CHAPTER IV

HUMAN FREEDOM

Lecture Notes – Senior High School

Department of Philosophy – University of Santo Tomas
Isaiah Berlin
(06 June 1909 – 05 November 1997)

• Russian-British social philosopher, political theorist,

public intellectual, historian, and an educator
• Often time ascribed as a ‘Philosopher of Freedom.’
• His well-known lecture, “Two Concepts of Liberty,”
was delivered in 1958 as Chichele Professor of Social
and Political Theory at Oxford University.
• This inaugural lecture restored political philosophy to
the methods of analytic philosophy.
 1. To recognize the role and essence of freedom in moral deliberation, political judgment, and
one’s personal decisions;

Learning 2. To examine the nature and consequences of freedom in our lived experiences;

Objectives: 3. To construct a positive attitude toward life grounded on the proper exercise of freedom; and
4. To demonstrate the value of freedom and responsibility in the cultivation of the moral
character of the person.
Activity: Heinz’s Case
• Heinz’s wife was dying of a rare kind of cancer, and physicians told him that a
new medication might be able to cure her. A local chemist had discovered the
medication, and Heinz attempted hard to acquire some.
• However, the chemist wanted 10 times the price of making the drug, which
was far more than what Heinz could afford. Heinz was only able to raise a
fraction of the drug’s cost with the aid of his family and friends.
• He told the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could get the
medication for a lower price or pay the balance later. But the chemist
declined, saying that he developed the medicine to profit from it.
• The husband was anxious to save his wife, and he did not know what to do.
• So, Heinz’s dilemma is: Is it better for him to steal the medication and face the
consequences? Should he follow the law and not steal the medication, even if it
means letting his wife die?
 Heinz’s
Dilemma
1. Do you think Heinz has the
freedom to make these
decisions?
2. What factors will
determine his decision?
3. Will any of these two
options be justified?
4. Is there a cogent way to
solve this dilemma?

“Dilemma” is a predicament in which you must make a difficult choice between two possible actions.
According to Berlin,
1. NEGATIVE Freedom
- It means absence of
arbitrary coercion.
- Proponents:
- Thomas Hobbes
- John Locke
- John Stuart Mill
2. POSITIVE Freedom
- It means self-rule.
- Proponents:
- Buddhists
- Immanuel Kant
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau
 Two Concepts of Liberty (Berlin)
Lesson 1 Lesson 2

NEGATIVE FREEDOM POSITIVE FREEDOM

• Generally, it means non-intervention
or minimal interference;
• It also means lack of constraint or
pressure;
• Or absence of arbitrary coercion.
• It means self-rule or self-mastery;
• It promotes self-realization;
• This requires being critical, creative,
compassionate, and accountable for
one's own actions as well as those of
others.
 Lesson 1

For Thomas Hobbes,

(English philosopher)

• HUMAN BEING is a “homo homini lupus.” – De Cive (1642)

• Translation: “Man is a wolf to man.”
• Meaning: By nature, human beings are greedy, selfish, self- Pub. 1651
seeking, and competitive.
• Human beings have an infinite desire to possess and seek
individual satisfaction.

• One would do anything just to satisfy one’s needs and

achieve one’s goals in life.

• This is fundamentally grounded and stirred by one’s

craving for wealth and power.

1588–1679
Lesson 1

How can this dreadful situation be resolved?

 For Hobbes, it cannot be an appeal to conventional morality,
divine justice, or cosmic mediation since in the state of nature,
these ideas have no meaning and self-understanding order, but
they can be regulated through the social contract.
 Through this social contract, it is assumed that all the
essential rights and duties of citizens can be logically deduced,
in which the sovereign is identified with might rather than law.
 The law is what the sovereign commands and his/her powers
are limitless.
 In other words, the sovereign’s power is as absolute as men
can conceive it, through the Leviathan.
 So freedom is conceived only within the context of the social
contract.
 Lesson 1

For John Locke,

(British philosopher)

• In the state of nature, all men and women are created

equal by God.
• In this sense, because freedom is of divine origin, it
Pub. 1689
should be exercised and enjoyed by all human beings.
• This state of nature presupposes perfect freedom;
grounding the political power of everyone as such
power and control are equal and communal.
• If infringement arises in the event of a clash or conflict,
individuals should be restrained from violating the
rights of others.
• More so, anyone can defend one’s right to life and
property if there is a clear and present danger to this
freedom.
1632–1704
 Lesson 1

What could the people do if disobedience occurs

during a conflict or disagreement?
 Like Hobbes, Locke explained freedom in the context of the social
contract.
 Presupposition of freedom: all human beings are equal,
communal, and autonomous, and everyone has the right to
preserve one’s right to life, liberty, property, and/or happiness.
▪ However, this is not enough if human beings want to pursue the
greater good and establish a civilized society.
▪ So, to preserve and maintain the separation of powers in the
government and create a regulative order in society, one must
submit one’s will for the common good by establishing the
social contract.
 Any government that functions without the approval of the people
and democratic laws may be ousted from power.
 Thus, only a legitimate government can have authority over the
people.
 Lesson 1

For John Stuart Mill,

(English philosopher & Political Economist)

• Following the Utilitarian principle, he states that the

only freedom that merits the term is the freedom to
pursue our personal good in our own manner, so long as
we do not try to deprive others of theirs or obstruct Pub. 1859
their efforts to acquire it.
▪ For him, latter idea follows the harm principle which assumes
that individual freedom should only be restricted to prevent harm
to others.
• For him, the freedom to seek one’s own happiness is a
summum bonum for every person and can only be
violated if the effect of one’s freedom harms other
persons.

1806–1873
 Lesson 1

What is the limit of freedom?

 Mill clarifies that governments ought to have fitting
limitations in applying the principle of utilitarianism.
▪ This principle promotes the idea of the greatest good for the
greatest number of people.
 In this context, Mill justifies the essential role of politics
in maintaining the balance and keeping up the harmony
between maximizing the exercise of individual freedom and
increasing the protection of the government.
 Too much weight on individual liberty produces
anarchism, lawlessness or rebellion, while too much
emphasis on authority results in despotism,
oppressiveness or tyranny.
 Lesson 2

Self-mastery, according to Buddhists is best acquired by

lessening or abstaining from fleshly cravings and focusing
on a more fitting object of desire.
• For them, fleshly cravings are frequently viewed as cruel and
unpleasant.
• If our activities are motivated by this desire, we will create
unreasonable expectations and live in an illusionary world.
• The mind should be trained to focus on a steadier and truer object,
something that transcends the tangible and finds illumination in
that condition of being.
• The keys to enlightenment are mindfulness and conscientious effort.
• In this view, genuine conception and exercise of freedom is
synonymous with self-mastery.
 Lesson 2

For him, freedom means acting properly according

to the principle of the Categorical Imperative.

• Generally, the Categorical Imperative states that one must act only
according to that maxim which an individual can become a
universal law.
• Such law is rational, supreme, and absolute.
• Actions have moral value if they have universal applicability and
reason that qualify this criterion.
• According to Kant, freedom is not about following one's passions or
yielding to one's desires, but rather about controlling or mastering
them.
• In this view, freedom must be conceived and practiced within the
boundaries of reason.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

German philosopher
 Lesson 2

Rousseau said, “Men are born free, yet everywhere

are in chains.”

• He goes on to explain the numerous ways in which the “chains” of civil

society stifle the natural birthright of individual freedom.
o He maintains that individuals who live in civil society never really feel the implementation
of equality and individual freedom that was assured to them.
• According to him, only a sovereign government with the consent of the
people may exercise authority and empower citizens to join into a
social contract for mutual protection and collective security.
• However, human beings have the tendency to exploit, control, oppress, and
manipulate others.
• For Rousseau, the solution is to develop a social covenant that would
regulate or limit these vicious human tendencies.
o The social contract is a social agreement among individuals that have a collective will and
common interest to preserve and maintain a genuinely free political society.
• The general will of the people has more strength and influence over
individual freedom.
• In this view, freedom means respect and obedience to the law which we
demand to ourselves. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778)
Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer
 Lesson 2

▪ Self-realization is achieved not just through a mental act, but also

through the realization of person's whole personality, through the
active expression of his emotional and intellectual potentialities.
▪ These potentialities exist in everyone; they only become actual to
the extent that they are expressed.
▪ In other words, positive freedom resides in the spontaneous
action of the entire, integrated self.
▪ Spontaneity is an essential quality of freedom.
o It means free activity and implies one’s free will.
Pub. 1941
▪ In this view, it does not mean 'doing anything,' but rather the
nature of creative activity that could function in one's emotional,
intellectual, and sensory experiences, as well as in one's will.

Freedom as
Self-realization

Erich Fromm (1800-1980)

German sociologist and psychoanalyst
Lesson 2
For Steiner, freedom is defined as the ability
to perform actions motivated by love.
• Freedom is an inner and spiritual
activity.
o It is neither cognitive nor perceptual in nature.

• If an activity is done creatively and

intelligently out of love and is inspired by it,
one is genuinely free.

• The potential of freedom is predicated on

self-awareness and moral imagination.
• Without it, freedom becomes arbitrary and
illogical.

• To fulfill the full potentials of human

freedom, one must focus and harness
one's inner power and capacity.
Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925)
Pub. 1894 Austrian philosopher, social reformer, and architect
 Lesson 3

For Sartre, freedom is defined as responsibility.

Pres. 1945
• We are all doomed to be free, but freedom is not presented to anyone or bestowed
upon by a perfect being.
• Human beings are inherently free the moment we become aware of our reality and
ourselves.
• We define the kind of life that we want based on the choices that we make.
• For him, “existence precedes essence.”
o This means that humans must exist first before he/she creates his/her essence.

• The essence of being human is neither pre-given nor predetermined by any

supreme authority or cosmic intervention, or by any dominant society.
o Rather, it is solely dependent upon the individual choices which human beings make.

• The choices that we make define our essence, thus determining our essence as
human beings.
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980)
French philosopher, playwright, and novelist
Lesson 3

What does “existence

precedes essence” mean?
 Human beings have no preconceived
essence or predefined nature.
 God is not responsible for our
human life.
 We define our existence in this
world.
 Our existence is determined by the
choices that we make, not by any
god/s or external authority.
 Meaningful existence is the end of all
human efforts and struggles.
 Living authentically is the way to
overcome life’s absurdities.
 Lesson 4

Freedom and
Determinism
• Freedom and determinism create an antinomy
that can further be differentiated as free will
and incompatibilism.

• From a scientific point of view, freedom is

merely an illusion and creates a morass of
contradictions.

• From a philosophical point of view, freedom is

a postulate of reason and an existential criterion
of shaping one’s authentic response to any given
situation.
Lesson 4

From a scientific
point of view,
FREEDOM is
merely an illusion.

How do you interpret

this signage?
Lesson 4
What does DETERMINISM mean?
• It is the view or belief that all actions or events
that occur are (directly or indirectly) influenced
or conditioned by prior causes or reasons.
• Generally, there are two major kinds of
determinism: soft and hard determinism.
o SOFT determinism (compatibilism) assumes
that we are determined by certain factors or
prior causes, yet we are at the same time free.
• In other words, when we act as the efficient
cause of our actions, then one is said to be
acting freely.
• Therefore, we determine our own actions, not
by external causes. Some classical proponents
of the Soft Determinism Theory are St.
Augustine, Baruch Spinoza, and Friedrich
Schleiermacher.
Lesson 4
What does DETERMINISM mean?
• Generally, there are two major kinds of
determinism: soft and hard determinism.
o HARD determinism (incompatibilism) assumes
that freedom and determinism are incompatible
or contradictory since all actions are causally
determined (either by the natural law or certain
preconditions that are found in society,
environment, or familial upbringing).
• In this context, free will is merely an illusion.
• Therefore, all human actions are not free.
• Everything that happens, happens for a reason
and is explainable through a chain of causal
relations.
• Therefore, nothing happens by mere chance or
accident in history. Some classical
representatives of the Hard Determinism Theory
are David Hume and Baron von Holbach.
 Lesson 4

From a philosophical point of view, freedom is an

ethical issue that can be best explained from an
existentialist point of view…

• …. where freedom is firmly entrenched in the existential issues we

face in each given scenario and is neither the absence of force nor a
self-enlightened activity.
• The idea of freedom is often contrasted with the concept of liberty.
o The lack of constraint or coercive forces that limits the exercise of free will is
referred to as liberty.
• Free will is often synonymous with freedom.
o The ability to choose between alternative courses of action without restriction,
persuasion, or impediment is referred to as free will.
o It is the individual’s ontological capacity to select in each situation.
 Lesson 4

Six (6) Types

of Freedom

1. Physical Freedom
2. Psychological Freedom
3. Moral Freedom
4. Social Freedom
5. Political Freedom
6. Existential Freedom
 Lesson 4

Six (6) Types

of Freedom
1. Physical freedom means freedom from external imperatives or any
oppressive forces.
2. Psychological freedom is the absence of mental, emotional, or spiritual
coercion or pressure.
3. Moral freedom is the absence of constraint through the punitive and
oppressive force of moral imperatives.
4. Social freedom is not just independence from social determinism; it is a
particular way of appropriating or exercising the assimilation of freedom in
society.
5. Political freedom is often linked with the notion of liberty and autonomy.
These include but are not limited to freedom of speech, freedom of religion,
freedom of assembly, freedom of choice, academic freedom, economic freedom,
etc.
6. Existential freedom puts a premium on personal responsibility and
accountability.
 Lesson 4

Some Misconceptions
on Freedom
• Subjectivistic Freedom. Doing “freely”
what one subjectively wishes.
• Transcendental Freedom. Freedom
presupposes God’s gift to humanity.
• Scientistic Freedom. This definition of
freedom is strictly deterministic.
• Populist Freedom. Freedom is based on
popular expressions, fashionable
representations, and/or emotivist
speeches.
 Lesson 5

MORAL AGENCY
& MORAL VIRTUE
• In his treatise On Freedom (1992), it is feeling (Gefühl) or sentiment
(Empfindung) that gives the person the motivational force or
psychological drive to act, not reason (in the Kantian sense).
• As such, it is unable to maintain or create a consistent pattern of
activity.
• Feelings or sentiments (affective states) are insufficient motivation to
carry out one’s responsibilities.
• Generosity, for example, is not totally duty-bound, but it is fundamentally a moral
feeling since it is in our interdependence with others that such an act is fostered and
cultivated.
• Freedom must be intended (or determined) by the moral agent, not just
desire it. Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834)
German theologian, philosopher, and biblical scholar
 Lesson 5

MORAL AGENCY
& MORAL VIRTUE
• When a moral agent integrates fundamental principles to concrete
things or situations, one is said to be acting morally.
• In this sense, freedom operates within the kind of virtue that the
agent develops.
• In this way, virtuous conduct has a compounding effect that begins to
form character by emphasizing specific dispositions and motivations
over others.
• Our character defines who we are. Our being is determined by our
actions.
• The Latin phrase “Operari sequitur esse” most accurately captures
this idea. Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834)
German theologian, philosopher, and biblical scholar