strategy by many
studies conducted in the EFL realm.
X. The Pedagogical Contract

A pedagogical contract is an implicit or explicit contract that a teacher establishes with
his students at their first encounters. The contract includes principally the rules of the classroom
or the code of conduct of the classroom. The teacher and students agree upon the rules and vow
to obey them. Any violation of the rules would subject the violator to a punishment which is
determined by the teacher in concord with the students.
1. Why is it important to establish code of conduct?
Classroom management problems are among the most troubling issues that teachers often
have to deal with. To minimize classroom management problems or anything that may hinder the
process of learning, like disruptive behaviour or belatedness on part of students, it is essential
that you establish your classroom rules, which may act as a reference that you rely on in case
something undesirable occurs in the classroom.
 It influences the classroom atmosphere directly and positively.

 It reflects the teachers’ trust in their students.
 It shows the teacher’s willingness to involve Ss in class discipline.
 The teacher encourages Ss to reflect on the rules that are possible to elaborate and on the
role of the teacher as a mediator.
 It sets a democratic atmosphere in the classroom.
 It makes the Ss responsible and helps in accountability.
2. How to establish a pedagogical contract with your students
It is vital that you get to know your students before you establish any contract with them.
Once you do so, you can then ask them what must and mustn’t be done in the classroom. Then,
you may cunningly introduce the rules, agree upon them with students, and then suggest
punishment for those who violate them. If it is possible you may even stick the rules on the wall
of your classroom if you wish.
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XI. Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation
The picture
represents
2 types of
motivation.
The first person is extrinsic motivated. He is playing football for external rewards. He
wants a cup, medal, or money. This is called extrinsic motivation. The second person is intrinsic
motivated. He is playing football for internal rewards. He is looking for happiness or enjoyment.
This is called intrinsic motivation. The same thing happens in classroom. There two types of
students. There are some students who learn just to get good grades and avoid punishment –
extrinsic motivation. On the other hand, there are some other students who wants to learn just for
enjoyment & self-improvement – intrinsic motivation. Therefore, as a teacher, you have to adopt
different methods & ways to motivate your students. You might bring food & candies to the ones
who are always looking for your approval. You may praise them as well. However, you could
bring articles, short stories, and pens to those who learn just to enjoy themselves.
XII. Assessment and Testing
1. Assessment
a. The definition of Assessment
It is the process whereby teachers gather information about students’ performance or

ability. On the basis of this information, teachers may decide to adjust their teaching methods
and students may consider rectifying their learning strategies. For example, a teacher administers
an exam to an average class and notices after correcting their tests that most of the students
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scored bad marks. This evidence will incite the teacher to reconsider his/her teaching methods
and perhaps improve/change them so as to meet the needs and requirements of the students.
b. Types of Assessment
 Summative Assessment: is often a formal type of assessment that is aimed at making
judgments about the performance or ability of students by assigning grades to them.
Summative assessment occurs periodically; either at the end of the year, semester, or two
or more units. Representatives of summative assessment can be quizzes, exams, tests, and
end-term papers. The focus of summative assessment is directed toward the final product
rather than the process. The saying below summarizes the features of this type of
assessment: ‘It is assessment “of” learning and teaching’.
 It also called Evaluation, summative, final to gauge quality, product-oriented: “what’s
been learned”, judgmental, and arrive at an overall grade/ score.
 Formative Assessment: while summative assessment focuses on the final product,
formative assessment stresses the process. In formative assessment, the teacher does not
allot grades every time he asks them to practice a structure or answer comprehension
questions. Unlike summative assessment, the formative assessment does not take place
periodically, but rather constantly (in the form of concept-checking questions, exercises,
and other examples of such). The purpose of formative assessment is not to assign grades
to students, but to receive data about them that can help the teacher adapt his/her teaching
methods to meet the needs of the students. The saying cited below illustrates what
formative assessment is: ‘It is assessment “for” teaching and learning’.
 It’s also known as Assessment, formative, ongoing to improve learning, process-
oriented: “how learning is going”, diagnostic, and identify areas for improvement.
2. Testing
a. The definition of a Test
The test is a method of measuring a person’s ability, knowledge, or performance in a

given domain. A test is intended to measure knowledge and skills one acquires during a sequence
of sessions. It is an instrument that’s used to measure students’ learning at a particular point in
time. In short, it is an assessment instrument that is chiefly intended to turn students’
performance into numbers. (e.g. multiple-choice tests, quizzes, cloze tests)
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b. Types of a Test
Proficiency test: it is a type of test that measures a student’s knowledge of a language or
his/her ability to use that linguistic competence functionally. It measures the student’s skills
and general knowledge of a language that Ss acquire through their academic years (for
getting a job or studying abroad for instance).
Placement test: it is a test that is aimed at sorting test takers into groups so that they roughly
have the same level as other students in the group when they start studying. It places Ss based
on their level or grades
Diagnostic test: its purpose is to pinpoint the strength and weaknesses of the test taker. It is
usually designed to guide remedial instruction, and it takes place at the beginning of the year,
course, unite…
Formative test: it is an ongoing process of testing that helps the teachers make
improvements on or change their educational strategies.
Achievement test: it measures what has been learned in a course or a sequence of courses; it
measures the extent to which test takers learned the material presented in a course. This type
of test means to assess what Ss have learned after completing a unit.
Aptitude test: is any type of assessment that evaluates the talent, ability, and potential to
perform a certain task, in other words, to discover whether a student has talent or the basic
ability for learning a new language or not.
Progress test: is designed to measure students’ language and their skills progress in relation
to the syllabus they have been following. (To see the progress of Ss in a skill or in a language
aspect e.g. speaking. What Ss have learned).
c. Criteria for designing and selecting an effective test
In order for a test to be effective, in the sense that it measures to what extent students
have learned new competencies or have developed the ones they already have at their disposal, it
should have the following characteristics or features, which are explained in detail:
i. Reliability: A reliable test is a test that is characterized by consistency. A reliable test is

a test that renders the same (consistent) results when it is administered to the same
students on two occasions. (The same environment, timing, and no external factors
intervened in that test, should yield the same results).
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ii. Validity: Validity is an important feature in designing an effective test; it refers to the
extent to which a test measures what it intends to measure. The saying “Test, what
you’ve taught”, illustrates what validity means. You taught them writing? test them on
writing, nothing more! Don't focus on the other sides like grammar.
iii. Authenticity: Authenticity is defined as the degree of correspondence of the
characteristics of a given language test task to the feature of ‘Target Language Use’. That
is to say, the test should make use of language that students are familiar with and that is
often based on themes which were previously covered in the class. Also, the test must
make use of authentic materials, since authentic materials help in testing students in a
realistic way
iv. Practicality: A practical test is a test that usually does not take too much time for the
students to accomplish, and has a specific and time-efficient evaluation procedure, that is,
just as the test should be conducted within a timing that is appropriate (5 hours for a test
is too much), the test should be relatively easy to correct for the teacher, a test that takes a
teacher too much time to correct is impractical. The instructions should be clear and the
mark allotted to each item should be reasonable.
The principles of practicality are encapsulated in the four statements:
 Is not excessively expansive.

 Stays within appropriate time constraints.
 Is relatively easy to administer.
 Has a scoring/evaluation procedure that is specific and time-efficient.
v. Washback effect: Washback effect refers to the influence a test has on individuals. More
specifically, it refers to the influence the test has on the test takers, students, and the test
designers, teachers. Students, for instance, would realize the mistakes they have made in
a test after its correction and rectify them. The same applies to teachers who may as well
work on improving or changing their pedagogical strategies.
XIII. Error & Mistake

1. The difference between error and mistake
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Mistake: is a word, phrase, or sentence that turns to be wrong. You make mistakes not because
you don’t know rules, but because you are tired or you don’t pay attention to what you are
saying, writing, or typing. As a student, just a hint from the teacher or your peer, you can
automatically correct the mistake yourself.
Error: happens only for one reason = Lack of knowledge.
2. Sources of errors
Sources of errors Mainly, there are three sources of errors:
i. Interlingual interference
ii. Intralingual interference/ overgeneralization
iii. Context of learning
Interlingual interference = the interference of mother tongue in the learning of second

language. Interlingual error happens because we apply our native language rules when we want
to form a second language sentence. For example, Moroccan student would say: “I have 14 years
old” instead of “I am fourteen years old.”
Intralingual interference = Overgeneralization Intralingual error occurs when we

overgeneralize rules and apply them to exceptions & irregularities. For instance, we say “He
shoulds visit the doctor” since we think that the “s" of the 3rd person in simple present must be
applied to all verbs.
Context of learning = This means that the students might have learned knowledge wrongly
from the first time. For example, They may have learned a mispronounced word from the
teacher, and they always believe that this is how we pronounce that word.
3. Error Correction Types

 Self-correction: The student corrects himself with the help of teacher.
 Peer-correction: The student corrects his errors & mistakes with the help of his peer.
 Class-correction: The entire class might be a help at correcting their classmate’s errors
& mistakes.
 Teacher-correction: When spotting a mistake made by a student, a teacher may
intervene in order to correct it.
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XIV. Lesson Plan
1. Definition of Lesson Plan

A lesson plan is a teacher's detailed description of the course of instruction or "learning
trajectory" for a lesson. A daily lesson plan is developed by a teacher to guide class learning.
Details will vary depending on the preference of the teacher, subject being covered, and the
needs of the students.
2. The elements of a good Lesson Plan

Objectives: Learning objectives should be brief, clear, specific statements of what learners will
be able to do at the end of a lesson as a result of the activities, teaching and learning that has
taken place. They help you and your students evaluate your progress and encourage them take
responsibility for their learning.
Instructional materials: Instructional materials are the tools used in educational lessons, which
include active learning and assessment. Basically, any resource a teacher uses to help him teach
his students is an instructional material. (Data show, Textbooks, Slides, Laptop, Computer,
Realia, Handouts, etc…)
Stages: Stages are the steps or phases followed by the teacher to deliver his lesson. Mainly, there
are three stages. Each stage has some operations of teaching which create the situation for
learning. When teaching Reading, Speaking, Listening, and Writing we opt for stages of PWP
model (Pre-While-Post). When teaching Vocabulary, Grammar, Functions, we opt for stages of
PPP model (Presentation-Practice-Production).
Procedures: The procedure is the body of your lesson plan, the ways in which you will share
information with students and the methods you will use to help them assume a measure of
mastery of that material. Procedures are the activities that the lesson plan should contain. We can
call them either Procedures or Activities.
Strategies/Techniques: A teaching strategy is the method you use to convey information to your
students. There may be a particular strategy that works well with your group of students one year
and will not work with your students the next year. Because of this, it is important to have lots of
teaching strategies in your toolbox.
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Mode of work & interaction: Using the right interaction pattern is a fundamental factor in the
success of any activity and the achievement of aims. The class are doing a dictation activity. The
interaction pattern is teacher to whole group – Teacher & students. Other patterns include pair
work – student & student, and group work – students & students
Time: The instructor must think through how much time each facet or stage of the lesson will
take with the goal of fitting the lesson objectives with the allotted time.
3. The purpose of the Lesson Plan

 Used as a guide for the teacher: it is considered a roadmap that teachers follow to
deliver their lessons. It makes their teaching process systematic and well-organized.
Therefore, the teacher won’t have to think on the spot about how to teach. (they have
already stated everything in the plan).
 Provides Directions: they are clear on the procedures to follow. The lesson plan
specifies where the teacher is driving. If the teachers don’t plan their lessons, they get lost
& confused
 Gives the teacher a sense of Security & Confidence: teachers don’t lose face in front of
their learners. The teacher comes with positive energy and enthusiasm. So, Ss would
think that their teacher is well-organized, cares about teaching and that she/he masters
his/her subjects.
 Helps keep good classroom management: when a lesson works well, students will not
only learn but also, they behave. It suggests a level of professionalism and real
commitment.
4. Principles of a good Lesson Plan

 Variety, coherence, balance, flexibility and challenge.
Variety : The teacher should vary the activities in his/her lesson plan in order for the lesson to be
interesting and to cater to the different learning styles.
Coherence : The lesson should be coherent; in which the transition from one stage to another is
smooth and enjoyable for the students
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Flexibility: The teacher always should have 'Plan B' in her/his pocket. Let's say, for example, a
teacher planned a lesson on PowerPoint, and on the following day, there was no electricity to use
the data show to present her/his. What should he/she do in this case? - Plan B
Balance: The activities should be balanced. The teacher should put the right dosage for each
activity in order to not get run out of time before he finishes the lesson.
Challenging : The lesson should not be too easy. In the same way, it should not be too hard
Click here to see an example of a Lesson Plan.
XV. Frameworks of teaching language components or aspects
1. PPP framework
In order to teach language components mainly grammar, vocabulary, functions, we apply the
PPP frameworkor as we named it before PPP model;
a. Warm-up: Activity takes no longer than five minutes such as tongue twister, proverb,
quote…, or a review of the previous lesson. Its goal is “preparing Ss psychologically for
the class”. Before starting a lesson, a teacher should push the Ss to be comfortable, to feel
at ease, and to be more engaged by providing a ‘favorable learning atmosphere'.
b. Presentation: Present the lesson, target structure, information, or knowledge to Ss so as
to recognize it. The teacher introduces a situation and presents the target language
structure or rule in context, also writes down examples of the target rule.
c. Practice: Students practice the lesson presented through exercises, assignments, and
activities… they also practice the target language L2 items (e.g. passive voice) using
accurate reproduction techniques. The teacher gives the chance to deduce the rule of the
given examples.
d. Production: Students have to produce what they have learned, and use the lesson in
communication or in writing. In short, they use the target language to make sentences of
their own. For example, create their own sentences using passive voice. The teacher
assigns tasks and exercises about the rules Ss have studied and correct them all together.
e. Follow-up: Here teacher can, for example, assign Ss to do a homework at home.
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2. ECRIF Framework
a. Encounter: The Ss see or hear new language and realize they do not know anything.
b. Clarify: Ss distinguish the meaning and use of the new knowledge or skill + They ask
questions and think about what’s correct.
c. Remember & Internalize: Ss have a chance to move the knowledge or skill from short-
term to long-term memory, they can begin to personalize it and use it in different
contexts. They connect it mentally to prior experiences with images, sounds and feelings.
d. Fluently Use: Ss have a chance to use the new language to communicate their ideas +
They work toward being able to spontaneously use the language in various contexts.
XVI. The Qualities of a good Teacher
A good teacher is the one who can adopt to different to learning styles, and the one who
is able to control his/her classroom effectively by creating the right environment for Ss to learn.
A good teacher is the one who helps Ss become autonomous and guide them to the right path
towards success. Patience, diplomacy, tolerance, respect, empathy, charisma, justice are great
qualities that a teacher should have.
Internal characteristics External characteristics
 They love teaching.  They make interesting lessons.

 They enjoy what they do.  They create a healthy environment.
 They show sympathy.  They have wide knowledge.
 They are willing to compromise.  They master their subject.
 They are open to criticism.  They encourage their students.
 They are good listener.  They are good communicator.
 They’re satisfied with their job.  They reflect on their teaching.
 They are active.  They solve problems.
 They are determined.  They make good decision.
 They are disciplined.  They are intentional.
 They are consistent.  They are good researchers.
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 The ability to develop relationships with their students.

 Patient, caring and kind personality.
 Knowledge of learners.
 Dedication to teaching.
 Engaging students in learning.
XVII. Teacher’s Documents

1. Record book
A record book is a document or compilation of documents used by teachers to record enrolment,

attendance, and grade information for students. It is also called ‘the log book’, the teacher writes
whatever she/he does with his/her students every single session, such as exercises, homework,
assignments, a correction of a quiz, or a test she/he administered, activities…
2. Students’ list
It’s a crucial list for the teacher which contains the names of every single student.
3. Lesson Plan
A lesson plan is a teacher’s guide for facilitating a lesson. It is the teacher’s objective to what Ss
should accomplish and how they will learn the materials. A lesson plan is a paper which
describes the implementation of the lesson.
4. Textbook
The program that a teacher follows which contains the lessons a teacher will cover all over the
year.
5. The Pedagogical Guidelines
The way to teach a subject, and the goals and objectives behind teaching that subject.
6. Bac Exam Specification
The nature of questions being asked and how a teacher would test the Ss of 2nd year Bac.
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7. Attendance sheet
It is an official document for listing the students who attend the sessions.
8. Portfolio
The portfolio includes experiences, professional and educational ones, research that you’ve done,
workshops, certificates…etc. all what you’ve achieved throughout your professional and
academic years.
XVIII. Teacher’s roles and responsibilities

The teacher has several roles in the classroom: controller, organizer, a prompter, a
participant and a resource…
1.Controller
Teachers as controllers are in charge of the class and of the activities going on in groups.
This control is not the most effective role for the teacher to adopt. This role is useful during the
accurate reproduction stage of the lesson and in frontal activities. At the practice stage and
especially at the production stage of the lesson this control should be relaxed to some degree.
Teachers view their job as the transmission of knowledge from themselves to their Ss. This
quality of the teacher cuts down on the opportunities for students to speak because the class is
acting as a whole.
2. Organizer
Organizing students to do various activities is one of the most important roles that
teachers have. Organizing students to do various activities. It involves giving the students
information, telling them how they are going to do the activity, putting them into pairs or groups,
and finally closing things down when it is time to stop.
3. Assessor
A major part of a teacher’s job is to assess the students’ work, to see how well they are
performing and how well they have performed. The different types of error correction must be
distinguished. At the accurate reproduction stage, where the teacher is totally in control, she/he
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must be correcting each student's error or mistake. Where students are involved in immediate
creativity (at the production stage of the lesson) gentile correction or delayed correction should
be used lest the teachers should make students inhibited. A distinction between two kinds of
feedback must be made content feedback concerns an assessment of how well the students
performed the activity as an activity rather than as a language exercise. Form feedback, on the
other hand, tells students how well they performed in terms of the accurate use of language.
Content feedback should usually come first and the teacher must decide when form feedback is
appropriate and when it is not. It is vital for the teacher to be sensitive and tactful to his/her
students in his/her role as assessor and to start assessment always with positive feedback.
(offering feedback on performances and correcting and grading students in various ways).
4. Prompter
In this role, the teacher needs to encourage students to participate in a role-play activity
or needs to make suggestions about how students may proceed in an activity (to encourage them
to think creatively). The role of the prompter has to be performed with discretion because if the
teacher is too aggressive, she/he will take over the jobs from the students and he will make the
students lazy and passive.
5. Participant
Teachers should not be afraid to participate in certain activities as a partner but she/he
should not get involved in pair-work or group work because it will prevent him/her from
monitoring the students and performing other important roles.
6. Recourse
Teachers used to be the only resource of information but this role cannot be performed
these days as it was done several decades ago. Students have an access to the Internet and other
important sources so teachers can add only some pieces of information to the ones gained from
other sources. Teachers are supposed to organize and coordinate the process of acquisition, to act
as a catalyst.
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XIX. Top-down and Bottom-up strategies

These two strategies are mainly used for two skills, namely, reading and listening.
1. Top-down strategy: from general to specific, we usually start with the main and
important points, and then we move on to details. For example, in listening, Ss first listen
to audio just to get the general ideas and meanings. Then, they are required to listen in
detail with specific learning aims and tasks.
 In top-down processing, the reader/ listener gets a general view of the reading or listening
passage by absorbing the general picture.
2. Bottom-up strategy: from specific to general. We normally start with details and then
later on we move to general ideas or rules. For example, in reading, the teacher adopts the
bottom-up strategy in which Ss read the text closely, paying attention to all the words and
trying to understand as much information as possible. Then, the teacher asks Ss to look
for the main ideas.
 In bottom-up processing, the reader focuses in things like individual words, phrases…
hence, achieves understanding by stringing these detailed elements together to build
up a whole.
XX. Bloom Taxonomy

“Hierarchy of learning objectives starting with knowledge and growing in complexity to
evaluation”. It was coined by the American psychologist Benjamin Bloom in 1956.
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1. Remember
“Recall facts and basic concepts.” → Retrieving relevant knowledge from long term memory.
 Students are expected to retrieve information from memory, but aren’t expected to
change it in any way.
 Verbs used in this stage: Define, identify, describe, recognize, tell, explain, recite,
memorize, illustrate, quote, list, state, repeat…
2. Understand
“Explain ideas and concepts”. → Determining the meaning of instructional messages
 Students are building new connections in their minds.

 Verbs used in this stage: Summarize, interpret, classify, compare, contrast, infer, relate,
extract, paraphrase, cite, describe, locate, select, translate…
3. Apply
“Use information in new situations.” → Carrying out or using a procedure in a given situation.
 Certain procedures or steps are expected to be followed in order to answer new problems.
 Verbs used in this stage: Solve, change, relate, complete, use, sketch, teach, articulate,
discover, transfer, solve, implement, demonstrate, interpret, operate, schedule, execute…
4. Analysis
“Draw connections among ideas” → Breaking materials into parts to organize and differentiate.
 Students utilize lower-level thinking skills to identify key elements and examine each
part.
 Verbs used in this stage: Contrast, compare, connect, relate, devise, correlate, illustrate,
distil, conclude, categorize, take apart, differentiate, organize, question, examine, test…
5. Evaluate
“Justify a stand or a decision” → Making judgements based on criteria and standards.
 Informational sources are examined to assess their quality and decisions are made based
on identified criteria.
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 Verbs used in this stage: Criticize, reframe, judge, defend, appraise, value, prioritize,
plan, grade, weigh…
6. Create
“produce new or original work” → Putting elements together a novel into a coherent whole.
 Learners organize information in a new or different way.

 Verbs used in this stage: Design, modify, role-play, develop, rewrite, pivot, collaborate,
invent, write, design, formulate, investigate, construct, assemble…
XXI. Didactic Concepts

Drills: exercises which are meant to practice a certain language item such as repetition, sentence
transformation, gap-filling, or matching… substitution drills (e.g. my favourite school subject is English,
what about you?). mechanical practice (repeat words, dialogues…).
Functions: are fixed phrases and expressions which are used to convey communicative purposes,
language items such as ‘requesting’, ‘suggesting’, or ‘asking for advice’, ‘apologising’… which are called
speech acts.
Miming: to show what a character does by using gestures and body movements.
Authentic materials: set of materials including: texts, audio-tracks, videos…etc. which are originally
created for real-life uses, but can be used for the learning process.
Notions: are general concepts expressed through language, the latter’s items such as ‘telling time’, or
‘speaking about distance’, space, quality…
Realia: objects like pens, fruits, clothes, etc. which a teacher can use to present new vocabulary items.
Visual aids: set of teaching tools that satisfy the needs of visual learners, e.g. pictures, graphs, videos,
flashcards…etc.). Recycling: a teaching method in which the teacher review vocabulary or skills that
have already been taught by including them in meaningful activities in subsequent lessons.
Learner training: is teaching learners how best to learn. It includes encouraging them to think about how
they record vocabulary and how to continue their learning outside the classroom.
Learner Centredness: is a new concept developed with the cognitivist theory, it assumes that the learner
should be the centre of the learning and teaching process. The approach in which Ss are actively engaged,
and the teacher plays the role of the monitor and classroom manager.
Chunks: are fixed or semi-fixed expressions learned and retrieved as whole units and employed on
specific occasions. E.g. collocations such as ‘I’m fine’, ‘pretty good’, right away… fixed expressions
used in different situations.
Learning strategies: account for how learners cope with learning problems, accumulate new language
rules and how they automize existing ones.
Intertextuality: the level of difficulty in a written passage. Skill: the effect or change that results from
an instructional activity program.
Warm-up: are prearranged activities that are often fun and enjoyable for students. warm ups are typically
used to make students feel at ease and to help them engage in the process of learning. Activities which are
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done at the beginning of the lesson to set a language environment. It sets the context of a new lesson or
reviews what was taught in previous lessons.
The humanistic approach: involves learners at all levels and focuses on their personalities as a whole.
Textbooks: used in the teaching of English in Morocco are mainly theme-based.
Humanistic activities: activities which emphasize the whole person and acceptance of their values and
emotions. There are four methods (SW, CLL, S, TPR) in which we involve humanistic activities e.g.
songs, plays, music to get Ss feel at ease and eliminate anxiety).
Integrated skills: language skills (listening, reading, speaking and writing), bringing together different
language skills.
Intensive reading: a careful reading to obtain specific information from a text which is usually a short
one.
Interaction: patterns of communication, could be verbal or non-verbal patterns.
Jigsaw reading: an activity which involves re-ordering a mixed-up text to find correct order (Ss have to
see the connection between parts of the written text) it promotes group work, and collaborative learning
among Ss.
Jigsaw: a structured activity that is characteristic of cooperative learning. When using jigsaw in the class,
teachers arrange their students into groups and invite each member of these groups to look for different
information about the same topic. Students are then required to share the information they find with the
members of their group. The activity promotes peer-teaching, and group work, and fosters the acquisition
and development of various social and communicative skills.
Mixed-ability class: a group of learners whose proficiency levels are different, (beginners, advanced,
low/high intermediate).
Micro-teaching: a teaching situation which has been reduced in terms of ‘duration’ of the lessons, class
size… this type of teaching is often used in training situations. (e.g. teach vocabulary ‘body parts’, we
focus on one activity.
Monitoring: while Ss are doing a task often in groupwork/ in pairs, a teacher walks around the class,
checks their mistakes, help them, also answer their enquiries. After assigning a task, the teacher moves
around the classroom to check whether Ss are on the task or not.
Lexical items: a group of related words, or a word family. E.g. furniture: chair, table, tv, sofa…etc.)
Accuracy: the ability to produce language in grammatically correct way. Talking without making
mistakes in grammar. (precision in communication).
Fluency: the ability to produce language easily to communicate quickly, but not necessarily with
grammar correctness. (speaking without paying attention to grammar mistakes).
Feedback: In teaching, feedback refers to comments or other information that learners receive concerning
their success on learning tasks or tests, either from the teacher or other persons, feedback can either be
written or oral. Comments, information that is given to learners about their spoken or written
performance, or task, test, or to trainees or teachers about their teaching.
Elicitation: a procedure where a teacher gets learners to produce language, draws information out of the
learners. It is also considered a subskill by which the teacher guides Ss to find the target word instead of
giving it to them. (through asking guided questions and let Ss find the answer). This is based on the
discovery approach: Ss discover vocabulary items by themselves= constructivism: Ss should construct
knowledge by themselves. “asking Ss to provide information and examples based on what they already
know.
Group Dynamic: the way a group of people interact with each other.
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Body language: non-verbal communication, the way someone communicates a message with their body.
For instance, eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, miming.
Cloze: a technique used commonly in teaching reading and listening where words, are removed from a
text and replaced by gaps.
Brainstorming: collecting together ideas very quickly without judging whether the ideas are good and
relevant or not. (in writing), jotting down whatever ideas coming to the mind of the teacher or Ss.
Facilitator: an assistant to or a guide of a group who helps the group to find their own answers rather
than providing them with the right ones.
Concept Checking: in teaching vocabulary, a technique in which teachers check the learners’
“comprehension of a new concept by asking related question”, a teacher checks if the Ss have grasped the
newly presented structure or vocabulary items.
Information transfer activity: an activity in which a learner has to move information from one place to
another. E.g. Ss have to complete a table according to information on a map.
Testing tools: the means of assessment a teacher uses to assess Ss’ performance. E.g. quizzes, cloze tests,
multiple choice tasks, exercises, presentations, portfolios…
Norm referenced test: a type of tests in which the performance of a learner is related to the overall
performances of other competitors, e.g. master program/ teaching exam.
Criterion referenced test: a type of tests whose grading criterion is specified at 10/20, e.g. bac exam.
Holistic scoring: the teacher gives Ss overall assessment score for the paper as a whole, e.g. writing,
based on the teacher’s impression.
Analytic scoring: a teacher provides Ss with at least a rating score for each criterion, (spelling, grammar,
spelling, relevance of ideas…).
Rubrics: the criteria upon which Ss performance is graded.
Item: generally, it is a sentence or an element used in a test and is intended to test students’ ability, e.g.
instruction in each question: filling the blanks with the correct words, choose the best titles…).
Standard: is both a goal and a unit of measuring progress toward that goal.
Input: is the verbal or written language students are exposed to while learning a new language. It is
usually contrasted with language output, which is students’ use of language productively in its oral and
written forms.
Input (i+1): in Krashen’s theory of SLA, “i” represents a learner’s current level of
competence, and “i + 1” the stage just beyond it. According to Krashen, learners of language. must be
exposed to language input that is slightly beyond their level.
Intake: refers to the language that learners internalize (take in) while being exposed to language input.
(during the explanation of a teacher, Ss take vocabulary words, or a structure, what Ss take in each lesson
explanation).
Circumlocution: when the learner is using many words instead of one to explain an idea. In short, giving
extra details to transmit the message.
Metalanguage: the language is used to talk about language. (learning theories = we use metalanguage).
Previewing/ Surveying: looking at the pictures provided in the text, reading titles and subtitles to get the
general idea of the text.
Inferring: guess about something from a text. Ss get it from their understanding of the text. (reading
between the lines) something that’s not mentioned in the text. Using what you know to make a guess
about what you do not know.
Skimming/ reading for gist: quick reading of the text to get the main idea.
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Scanning: reading the text thoroughly to find a piece of specific information.

Predicting: previewing the text and give anticipations on what the text will be about.
Top-down: is a language process strategy that relies on students’ ‘prior knowledge’ = Schemata in
understanding new texts or scripts.
Bottom-up: is a language processing strategy that is commonly used in reading. In it, students start with
analysing the smallest units of language; words, sentences, and chunks, and try to understand the text on
the basis of these linguistic units.
Contextualization: using vocabulary items in a meaningful context.
SQ4R: it is a reading strategy that involves five stages; Surveying the text in search of a gist, asking
questions, reading and answering the previously-asked inquiries, reciting the main ideas or points of the
text, reviewing the main ideas of each section of the text and the main ideas of the text in its entirety, and
reflecting about the significance of the text to you. These five stages are abbreviated as SQ4R.
Brainstorming: when learners generate ideas about the topic. Editing: is when learners work on their
writing products to correct spelling, punctuation and grammar mistakes. It can be self-editing or peer-
editing.
Checklist: a list provided by the teacher to identify the areas Ss should focus on while correcting their
mistakes.
Schemata: refers to leaner’s existing background and knowledge. It is a term best described by Guy
Cook (1989) as “our pre-existent knowledge of the world”, the plural form is schemes.
Schemes: every child is born with innate cognitive structures that enable him/her to interact with the
external world. E.g. biting, sucking, throwing, banging…
Scaffolding: refers to a variety of instructional techniques used to move Ss progressively toward stronger
understanding and ultimately greater independence in the learning process. To put it differently, it means
assistance, help and support and guidance that teachers provide for learners in order to accomplish a task,
activity, exercises, instructions, pictures, example of any material which help Ss understand a certain task.
Supporting learners in solving learning problems. (provide Ss with support throughout their learning).
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): the distance between the actual development level and the level
of potential development. In other words, it is a gap between what Ss know and what they don’t know, in
which point the teacher should give tasks. So, the lesson should be challenging and should be slightly
higher than their current level of understanding (it has to be in the ZPD). In short, tasks given to Ss
shouldn’t go beyond their zone of proximal development.
Adaptation: is the process of adjusting schemes in response to the environment by means of assimilation
and accommodation.
Assimilation: understanding new experiences in terms of existing schemes. All infants or babies have
inner schemes, e.g. if we give a baby a glass, pen, laptop… s/he has mental schemes which dictate on
him/her how s/he should deal with these objects. So, s/he either throw them, suck them, grasp them…
Accommodation: modifying the existing schemes to fit new situations. When a baby threw a cup, the
mother would shout on him. So, s/he realizes what s/he has done is wrong. Hence, s/he has to adapt and
adjust.
Equilibration: the process of restoring balance between present understanding and new experiences. E.g.
in primary school, we were taught that 1-2 is impossible, but in middle school we discovered that it’s
possible. So, when the teacher explains it, equilibration takes place.
Communicative Competence: As Hymes suggests, communicative competence refers to learners’
knowledge of grammatical competence (knowledge of grammar, phonology, and semantics of language),
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sociolinguistic competence (knowledge of how to use language and respond to different speech acts, such
as requests. Knowledge of which address forms to use and in which context, you cannot say “It is funny,
when you are in funeral), discourse competence (knowing how to begin and end a conversation), Strategic
Competence (knowledge of communicative strategies, like; I mean and mm and others, to compensate for
weaknesses in communication). Hymes summarizes this in saying that goes like this, “Knowing when and
how to say what to whom”.
Competence: Chomsky refers to competence as “the system of rules that represent a learner’s knowledge
of the language”. Competence is often contrasted with performance. The latter is the practical use of the
former.
Competency: is a set of skills, abilities, and knowledge that students or learners use in order to
accomplish a particular task.
Reviews: while icebreakers pave the way for the learning process, reviews are generally used at the end
of a session. They are used to reinforce key concepts or topics that were previously covered. Like
icebreakers, they are activities that are specifically designed to make the learning experience enjoyable
and stress-free. E.g. in order to reinforce some keywords that were formerly taught, a teacher may bring a
ball to the classroom, says a word related to the theme covered, and passes it to another student, who in
turn passes to another one and say a word, and the activity goes on.
Intonation: when speaking, we change the pitch of our voices and put stress on particular sounds to
express our emotions or attitudes. This is what is generally referred to as intonation.
Recognition exercises: are exercises in which students are required to only recognize the correct answers
out of a variety of options. For example, “match the following words with their meanings, a list of
meanings is provided on the side”.
Productive exercises: are exercises in which students are instructed to produce answers, instead of being
given options to choose from.
Praise: is a mighty tool that reinforces positive behaviours in the classroom. Teachers usually
congratulate their students for participating in the process of learning, scoring good grades, and for simply
behaving properly. Praise, if used appropriately, is a powerful tool that helps increase students’
motivation and hard work.
Consciousness-Raising: or awareness raising, is a process that learners go through when they are
learning a new language. Learners first become aware of the language (e.g. must), recognize and
distinguish it when they hear it, and are able to produce it.
Noticing: when learners "notice" new language, for example a word, they pay special attention to its
form, use and meaning. Consequently, it becomes part of their intake.
A skill: the ability to do something that comes from experience, training or practice (learning in the
classroom).
A sub-skill: the ability to do something of each skill, e.g. skimming, editing, fluency.
Reinforcer: a pleasurable consequence that maintains or increases and strengthen a behaviour.
Negative reinforcer: release from an unpleasant situation given to strengthen a behaviour.
Presentation punishment/ reprimand: an aversive stimulus following a behaviour, used to decrease the
chances that a behaviour will occur again.
Removal punishment: withdrawal of a pleasant consequence that is reinforcing a behaviour, designed to
decrease the chances that the behaviour will recur.
Extensive reading: involves learners reading texts for enjoyment and to develop general reading skills.
Intensive reading: means reading in details with specific learning aims and tasks.
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Language: is a set of rules, a code, a system of communication. Language is a system of sounds and
words that is used by humans to communicate and express ideas and feelings using movements, symbols
and sounds. “It is a rule-governed system”. One of the major functions of language is communication.
Communication: the activity or process of expressing ideas and feelings between the sender and the
receiver. It is sending and receiving information between two people or more.
Grammar: is the structure and the system of a language in general, usually considered to consist of
syntax and morphology. “M. F. U. P.= Meaning, Form, Use, Pronunciation”.
Proverbs & Idioms: are fixed expressions which go together and are understood as a whole. Proverbs are
didactic which means they are designed to teach people moral lessons.
Tag Questions: inverted subject-verb expression used to confirm the content of the conversation.
Learning: is a relatively permanent change in the behaviour of an individual based on his/her experiences
or discoveries.
Teaching: means to give someone knowledge or to instruct or train them. To show somebody how to do
something, or to change somebody’s ideas.
Tense: is the expression of location in time of an action or state. There are three tenses in English:
present, past and future.
Aspect: is the expression of duration (temporal structure of an action or state). It indicates how an action,
state or an event is related to the flow of time. There are four aspects in English: simple, progressive,
perfect simple and perfect progressive.
Exercise: is a way of practicing what has been presented, e.g. fill in the blanks, matching, rewrite
sentences…
Task: is a synthetic way of handling content; it presents samples of language organised into the purpose
for which Ss need to learn a language, but allows them to find the patterns or structures. E.g.: in groups an
action plan which you think will bring about positive changes in your school. (Gateway 2, p.45).
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For any questions or inquiries concerning the content of
this booklet, Click here. You can also find me here.
GOOD LUCK.

English Didactics

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Dedication

This work is dedicated to my close friends who seek to become teachers.

Special thanks, of course, are given to my mother, who has always

b. Speaking Skill ............................................................................................................................ 30

c. Reading Skill ............................................................................................................................. 32

d. Writing Skill .............................................................................................................................. 35

VIII. Teaching Language Components ......................................................................................... 37

I. The Difference between an Approach, Method, Technique and Methodology

If a method is a set of techniques/procedures that are intended to make the process of

A methodology is a set of classroom techniques, procedures irrespective of the particular

II. Learning theories

i. Operant Conditioning by Skinner

ii. Classical Conditioning by Pavlov

- The piece of meat is referred to as an unconditioned stimulus.

Pavlov's experiment showed that if a ‘previously neutral stimulus is paired with an

iii. The law of Effect by Thorndike

According to this theory, learners of language should construct knowledge of the

 Basic principle of the constructicvist theory:

 The constructivist approach is based on the premise that: By reflecting on our

Unlike the constructivist theory, socio-constructivists argue that learning precedes

Application of humanism in classroom : The humanistic learning theory developed

III. Approaches of Learning English language

Macro VS Micro – approaches.

Approach: the way we do something.

Macro: general, overall.

Micro: specific, small.

Macro approaches Micro approaches

- Inductive/ deductive (grammar)

1. Competency- based approach

2. Standard Based approach

history, and Arabic... (what we’ve learned in a specific subject, we relate it to

3. The Natural approach

4. The Humanistic approach

5. Content based approach

IV. Teaching Methods

1. Grammar-Translation Method (GTM)

 The role of the teacher

 The role of the native language

Grammar–translation classes are usually conducted in the students' native language.

 What skills are emphasized?

- Accuracy means grammatical correctness.

2. The Direct Method

 The role of the teacher

 The role of the student

 Application of the method

 What skills are emphasized?

 Evaluation & assessment

• The teacher provides self-correction of the students if possible in that case.

3. The Audio-lingual Method

 The role of the teacher

 The role of the student

 Application of the method

They are not dealt with.

 What skills are emphasised?

 The role of the native language

 Evaluation & assessment

The teacher corrects the errors immediately.

 Positives of the method

 Negatives of the method

4. The Total Physical Response

 The role of the teacher

 The role of the student

Total Physical Response (TPR) is a method of teaching language or vocabulary concepts by

 The role of the native language