Construction and Building Materials 47 (2013) 588–593

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Construction and Building Materials

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Pozzolanic contribution of rice husk ash in cementitious system

M. Jamil ⇑, A.B.M.A. Kaish ⇑, S.N. Raman, M.F.M. Zain
Sustainable Construction Materials and Building Systems (SUCOMBS) Research Group, Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi,
Selangor, Malaysia

h i g h l i g h t s

 Pozzolanic effect of RHA in cementitious system is determined.

 Pozzolanic effect is determined in terms of replacement percentage.
 Finding is based on cement hydration and reaction between RHA & hydration products.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Rice husk ash (RHA) is an established supplementary cementitious material (SCM). Extensive research
Received 20 February 2013 has been carried out to incorporate RHA as a SCM in casting concrete and mortar. RHA contributes in
Received in revised form 29 April 2013 two fold of effects in concrete or mortar; i.e. filler effect and pozzolanic effect. Replacement percentages
Accepted 5 May 2013
of RHA used in various previous studies were chosen arbitrarily like 5%, 10%, 20% and so on to determine
Available online 10 June 2013
the total effect of RHA. But the unique filler effect or pozzolanic effect of RHA in cementitious system is
yet to be investigated comprehensively by the scientific community. This study was carried out to find
Keywords:
the maximum pozzolanic (chemical) contribution of RHA in cementitious system in terms of replacement
Cementitious system
C–S–H gel
percentage. The determination is analytical and based on the hydration reaction of cement and the poz-
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) zolanic reaction of RHA with the hydration product. The obtained result was also verified with the exper-
Rice husk ash (RHA) imental results available from published literatures.
Molar ratio of silica to calcium hydroxide (S/ Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
CH ratio)

1. Introduction
The annual production of rice from across the globe is around
600 million tons per year. Thailand alone produces approximately
5 million tons annually [1]. The outer shell of rice grain, often
called as rice husk, generated from the rice milling industries is a
well known agro-industrial by-product in many parts of the world.
Raw rice husk (RRH) consists of about 40% cellulose, 30% lignin
group and 20% silica. This RRH is normally used as a fuel in the par-
boiling process in rice milling industries. On combustion, the cellu-
lose–lignin matrix of RRH burns away and leaves only a porous
silica skeleton. Therefore, RHA contains a large volume of silica
[2–4]. After grinding the porous silica skeleton of rice husk a fine
powder with high surface area, called rice husk ash (RHA) is pro-
duced [5]. Due to its high silica content, RHA is considered as a
highly reactive pozzolanic material in the production of concrete.
The reactivity of RHA is attributed to the high amorphous silica
⇑ Corresponding authors. Tel.: +60 123120002; fax: +60 89252546 (M. Jamil).
E-mail addresses: mjamil.ukm@gmail.com, lynyeeha@gmail.com (M. Jamil),
amrul.cuet@gmail.com (A.B.M.A. Kaish), snraman@gmail.com (S.N. Raman),
fauzi@vlsi.eng.ukm.my, fauzizain@gmail.com (M.F.M. Zain).
content and the very large surface area governed by the porous
structure of the particles. Highly reactive RHA is found when it is
burnt under controlled conditions. This RHA contains high silica
content in the amorphous form of silica up to 95% or even 100%.
Its reactivity is also favored by increasing its fineness [6–9]. Ismail
and Waliuddin reported that the fineness of RHA may have influ-
ence to activate the pozzolanic properties of RHA of crystalline
form [10]. Chopra also obtained good results by grinding RHA of
crystalline form [11]. Zerbino et al. and Cordeiro et al. reported that
the pozzolanic reactivity of residual RHA can be improved by
grinding up to an appropriate particle size [12,13]. However, Meh-
ta suggested avoiding grinding of amorphous RHA to a high degree
of fineness since it mainly derives its pozzolanic activity from the
internal surface area of the particles [2]. Zain et al. stated that
grinding of partially crystalline RHA for 30 min in a Los Angeles
machine with a combination of 10 mm and 20 mm diameter steel
rod produce good quality RHA [14]. But they suggested grinding for
60 min or more to achieve standard fineness of RHA. The optimized
RHA, under controlled burning and/or grinding, could be used as a
pozzolanic material in cement and concrete. Using RHA in concrete
provides several advantages, such as improved strength and dura-
bility properties of concrete, reduction of environmental impact

0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.05.088
 M. Jamil et al. / Construction and Building Materials 47 (2013) 588–593
related to the disposal of waste materials and also reduction of car-
bon dioxide emissions [8,12,15–18].
RHA obtained by controlled combustion contains high volume
of silica (SiO2) mostly in amorphous form [14]. This form of silica
present in RHA reacts with the hydration product of cement,
Ca(OH)2 to form a secondary type of Calcium–Silicate–Hydrated
(C–S–H) gel [19–22]. This C–S–H gel is mainly responsible for hard-
ening of concrete or mortar. Ca(OH)2 comes only from the hydra-
tion of siliceous compound of cement. Siliceous compounds
present in cement are only in the form of tri-calcium silicate
(C3S) and di-calcium silicate (C2S). Ordinary Portland cement
(OPC) contains a specific percentage of C3S and C2S that yields a
specific amount of Ca(OH)2. Therefore, a specific amount of RHA re-
acts chemically with a specific amount of Ca(OH)2 to form the sec-
ondary C–S–H gel.
Previously, researchers used both amorphous and crystalline
(residual) RHA in concrete or mortar in different replacement per-
centages (like 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and so on) and investigated their
mechanical and durability properties. Mixed ratios used in their
studies were neither based on any scientific basis nor the chemis-
try of Portland cement hydration and the chemical reaction be-
tween RHA and Ca(OH)2. The extra amount of RHA, after reacting
chemically with Ca(OH)2, used as a filler material in concrete or
mortar. The exact contribution of RHA as a filler or as a pozzolanic
material separately is still unknown to the scientific community. It
is also not clear whether the advantageous use of RHA is due to fil-
ler or chemical (pozzolanic) effect. This difficulty is due to the fact
that most of the time; the concomitant action of both effect influ-
ences the results evaluated from the most commonly used meth-
ods. It is claimed that the chemical or pozzolanic effect is
dominating in case of amorphous RHA and the physical or filler ef-
fect is dominating when the RHA is mainly in crystalline form.
There are many studies available in the published literature that
determines the total pozzolanic activity (exerted by chemical and
physical effects) of RHA having both partially and mostly crystal-
line parts in concrete and mortar [13,21–25]. However, none of
the published studies reported the individual contribution from
chemical (or pozzolanic) effect and/or physical (or filler) effect on
the strength properties of concrete and mortar. Therefore, this
study aims to determine the contribution of RHA from only its
chemical/pozzolanic effect in cementitious system based on the
hydration reaction of Portland cement and the chemical (pozzola-
nic) reaction between RHA and Ca(OH)2.
2. Hydration of Portland cement
The hydration of OPC involves a series of reactions of the anhy-
drous calcium silicates (C3S and C2S) and aluminates (C3A and
C4AF) phases with water to form hydrated phases [26]. This pro-
cess is the involvement of different chemical reaction schemes.
However, only the chemical reactions which are related to the
tri-calcium silicate (C3S) and di-calcium silicate (C2S) compounds
of cement have only been discussed in this article. Because, only
the hydration of C3S and C2S produces calcium hydroxide
(Ca(OH)2).
Both C3S and C2S react with water and produce similar type of
C–S–H gel which is the main ‘glue’ that binds the sand and aggre-
gate particles together in concrete and mortar. The chemical for-
mula of tri calcium silicate (C3S) is (CaO)3SiO2 (or Ca3SiO5),
where the molecular weight ratio of Ca to Si is 3:1 (i.e., Ca/
Si = 3). This ratio in di calcium silicate (C2S) is 2:1 (i.e., Ca/Si = 2).
But, Chen et al. reported that the Ca/Si ratio in C–S–H gel (produced
either from C3S or C2S) varies from 1.30 to 1.80 depending upon the
condition of reaction [27]. Le Chatelier, Flint and Wells and
Kalousek found this ratio to be 1.7 in normal temperature
589
[28–30]. Newman and Choo also reported the ratio to be approxi-
mately 1.7 and the chemical formula of C–S–H gel is C1.7SH3 [i. e,
(CaO)1.7SiO2.(H2O)3] [26]. Therefore, there is always an extra
amount of calcium in the system after the hydration of C3S and
C2S which are precipitated as calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2 or CH).
The hydration reactions of C3S and C2S are summarized by the
following equations [31].
ð1Þ
ð2Þ
From these reactions, knowing the amount of C3S and C2S in
OPC, one can easily calculate the amount of Ca(OH)2 produced
from a certain amount of OPC. For instance, ASTM type-I cement
contains 55% C3S and 19% C2S [32]. Therefore, based on chemical
Eqs. (1) and (2), 55 gm C3S produces 26.776 gm Ca(OH)2 and
19 gm C2S produces 4.087 gm Ca(OH)2. Hence, 100 gm ASTM
type-I cement will produce 30.8635 gm Ca(OH)2.
3. Chemical reaction between Ca(OH)2 and SiO2
James and Rao reported for the very first time that the reaction
product of Ca(OH)2 and silica from rice husk ash is a type of C–S–H
gel [33]. Sugita et al. also discussed the possibilities of C–S–H gel
formation in RHA concrete due to the reaction between the silica
in RHA and the Ca(OH)2 in hydrating cement [20,21]. Later Yu
et al. confirmed that the amorphous silica exists in RHA reacts with
Ca(OH)2 to form one kind of C–S–H gel [22]. They reported the
chemical structure of that secondary C–S–H gel as Ca1.5SiO3.5xH2O.
Based on the chemical equilibrium, possible reaction between
silica and Ca(OH)2 in the presence of water is as follows:
ð3Þ
It can be found from the above chemical reaction that 120 gm
silica (SiO2) reacts with 222 gm Ca(OH)2 to form the secondary
C–S–H gel. Therefore, according to the chemical Eq. (3) the molar
ratio of SiO2 and Ca(OH)2 (S/CH ratio) in this C–S–H gel is 0.54054.
4. Chemical contribution of RHA in case of ASTM type-I cement
ASTM type-I OPC contains typically 55% C3S and 19% C2S [32].
The maximum chemical contribution of RHA is that replacement
percentage of cement that will give the S/CH ratio as 0.54054. Sum-
marized calculation of maximum cement replacement percentage
by 100% amorphous RHA is given in Table 1.
Table 1 revealed that 12% replacement of RHA gives the S/CH ra-
tio of 0.4418; whereas this ratio is seen to be 0.5718 when 15%
replacement is done. Therefore, the optimum cement replacement
percentage by RHA lies in between 12% and 15% to obtain maxi-
mum possible secondary C–S–H gel. This ratio is calculated as
approximately 14.3%. The typical percentage of C3S and C2S may
vary depending upon the raw materials used in the production of
cement. In that case, the calculated chemical contribution will also
vary accordingly.
The sample calculation of data of this table is given in
Appendix A.
590 M. Jamil et al. / Construction and Building Materials 47 (2013) 588–593

Table 1
Calculation of maximum chemical contribution of RHA.

Cement Amount of Ca(OH)2 Total amount of S/CH ratio

delivered by 1 gm cement Ca(OH)2 delivered
Amount (gm) C3S (%) C2S (%) % Replacement Available cement
100 55 19 5 95 0.3086 29.3203 0.1705
10 90 0.3086 27.7740 0.3600
12 88 0.3086 27.1599 0.4418
15 85 0.3086 26.2340 0.5718
20 80 0.3086 24.6908 0.8100
25 75 0.3086 23.1476 1.0800
30 70 0.3086 21.6044 1.3886
14.298 85.7021 0.3086 26.4507 0.5405

Table 2
Replacement percentage of RHA in different types of ASTM cement.

Cement Maximum replacement

percentage of RHA
Type Typical percentage of Ca(OH)2 produced by 1 gm
C3S C2S
ASTM-II 51 24 0.2999 13.95
ASTM-III 57 19 0.3184 14.683
ASTM-IV 28 49 0.2417 11.556
ASTM-V 38 43 0.2775 13.0435

5. Chemical contribution of RHA in case of other types of ASTM
cement
ASTM standard define five types of cement according to their
applications. Differences between these cement types are in their
constituent compounds compositions. Each types of cement con-
sist of different compositions of compounds. As the percentage of
C3S and C2S varies between cement types, the amount of Ca(OH)2
produced from the hydration of those cements also varies. There-
fore, the maximum replacement percentage of RHA in each type
of cement will also vary. Table 2 shows the replacement percent-
age of RHA for other four types of cement defined by ASTM C-150.
Chemical/mineralogical composition of clinker varies due to the
variation of chemical composition of natural limestone deposits
which depends upon the natural formation of limestone. During
clinkerization, it is very common to use various minerals as kiln-
feed materials to maintain a specific range of mineralogical compo-
sitions. Due to these, the mineralogical composition (i.e. C3S and
C2S) of resultant clinker will also vary significantly. This variation
is not only among different types of cement and in the same type
of cement produced by different plants, but also in the same type
of cement produced by the same plant in different batches. These
findings are, therefore, not only representing the pozzolanic
(chemical) contribution of RHA in different types of ASTM cement,
but also representing the same when the mineralogical composi-
tion of the same type of cement varies.
6. Effect of impurities and crystalline phase of RHA
The RHA considered in the above calculation was assumed as
100% amorphous and free from any foreign elements. However,
practically there are some amounts of foreign compounds (like
Ca+, K+) present in this substance in very small percentages. A small
amount of un-burnt carbon in RHA is also found in case of uncon-
trolled combustion of rice husk. In rice husk incinerated above the
temperature of 900 °C, a substantial amount of highly reactive
amorphous silica will be converted into comparatively non-reac-
tive crystalline silica. In all these cases, the replacement ratio will
increase depending upon the percentage of foreign compounds and
the percentage of non-reactive crystalline silica. In these cases, the
amount of available reactive amorphous silica decreases with the
increase of non-reactive parts of silica. Table 3 shows the replace-
ment percentage of ASTM type-I cement with the RHA having dif-
ferent percentages of non-reactive parts of silica to show the effect
of reactant part of RHA in cementitious system. The sample calcu-
lation of data of this table is given in Appendix B.
7. Experimental verification of the calculated chemical
contribution of RHA
The authors have undertaken a well established approach to
validate the computed results of this study; that is, to compare
the numerical and analytical findings with previously published
experimental results. But, in most of the available research paper
on RHA incorporation in concrete or mortar, only the chemical
compositions of cement are mentioned; not the mineralogical
composition. Even Bogue’s law does not provide the actual miner-
alogical composition of cement in many instances [34,35]. More-
over, the degree of amorphousness of RHA may not be given in
most cases. Most of the researchers incorporate RHA only in con-
crete or in mortar. However, Ganesan et al. [24] incorporated
RHA in both concrete and mortar. All other data required for this
computation are also given in their paper. For these reasons, Gan-
esan et al.’s [24] study was taken as the basis to validate the calcu-
lated chemical contribution of RHA in cementitious system.
It was assumed in this study that the highest strength in normal
concrete or mortar will be found when the chemical effect of RHA
is maximized. This is because, chemically reactive RHA results an
increment of total binder, but an excess of RHA results in a decre-
ment of total binder. On the other hand chemically reactive RHA
will not only provide an extra amount of binder but will also acts
as filler concomitantly.
For the experimental validation of this study, the experimental
work of Ganesan et al. [24] has been taken into consideration. They
used the boiler burnt rice husk residue from rice milling industry
as a partial replacement of OPC in mortar and concrete; and eval-
uated the optimum level of replacement. The RHA used in their
study consists of 87.2% silica in mainly amorphous form with an
average surface area 36.47 m2/g. The ordinary Portland cement
used in the study had mineralogical content of 66.4% C3S, 7.8%
 M. Jamil et al. / Construction and Building Materials 47 (2013) 588–593 591

Table 3
Replacement percentage of RHA having different percentages of non-reactive parts of silica.

Cement RHA
C3S (%) C2S (%) Ca(OH)2 produced by 1 gm % Non-reactive silica Max % replacement
55 19 0.3086 0 14.298
5 14.938
10 15.638
15 16.407
20 17.256
25 18.197
30 19.246

Table 4
Chemical contribution of RHA in Ganesan et al.’s [24] study.

Cement RHA Amount of Ca(OH)2 Total amount S/CH

delivered by 1 gm of Ca(OH)2 ratio
Amount C3S (%) C2S (%) % Available % %
cement delivered
(gm) Replacement cement Replacement Impurities
100 66.4 7.8 5 95 5 12.8 0.3401 32.3040 0.1350
10 90 10 12.8 0.3401 30.6038 0.2849
15 85 15 12.8 0.3401 28.9036 0.4525
20 80 20 12.8 0.3401 27.2034 0.6411
17.41 82.59 17.41 12.8 0.3401 28.0841 0.5406

Table 5
The chemical contribution of RHA calculated in this study will
Compressive strength of RHA blended mortar & concrete [24].
vary only with the change in mineralogical composition of cement
RHA (%) 28 days Compressive strength (MPa) and the chemical composition of RHA. This contribution is calcu-
Mortar Concrete lated in terms of cement replacement percentage, not in terms of
0 37 37.1 volume or mass fraction of concrete or mortar. Therefore, even if
5 38.9 40 the mix design is changed, the cement replacement percentage
10 42.8 41.3 by RHA (which will act only chemically) will not be changed. Be-
15 46.7 41.8
cause, whatever the amount of cement (with same mineralogical
20 39.8 42.5
25 38.3 38.8
composition) used in concrete or mortar it will liberate the same
30 37 37.6 percentage of Ca(OH)2 which will react with the same percentage
35 36 35.1 of RHA. Besides, the filler effect of RHA or other supplementary
materials should not be ignored. When the concrete is more porous
(due to the change in mix design) the filler effect might be domi-
nant. But the percentage of RHA that will contribute chemically
C2S, 8.01% C3A and 9.6% C4AF according to Bogue’s law [24]. The will always be the same for the same amount of cement and will
theoretical maximum percent replacement of RHA in this work is not depend upon the porosity (due to the change in mix design)
calculated in the Table 4. of concrete.
From Table 4, it can be observed that the optimum cement
replacement percentage by RHA is 17.41% for that particular type
of cement & RHA. Therefore, the maximum strength should be
found in this or close to this replacement percentage of RHA. Actu- 8. Conclusion
ally, the chemical contribution of RHA cannot be definitively deter-
mined from experiments; since the newly formed secondary C–S– This study determines the chemical contribution of RHA on the
H gel not only combines the inert materials but also serves as filler basis of replacement percentage of RHA. The replacement percent-
in between larger size particles. age is determined as approximately 14.3% for ASTM type-I cement
It is found from Table 5 that 15% replacement of cement by RHA with 55% C3S and 19% C2S. This percentage could vary with the
gives the highest strength in case of mortar which is very close to change of RHA composition or type of cement used. All the results
the theoretically calculated replacement percentage of 17.41%. found in this study are theoretical and based on the chemical reac-
Moreover, authors did not perform the experimental test with tions in the hydration process of cement. Results may also vary
17% or 17.5% replacement ratios. Though it is not clear whether depending upon the percentage of C3S and C2S present in cement.
the strength at 17.41% replacement level is higher than 15% or There is also a good agreement between the theoretically found
not, but there is a tendency of increment of strength from 10% replacement percentage and the experimental results found in
replacement level to 15% replacement level and thereafter it tend available literature.
to decrease at replacement level 20%. Therefore, the peak strength
might be laid in between 15% and 20% replacement level.
However, in the case of concrete, maximum strength was found Acknowledgement
at 20% replacement of cement by RHA. This slightly higher percent-
age is due to the filler effect of RHA. Normally concrete consists of The authors acknowledge the Ministry of Higher Education of
more pore spaces than mortar. Therefore, more RHA is required to Malaysia for providing the necessary funding required for the re-
fill those inter particular spaces that results an increased replace- search through the ERGS Grant scheme (ERGS/1/2011/TK/UKM/
ment level of RHA. 02/10).
592 M. Jamil et al. / Construction and Building Materials 47 (2013) 588–593
Appendix A. Sample calculation for data of Table 1
According to chemical Eq. (3),
The molar ratio of SiO2 and Ca(OH)2 (S/CH ratio) in secondary
C–S–H gel is 0.5405.
Therefore, the maximum percent replacement of cement by
RHA will be that replacement percentage which will give the S/
CH ratio equals to 0.5405.
From the chemical Eq. (1),
456 gm C3S produces 222 gm Ca(OH)2.
And from the chemical Eq. (2),
344 gm C2S produces 74 gm Ca(OH)2.
Therefore, in case of ASTM type-I cement with 55% C3S and 19%
C2S,
Ca(OH)2 produced by 55 gm C3S = (22255)/456 = 26.776 gm.
And Ca(OH)2 produced by 19 gm C2S = (7419)/344 = 4.087 gm.
Hence,
Ca(OH)2 produced by 100 gm ASTM type-I cement (with 55%
C3S and 19% C2S) = (26.776 + 4.087) = 30.8635 gm.
Ca(OH)2 produced by 1.0 gm ASTM type-I cement (with 55% C3S
and 19% C2S) = (30.8635/100) = 0.308635 gm.
For 10% replacement of ASTM type-I cement (with 55% C3S and
19% C2S),
Total available cement = (100–10) = 90 gm.
Total available C3S = (9055)/100 = 49.5 gm.
Total available C2S = (9019)/100 = 17.1 gm.
Therefore,
Ca(OH)2 produced by 49.5 gm C3S = (22249.5)/456 = 24.099 gm.
And Ca(OH)2 produced by 17.1 gm C2S = (7417.1)/344 =
3.675 gm.
Hence,
Ca(OH)2 produced by 100 gm ASTM type-I cement with 10%
replacement by RHA = (24.099 + 3.675) = 27.774 gm.
Total amorphous silica in RHA = 10 gm.
Therefore,
S/CH ratio in the system = (10/27.774) = 0.36.
Similarly,
For 5% replacement of ASTM type-I cement (with 55% C3S and
19% C2S), the S/CH ratio = 0.1705.
For 12% replacement of ASTM type-I cement (with 55% C3S and
19% C2S), the S/CH ratio = 0.4418.
For 15% replacement of ASTM type-I cement (with 55% C3S and
19% C2S), the S/CH ratio = 0.5718.
For 20% replacement of ASTM type-I cement (with 55% C3S and
19% C2S), the S/CH ratio = 0.8100.
For 25% replacement of ASTM type-I cement (with 55% C3S and
19% C2S), the S/CH ratio = 1.0800.
For 30% replacement of ASTM type-I cement (with 55% C3S and
19% C2S), the S/CH ratio = 1.3886.
For 14.298% replacement of ASTM type-I cement (with 55% C3S
and 19% C2S), the S/CH ratio = 0.5405.
Appendix B. Sample calculation for data of Tables 3 (for 10%
impurities in RHA)
From Appendix A,
Ca(OH)2 produced by 1.0 gm ASTM type-I cement (with 55% C3S
and 19% C2S) = 0.3086 gm.
Maximum percent replacement of cement by 100% amorphous
RHA = 14.298%.
And
Ca(OH)2 produced by 100 gm ASTM type-I cement with 10%
replacement by RHA = (24.099 + 3.675) = 27.774 gm.
Total amorphous silica in RHA with 10% impurities = (10–
1010/100) = 9 gm.
Therefore,
S/CH ratio in the system = (9/27.774) = 0.32.
Again, for 15.638% replacement of ASTM type-I cement (with
55% C3S and 19% C2S),
Total available cement = (100 – 15.638) = 84.362 gm.
Total available C3S = (84.36255)/100 = 46.399 gm.
Total available C2S = (84.36219)/100 = 16.028 gm.
Therefore,
Ca(OH)2 produced by 49.5 gm C3S = (22246.399)/
456 = 22.589 gm.
And Ca(OH)2 produced by 17.1 gm C2S = (7416.028)/
344 = 3.448 gm.
Hence,
Ca(OH)2 produced by 100 gm ASTM type-I cement with
15.738% replacement by RHA = (22.589+3.448) = 26.037 gm.
Total amorphous silica in RHA with 10% impurities = (15.638–
15.63810/100) = 14.074 gm.
Therefore,
S/CH ratio in the system = (14.074/26.037) = 0.54054.
Hence,
The maximum replacement percentage of ASTM type-I cement
in case of 10% impurities in RHA is equal to15.638%.
Similarly for ASTM type-I cement (with 55% C3S and 19% C2S),
The maximum replacement percentage for 5% impurities in
RHA = 14.938.
The maximum replacement percentage for 10% impurities in
RHA = 15.638.
 M. Jamil et al. / Construction and Building Materials 47 (2013) 588–593
The maximum replacement percentage for 15% impurities in
RHA = 16.407.
The maximum replacement percentage for 20% impurities in
RHA = 17.256.
The maximum replacement percentage for 25% impurities in
RHA = 18.197.
The maximum replacement percentage for 30% impurities in
RHA = 19.246.
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