Chapter 3 - Oleohidráulica

Chapter 3 Hydraulic Fluids
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completing this chapter, you should be able to:
State many functions of hydraulic fluids.
Understand various characteristics of hydraulic fluids.
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State how hydraulic fluids are prepared.

Specify various requirements of hydraulic fluids.
Select the right type of hydraulic fluid for a given application.
Recognize the different classes of hydraulic fluids.
List different types of fluid contaminants.
Enumerate various effects of fluid contamination.
State several sources of fluid contamination
Describe the need for contamination control in hydraulic systems.
Appreciate the ISO fluid cleanness standards.
Understand the hydraulic component cleanness level requirement.
Know various aspects of hydraulic fluid analysis.
Introduction
In Chapter 2, we have discussed the hydraulic fluids briefly. As you are aware, the fluid is an
important component of a hydraulic system, and it has many critical functions to perform. Selecting
the best quality hydraulic fluid requires the consideration of many factors including its application
requirements. Modern industrial and outdoor hydraulic applications demand more compact
machines designed with tighter tolerances and run at faster cycle times. Remember, they are
designed to work with smaller amounts of fluids. They operate at higher pressures, temperatures,
and speeds. Under these circumstances, the hydraulic fluids used in these applications are subjected
to severe stresses. They must be carefully maintained throughout their service life for the
satisfactory operation of these systems. Knowing the type of contaminants and means of
controlling the contamination, and assessing the health of hydraulic fluids on a regular basis are
other matters concerned with the proper maintenance of hydraulic fluids. The analysis of the fluid
used in a hydraulic system can help detect an emerging problem in the system.
Copyright @ 2016. Universal Publishers.
This chapter aims to explain all the factors mentioned above, in detail. Initial sections of this
chapter describe the functions, formulation, types, requirements, selection, and characteristics of
hydraulic fluids. The subsequent sections describe the topics on hydraulic fluid contamination and
its control, fluid cleanness standards, fluid analysis, and fluid disposal. Chapter 4 describes all
aspects of hydraulic filters including their classifications and performance specifications.
Functions of Hydraulic Fluids

Hydraulic fluids are a large class of liquids needed for performing the primary task of transmitting
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power in hydraulic systems. Additionally, they have to serve multiple supporting functions, such as
to:
provide lubrication to the moving parts in the system components, such as pumps, valves, and
actuators,
provide sufficient sealing between the clearances in the components, so as to minimize leakages,
assist these systems in the removal of contaminants and heat,

protect the system components against wear and corrosion, and
withstand adverse system conditions, such as wide variations in temperature.
That is quite a deal to ask of any hydraulic fluid, and only an ideal fluid can achieve all these
functions. It is worth defining the characteristics of the ideal hydraulic fluid so that you can
compare the characteristics of real world hydraulic fluids with that of the ideal hydraulic fluid. The
essential features required for hydraulic fluids under the ideal and practical terms are worked
below.
Characteristics of an Ideal Hydraulic Fluid

Strictly speaking, the ideal hydraulic fluid would have no resistance to flow and, for this reason,
would have zero viscosity. Next, it must remain perfectly stiff. Also, it should resist any change in
its properties with the usage and passage of time. However, in reality, preparing such a fluid is
extremely difficult as certain factors like the heat, oxidation, and mechanical stress can adversely
affect the properties of the fluid sooner or later.
In a little more practical sense, the real world hydraulic fluid must be the thinnest that would
provide sufficient lubrication and enough sealing for a given application. It must be capable of
transmitting power with minimum pressure drop and maintaining its viscosity almost constant
regardless of variations in temperature. It must also possess all the necessary characteristics, such
as good anti-wear, anti-oxidation, anti-rust, antifoam, and demulsibility properties to carry out all
of its assigned functions optimally. Remember, it must be the goal to prepare or select hydraulic
fluids with their characteristics approaching that of the ideal fluid.
Preparation of Hydraulic Fluids

Fluid manufacturers prepare hydraulic fluids from base stocks and certain additives. Numerous
types of hydraulic fluids can be formulated by adding each base stock with varieties of additives, to
meet the exacting requirements of today’s complex hydraulic systems. A brief explanation of these
constituent parts follows:
Base Stock: Typically, a hydraulic fluid is prepared from a suitable base stock possessing all the
essential characteristics to perform well in a particular class of hydraulic system. An example of
the base stock is the petroleum oil. Some other examples of the base stock are high-water-based
fluids, certain synthetic fluids, such as phosphate esters, Polyol esters, and Polyglycols, and
vegetable oils, such as canola. Remember, a stable base-stock is necessary for the fluid in every
hydraulic system.
Additives: Temperature, oxidation, wear, and other factors affect the properties of the base
stocks and limit their useful life. Therefore, blending the base fluid with suitable additives can
improve the fluid’s physical and chemical properties, and make the properties more stable even
in the presence of heat, oxygen, and water. For example, suitable additives can be mixed with a
volume of hydraulic fluid to make it thinner or make it flow smoothly or help reduce wear in the
associated system. Hydraulic fluids may contain additives ranging from 0.5% to 25%.
There are, in fact, many common hydraulic fluid additives like viscosity index (VI) improvers,
extreme-pressure (EP) additives, anti-wear additives, oxidation inhibitors, corrosion inhibitors,
antifoam agents, demulsifiers, and pour point depressants. Table 3.1 lists the functions of some of
the additives. Additional information regarding various additive elements is given in Table A6.1 of
Appendix 6.
Table 3.1 Some hydraulic fluid additives and their functions

Additive Function
Viscosity index (VI) improver Reduces the dependence of fluid viscosity on temperature
Anti-wear additive Prevents the wear under normal loading
Extreme-pressure (EP) additive Prevents the surface damage under severe loading
Oxidation inhibitor Inhibits the fluid reaction with oxygen
Corrosion inhibitor Prevents the corrosion caused by oxygen and water
Antifoam agent (Defoamer) Prevents the formation of foam
Demulsifier Allows the easy separation of oil and water
Pour point depressant Lowers the pour point temperature
Fluid Characteristics
Figure 3.1 highlights the most important characteristics of hydraulic fluids, which have an
enormous influence on the successful working of the associated hydraulic systems. The following
sections elaborate these characteristics. Tables A6.2(a) and A6.2(b) of Appendix 6 give the
properties of typical mineral-based and biodegradable hydraulic fluids.
Figure 3.1 | A schematic diagram summarizing hydraulic fluid characteristics
Viscosity: In Chapter 2 we have explained the basic concepts of viscosity. In this section, the
discussion on viscosity is further extended to cover the viscometric characteristics required of
fluids used in hydraulic applications. As explained below, the viscosity choice for the fluid used in
a hydraulic system is always a compromise to meet the conflicting requirements of the system.
If the fluid is too thick or exposed to cold temperatures, then its viscosity tends to be high and
additional energy is required to pump the fluid through the system. The fluid that is too thick for
use in the system produces a higher pressure drop and generate excessive heat in the system, apart
from leading to the jerky and sluggish operation, higher power consumption, and lower mechanical
efficiency of the system. It may also produce cavitation and damage filters used in the system.
On the other hand, if the fluid is too thin or exposed to hot temperatures, then its viscosity tends
to be low. The fluid that is too thin for the system tends to rupture the fluid film between the sliding
surfaces of system components, produces fluid leakages and a higher rate of mechanical friction,
and consequent wear of precision parts in the system. It also produces a higher rate of oxidation
and consequent reduction in the service life of the fluid.
That means, the fluid selected for the hydraulic system must be thin enough to make it flow
smoothly but thick enough to maintain a sufficient lubricating film between the sliding surfaces in
the system and to provide a proper sealing in the system. The graphical representation of Figure 3.2
highlights the significant problems associated with the use of hydraulic fluids with viscosities
above and below the optimum range.
Figure 3.2 | A graphical representation signifying the impact of viscosity variations in hydraulic
systems/fluids.
Within the modern industrial systems, there is a broad range of hydraulic applications, which
have varying requirements in respect of their viscometric characteristics. For a typical application,
the viscosity of its fluid medium should ideally remain at about 30 cSt [160 SSU] at 40 0C [100 0F].
The general rule of thumb is that the viscosity should never fall below 10 cSt [60 SSU] and rise
above 400 cSt [1950 SSU], under any circumstance, as it is in this viscosity range that the
components in the system, such as pumps, valves, etc., maintain their good volumetric
characteristics.
Viscosity Index (VI): Certain hydraulic systems are subjected to wide variations in temperatures.
For example, an industrial hydraulic system that is started during the winter in an unheated plant
may be exposed to wide variations in temperature. Mobile hydraulic systems are, usually, exposed
to the outside environment. A high-pressure, high-precision hydraulic system is particularly
sensitive to the changes in the viscosity of its fluid medium at low temperatures. Each of the
hydraulic systems mentioned above requires a high viscosity index (VI) fluid to maintain its
viscosity at a constant value irrespective of the variations in the temperature to which it is exposed.
Hydraulic fluids have VI values typically in the range from 90 to 110. You may refer to Chapter 2
for the basic concepts of the viscosity index.

Some fluids have relatively large VIs, to begin with. On the other hand, some other fluids have
their VIs reinforced through the use of VI improvers. Such fluids are sometimes called
‘multi-viscosity’ fluids or ‘multi-grades’. Remember, the VI additives are expensive and tend to
lose their effectiveness under high shear stress. However, if carefully monitored, fluids with the VI
improvers can perform well in harsh industrial service.
Fluid Compressibility: A good fluid meant for a hydraulic system should have very low
compressibility (i.e., high bulk modulus) so that it remains ‘stiff’, and that helps to get a fast
response from the system. However, the compressibility of the fluid increases with the increase in
the temperature and the pressure to which it is subjected. A typical mineral-based fluid undergoes
about 0.5% reduction in its volume for every 70 bar [1000 psi] of pressure exerted upon, up to the
pressure of 300 bar [4000 psi]. Water-based fluids and synthetic fluids have higher bulk modulus as
compared to the case of the mineral-based fluids. Remember that the bulk modulus of a given
volume of fluid is the inherent property of its base stock, and no additives can improve the bulk
modulus. It may also be noted that the absorbed air in the fluid is up to 20,000 times more
compressible than the liquid.
The compressibility of fluids affects the performance of the associated hydraulic systems. In a
positive-displacement pump, the effect of compressibility shows up as a loss of the fluid volume.
This volume loss represents a power loss, as no downstream actuator is capable of recapturing the
compressive energy contained in the fluid. Therefore, a high-quality hydraulic fluid should resist its
compression while it is being exerted upon by a high-pressure load.
Lubricity: A fluid plays a significant role in the lubrication of a hydraulic component, such as a
pump or actuator, by providing a load-carrying film in the clearance between two relatively moving
surfaces in the component. The fluid film prevents the metal-to-metal contact and thus minimizes
the possible friction in the component.
Wear Resistance: Wear is the unavoidable consequence of the metal-to-metal contact of the sliding
surfaces in a hydraulic system component subjected to repeated high-pressure stress loads. The
wear metals created in the system multiply and move to other parts of the system to inflict more
damage. Under the modest load conditions, most petroleum fluids satisfy the lubrication
requirements of the component.
A fluid intended to be used only under the normal operating conditions may be formulated with
anti-wear additives to improve its wear resistance. An anti-wear additive added to most of the
hydraulic fluids is the stabilized zinc dithiophosphate (ZDP or ZDDP or ZnDTP). However, there
is a general tendency to go ‘non-zinc’ in hydraulic applications as zinc is a heavy metal. Also, ZDP
under highly stressed condition may produce undesirable ash. Fluid manufacturers continue to look
for environmentally-safe ashless additive alternatives to the zinc-based additives. Non-zinc
additives work quite well in hydraulic fluids, but they are expensive.
However, with high loads placed, it is hard to maintain a sufficiently thick fluid film between
the working surfaces. Therefore, the fluid used in such a high-load application should be
formulated with the extreme-pressure (EP) additive to improve its load-carrying properties. Under
high loads and at very high temperatures, the EP additive in the fluid reacts chemically with the
metal surfaces and forms a film to prevent its seizure, sticking, or surface adhesion.
Oxidation Resistance: A superior hydraulic fluid used in a hydraulic system should resist any
reaction with oxygen so that no appreciable change in the fluid properties occurs. However, over a
period, the fluid passes through various machine components and naturally oxidizes and forms
reaction products, such as acids, sludge, gum, and varnish. The exposure of the fluid to heat, metal
catalysts, air, and water accelerates the natural process of oxidation. The signs of the oxidation
appear as changes in its colour, odour, and acidity level. The reaction products can clog filters and
control valves, resulting in the premature component failure and system operational problems.
Better oxidation resistance can be achieved by selecting a base fluid having inherently good
chemical stability. Antioxidant additives (oxidation inhibitors) can be used for the excellent
oxidation resistance of the fluid and the effective neutralization of undesirable acids present in the
fluid.
Corrosion Resistance: As stated earlier, corrosion occurs in the hydraulic system due to the reaction
of moisture and oxygen in the system fluid with the ferrous metal surfaces. It leads to the abrasive
wear of the close-fitting system parts and increases the leakage in the system by opening up the
tolerances of the parts. The hydraulic system encounters two potential corrosion problems. They
are (1) system rusting and (2) chemical corrosion. The rusting of the ferrous metal parts of the
system occurs when the oxygen and the moisture carried by the fluid attack these parts. The
chemical corrosion occurs as a result of the acids produced by the breakdown of the additives in the
fluid. The acids tend to attack the copper and brass parts in the system. A suitable rust inhibitor can
protect the fluid against the rusting and chemical corrosion. The additive that comes into contact
with the metal surface leaves a film on the exposed metal surface, thus preventing any corrosive
agent from reaching the surface.
Air Release Property: The leaks on the suction side of the pump in a hydraulic system can cause the
entrainment of excess air into the system fluid. The presence of a large amount of air in the fluid
tends to promote oxidation in the system. It also assists in the generation of excessive heat in the
system due to the compression and subsequent decompression of the air, while in operation.
Therefore, an essential characteristic needed of the fluid is its excellent air release feature. This
feature allows for the quick release of the entrained air from the fluid during its stay in the system
reservoir. However, a small amount of air can be tolerated during the regular operation of the
system if the fluid has excellent air release property.
Foam Resistance: Form is a mass of air bubbles that collect at the air-liquid surface in the reservoir
of a hydraulic system. The origin of foaming is usually mechanical in nature. That is; the foam may
be generated by the excessive churning of the fluid or the impingement of the return fluid at the
bottom part of the reservoir. The presence of water as well as the solid contaminants in the fluid is
another contributing factor for the excessive foaming in the fluid. If the foaming is excessive, it is
likely to be drawn into the fluid again. The fluid should, therefore, have the property of low
foaming.
Some methods of controlling the excessive foam are to design the reservoir properly, modify the
fluid’s return path geometry, and prevent the potential air leaks through the suction side piping of
the reservoir. Another method of controlling the foam is to supplement the system fluid with an
antifoam additive, such as silicon oil. However, it may be noted that the addition of excessive
amount of antifoam additive in the fluid can cause an increase in the amount of entrained air in the
fluid. The proper selection of the antifoam additive and the use of the right amount of the antifoam
additive are critical to achieving a balance between the good air release property and the low
foaming property of the fluid. If the foaming due to the fluid contamination is found to be
excessive, the fluid needs to be replaced.
Demulsibility (Water Separability): Water can contaminate the fluid in many ways. It promotes the
undesirable oxidation of the fluid, impairs the lubrication properties of the fluid, and supports the
corrosion in the system parts. Therefore, a desirable feature of the fluid is its excellent demulsibility
property. This feature allows the water to be readily separated from the fluid. Remember, highly
refined mineral oils have inherently good demulsibility property. Alternatively, the fluid can be
blended with a demulsifier that allows for the easy separation of the water from the fluid.
Heat Dissipation: Factors, such as pressure drops, fluid friction, and mechanical friction, can
generate heat in the hydraulic system. The fluid, used at higher temperatures, promotes oxidation
and might trigger the chemical breakdown of the fluid constituents, such as the anti-wear additive.
For this reason, the fluid should have enough heat dissipating capacity to effectively carry the
generated heat away from the hot spots in the system.
Stability: It is an important property of hydraulic fluids that are used in harsh industrial and outdoor
environments. It refers to the ability of a fluid medium to resist its degradation in the presence of
extreme temperatures, increased chemical activities, and/or water. That is; the fluid should have
excellent thermal, chemical, and hydrolytic stabilities for ensuring its satisfactory operation and
long service life. The following sections further elaborate these stability factors.
Thermal Stability of the fluid is a measure of its ability to resist degradation when subjected to
a combination of high temperatures and extreme shear. The operation of the system at higher
temperatures tends to accelerate the oxidation process in the fluid. Therefore, the fluid must be
carefully prepared with appropriate additives to minimize the breakdown of its constituent
elements.
Chemical Stability refers to the capability of the fluid to resist its degradation when subjected
to increased chemical activities under favourable conditions and retain its properties against
the chemical reactions taking place within the fluid. It should resist the formation of reaction
products, such as sludge and gum during its service life. Alternatively, the fluid may be
blended with suitable additives to improve its chemical properties.
Hydrolytic stability refers to the ability of the fluid to resist chemical decomposition in the
presence of water. Acids may be formed when water comes into contact with the fluid
additives. The presence of acids can cause the corrosion of metal parts in the system. It is
important to have a good hydrolytic stability for the fluid, as some water is always present in
the system.
Compatibility: The fluid used in a hydraulic system must be compatible with the materials of its
construction (i.e., metals and elastomers) to make a successful system. For example, natural rubber
is not compatible with petroleum-based fluids. For this reason, this material should not be used in
the system employing the petroleum-based fluid.
Filterability: As you know, by-products are formed in the fluid as a result of its reaction with the
contaminants present in it. The by-products can block fine and extra-fine filters used in the system.
Therefore, the fluid must be readily filterable with its ability to resist the formation of by-products.
Fire-resistance: The basic parameters of fire-resistant fluids are their resistance to ignition and
resistance to the propagation of the flame from its source of ignition. Petroleum derivatives, the
mostly used hydraulic fluids, are not fire-resistant. It is the property offered only by the specialized
hydraulic fluids. In general, high-water-based-fluids (HWBF) or synthetic fluids can be used for the
critical applications that require fire-resistance.
Flash Point: It refers to the lowest temperature at which the fluid gives off enough vapours to form
an ignitable mixture with the surrounding air. This mixture may generate flashes when the fluid is
brought into contact with a heated matter. The lower the flash point of the fluid, the easier it is to
generate flashes near the surface of the fluid.
Fire Point: It refers to the lowest temperature at which the fluid gives off an adequate amount of
vapours to its surrounding air, which is capable of supporting combustion continuously after
ignition near the surface of the fluid. The fire point is an additional property of the fluid that must
be specified for applications involving high-temperature surroundings.
Pour Point: It refers to the lowest temperature at which the fluid can flow when cooled under the
specified test conditions. It is an important property of the fluid that must be specified if the fluid is
regularly exposed to low ambient temperatures. The fluid used in a hydraulic system should have a
pour point of about 3 0C [37 0F] below the expected lowest temperature in the system.
Test your knowledge #3.1

1. A hydraulic fluid with a severe load-carrying requirement must be added with
__________________ additive.
2. _________________ (additive) reduces the dependence of the viscosity of a hydraulic
fluid on temperature.
3. The formation of acids, sludge, and varnish in a hydraulic fluid medium, points to
occurrence of ________________ in the fluid.
4. _____________ (additive) allows the easy separation of oil and water in a hydraulic fluid.
5. The ________________ is the property of a hydraulic fluid that must be specified, if it is
continuously exposed to low ambient temperatures.
[Choose from: Anti-wear additive, Cavitation, Demulsifier, Extreme Pressure, Oxidation, Pour
point, VI improver, Zinc dithiophosphate]
Categories of Hydraulic Fluids

The first fluid used for hydraulic applications was water during the early stages of the industrial
revolution. However, due to its many limiting features, such as low-lubrication and
corrosion-supporting properties, designers started using the mineral-based (petroleum) oils for
industrial hydraulic systems. Today, the overwhelming majority of hydraulic components and
systems are designed for use with the oil-based hydraulic fluids.
As the modern hydraulic systems require the high-performance hydraulic fluids to meet the
stringent requirements of these systems, manufacturers prepare varieties of hydraulic fluids apart
from the mostly used mineral-based fluids. With the use of hydraulic systems in high-temperature
environments, one particular application requirement is that the fluids must be fire-resistant.
Further, with the environmental awareness of the hydraulic system designers and the end-users,
there is an increasing demand for the ecologically safe, biodegradable hydraulic fluids. Four basic
types of hydraulic fluids are evolved over a period. Figure 3.3 shows these categories of hydraulic
fluids. The following sections explain these types of fluids.
Figure 3.3 | A pictorial representation of hydraulic fluid categories.
Mineral-based Fluids (Petroleum-based Fluids)

The petroleum-based fluids possess most of the desired properties required for the hydraulic power
transmission medium. The main advantages of using the petroleum-based fluids in hydraulic
systems are their inherent lubricating and corrosion-inhibiting properties. They are the low-cost
fluids available in a broad range of viscosities. In addition, their properties can be improved, and
their service life can be extended by blending them with suitable additives.
However, the major drawbacks of the mineral-based fluids are that they are flammable under the
normal operating conditions and can become explosive when they are subjected to high pressures
or temperatures, or both. They are also toxic and not very much bio-degradable. In addition, the
fluid used in a hydraulic system must be compatible with the constituent parts of the system,
especially the seals. In general, the petroleum-based fluids are used in systems where the possibility
of fire hazards is comparatively small. This type of fluids can be used in the electro-hydraulic
steering and deck machinery systems in ships and the hydraulic systems in submarines.
Fire-resistant Fluids
There is a growing demand for effective fire-resistant fluids for the high-temperature or hazardous
hydraulic applications, especially in mines and steel works. There have been many fluids developed
for applications sensitive to the fire hazard. Two basic types of fire-resistant fluids are (1)
High-water-based-fluids (HWBF) and (2) Synthetic fluids. The HWBFs are very much
fire-resistant due to their high water content, and they have excellent cooling characteristics. The
synthetic fluids have an exceptional fire-resistant property, but they are costly. The following
section provides the typical classification of the fire-resistant hydraulic fluids. A brief explanation
of various types of the fire-resistant hydraulic fluids is given in the subsequent section.
Classification of Fire-resistant Hydraulic Fluids

ISO 6743-4/CETOP RP 77H divides the fire-resistant hydraulic fluids into the groups HFA, HFB,
HFC, and HFD. The letter ‘H’ stands for ‘Hydraulic fluids’ and the letter ‘F’ stands for
‘Fire-resistant. The letters ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C’ represent the designations for the water-based fluids,
and the letter ‘D’ represents the designation for the water-free fluids. The following lines give a
few examples of these types of fluids:
HFA: Oil-in-water emulsions with a combustible proportion of 20% maximum.
HFB: Water-in-oil emulsions with a combustible proportion of 60% maximum. The HFB fluids
are used extensively in mining machines and some steel industries.
HFC: Water glycol solutions with a water proportion of at least 35%. The HFC fluids are used
almost exclusively in mining machines with open hydrostatic circuits.
HFD: Water-free fluids on a synthetic base.
The following sections further elaborate these high-water-based and synthetic fluids.
High-water-based-fluids (HWBF)
They can be used in hydraulic systems for the requirement of good fire-resistance. However, they
require reduced system pressures for their satisfactory operation. They are available as (1)
oil-in-water emulsions, (HFA type) (2), water-in-oil (invert) emulsions, (HFB type), and (3) water
glycol blend (HFC type). An emulsion is a blend of two different liquids in which one is finely
dispersed in the other. The emulsions are, usually, stabilized by emulsifiers. However, some stable
emulsion may eventually separate into two liquid layers. The following paragraphs present these
types of fire-resistant fluids:
Oil-in-water emulsions typically consist of up to 20% specially-refined oil and the remaining
water. The tiny droplets of oil are dispersed throughout the water. Here the fluid’s
characteristics are more like that of water than that of the oil.
Water-in-oil emulsions typically consist of 40% water and 60% oil, so that the fluid’s
characteristics are more like that of the oil than that of water. This type of fluid has superior
lubrication and friction-reducing qualities.
Water glycol is a solution of glycol (such as ethylene glycol) mixed with water along with a
number of additives to impart high viscosity, corrosion resistance, and anti-wear properties. This
fluid contains approximately 40% water to provide excellent fire-resistance. They are also
non-toxic and biodegradable. Since the glycol is antifreeze, the water-glycol mixture can be
used for applications that are likely to operate in lower atmospheric temperatures.
The water-based fluids can provide satisfactory lubrication characteristics but need to be
observed carefully to avoid undesirable problems. The surrounding atmosphere in an application,
where the fire-resistance is essential, and a water-based fluid is used, can be hot. The high
temperature can cause the water present in the fluid to evaporate, which, in turn, can cause its
viscosity to rise. Therefore, distilled water has to be occasionally added to the fluid so as to restore
its chemical balance. The water-based fluids are more expensive as compared to the conventional
petroleum-based fluids.
Synthetic Fluids
In recent years, many synthetic fluids (HFD type) have been developed to overcome the limitations
of the petroleum-based fluids. They are prepared from alkaline compounds along with certain
additives. Typical synthetic fire-resistant hydraulic fluids are (1) phosphate esters, (2) Polyol esters,
(3) halogenated hydrocarbons, and (4) mixtures of phosphate esters or Polyol esters and the
petroleum oil. The following paragraphs explain some of these types:
Phosphate esters are the reaction products of phosphoric acid and aromatic alcohols. These
fluids are extremely fire-resistant. They do not burn unless there is a flame directly focused on
them. This type of synthetic fluids is used in airplanes and other places where there is a
possibility of a fire hazard. However, their popularity has declined because of the compatibility,
environmental, and cost factors. They are also toxic.
Polyol esters are the by-products as a result of the reaction between long-chain fatty acids and
synthesized organic alcohols. Additives are added to this type of synthetic fluids to impart good
anti-wear property, corrosion protection, and viscosity improvement.
The synthetic fluids have good fire-resistance and excellent lubrication characteristics. However,
the disadvantages are that (1) they are usually more expensive than the conventional hydraulic
fluids, (2) they are often not compatible with many standard seal materials, (3) they may give off
toxic vapours, and (4) they require special disposal plan.
Biodegradable Fluids
Many hydraulic applications, primarily the outdoor applications, are liable to spill hydraulic fluid
over to ecologically sensitive soil or water. A few examples of applications include the mobile
equipment for the offshore drilling operations, timber harvesting, agricultural operations, mining,
marine, shipping, airport service fleets, construction machinery, hydraulically-operated dams,
commercial elevators, and recreational resorts. Many of the additives used in the conventional
petroleum fluids put water supplies and wildlife, particularly aquatic organisms, at risk. Therefore,
for many sensitive hydraulic applications, where fluid leakage could have an adverse impact on the
environment, there is an increasing demand for the ecologically safe ‘green’ hydraulic fluids. The
best choice of fluids for such applications is the biodegradable fluids or Environmentally
Acceptable Fluids (EAFs).
On the occurrence of spillage, a biodegradable fluid breaks into its constituent parts, as a result
of the reaction with the naturally occurring bacteria and thus prevents the long-term environmental
damage. However, remember that most things are biodegradable, given enough time and proper
conditions. Therefore, this type of fluid must be readily biodegradable by breaking down 60% of
the fluid into harmless products when exposed to the atmosphere for twenty-eight days in a
standard test. Then only it can be classified as the environmentally safe fluid. The most important
base fluids of biodegradable hydraulic fluids are (1) synthetic esters and (2) vegetable oils. The
following sub-sections briefly explain these types of fluids:
Synthetic esters are formulated for their excellent biodegradability and lubrication performance.
However, the high cost of these fluids has limited their usage in hydraulic systems. These fluids
can be used in hydraulic systems operating at sub-zero temperatures or temperatures higher than
80 0C [176 0F].
Vegetable oil, such as the rapeseed (canola) oil, has excellent natural biodegradability. The
hydraulic fluids based on the rapeseed oil are in plentiful supply and are inexpensive. They have
become the most commonly used ecologically safe hydraulic fluids. A vegetable-oil-based fluid
may be considered for a hydraulic application operating at temperatures in the range from 0 0C
to 80 0C [32 0F to 176 0F].
The biodegradable hydraulic fluids may be susceptible to the water contamination and may
exhibit poor oxidative stability, especially when their base fluids are vegetable oils. The use of the
synthetic ester base in a bio-degradable hydraulic fluid, usually, improves its water tolerance and
oxidation resistance. The biodegradable hydraulic fluids can be blended with low toxic, ashless
inhibitors, anti-oxidants, and other additives to improve their properties.
Food-Grade Fluids
The devices used for the manufacturing and packaging of beverages, food, cosmetics, and
pharmaceuticals must be hygiene-specific. These machines must be carefully designed with
food-grade fluids to provide protection from the risk of incidental contacts of food products with
the system fluids. Fluid manufacturers prepare food-grade hydraulic fluids from the highest quality,
highly refined, non-toxic Polyalphaolefin (PAO) synthetic-base fluids, a highly specialized
non-toxic food-grade additive package, and a food-grade Anti Microbicide. The food-grade fluids
need to be maintained to a high level of cleanliness, sanitation, and quality. They must also be
capable of preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi, and other pathogens.

1. The stiffness of a hydraulic fluid points to its higher _________________.
2. The _____hydraulic fluids have excellent lubricating and corrosion-inhibiting properties.
3. The ______hydraulic fluids are costly but are suitable for use in hot environments.
4. ________type of fluids is appropriate for hydraulic systems in commercial elevators and
recreational resorts.
5. __________type of fluids is appropriate for hydraulic applications in beverages and
pharmaceuticals.
[Choose from: Bio-degradable, Bulk modulus, Compressibility, Food-grade, Mineral-based,

Petroleum-based, Synthetic, Viscosity, Viscosity index]
Requirements for Hydraulic Fluids

The demands placed on modern hydraulic systems and consequently on the hydraulic fluids are
ever increasing as the industries expect greater fluid performance at higher operating temperatures
and pressures. Remember, at higher temperatures and pressures, the problems encountered by
hydraulic fluids are magnified.
Any hydraulic system requires a fluid that has the appropriate viscosity, which is not too high
and not too low. In addition, the viscosity should remain stable with the variations in temperature.
In general, hydraulic systems require fluids with many essential qualities, such as good lubricity,
anti-wear property, oxidation stability, and corrosion-inhibiting property, apart from good thermal
stability. The fluids used in the hydraulic systems must also be compatible with the materials of
their construction. Many hydraulic systems require fluids, which are fire-resistant, ecologically safe
and/or food-grade quality. Further, the fluids must be capable of providing long service life and
excellent overall performance. Figure 3.4 also gives the summarized pictorial representation of
some of the basic requirements of hydraulic fluids.
Figure 3.4 | A pictorial representation showing requirements of hydraulic fluids.
As a result of the severe performance requirements, fluid manufacturers are bringing out a
variety of hydraulic fluids with differing characteristics and performance ratings. This abundance
of fluid types makes the selection of the right type of hydraulic fluid for a particular application,
very complicated. Therefore, a good knowledge of the behaviour and properties of hydraulic fluids
is essential for a hydraulic professional to select the right type of fluid for a given application.
Hydraulic Fluid Selection

As you are aware, the proper selection of the fluid medium of a hydraulic system is very crucial for
the reliable performance of the system. It is essentially the selection of the right type of base stock
and additives. The selection of the fluid also requires careful consideration of many other factors,
as discussed below.
First of all, the selection of the fluid requires a good knowledge of the general characteristics of
the system. These system characteristics include the operating pressure, operating temperature
range, operating cycle, types of pump(s), valves and actuators used, and loads encountered by
various components of the system. It is also required to consider many application requirements,
such as the expected performance, fluid compatibility, environmental effects, and safety. Then,
selecting the best fluid requires a basic understanding of the fluid characteristics, such as the
viscosity, compressibility, lubricity, and stability. Further, it is essential to follow the
recommendations of the equipment manufacturer while selecting the fluid. These factors are
pictorially highlighted and represented in Figure 3.5. However, remember that any single fluid may
not possess all the demanding characteristics of the application, and, therefore, the designer should
select a fluid that is the best compromise for the application.
Figure 3.5 | A pictorial representation showing the grouping of fluid selection factors.
Fluid Contamination & its Control

Fluids used in hydraulic systems are subjected to various kinds of contamination, such as particles,
water, air, chemical compounds and biological matters. The contaminants can affect the physical
and chemical properties of hydraulic fluids. If the contaminants in the fluid medium of a hydraulic
system are not monitored or controlled adequately, the fluid is likely to be subjected to various
kinds of failures. These failures include the deterioration of the fluid properties and the consequent
fluid breakdown. At the system level, the fluid contamination can affect the performance and
service life of the system components and cause the erratic operation of the components, increased
heat generation, frequent fluid replacement, catastrophic system failure, and higher costs.
Therefore, the resultant cost due to the contamination can be very high. A detailed explanation of
the fluid contamination and its control, fluid cleanness standards, and fluid analysis are presented in
the remaining part of this chapter.
Contamination in Hydraulic Fluids

The fluids used in hydraulic systems are exposed to different types of contamination, such as
particles, water, air, chemical compounds, and biological matters. Figure 3.6 depicts a pictorial
representation showing the different types of contamination in hydraulic fluids. The fluid
contamination can originate within the associated system or can come from external sources. For
example, dust, dirt, and sand are contaminants that can enter the system from outside, and the
system itself can generate metal particles from the component wear and byproducts from the
chemical reactions in the fluid. The following sections present a brief explanation of these types of
fluid contaminants and the effects of fluid contamination:
Figure 3.6 | A pictorial representation showing the types of contaminations in hydraulic fluids.
Solid Particles: Particle contamination is the most common type of contamination found in
hydraulic fluids. It includes hard particles, such as the dust, dirt, silica, and wear metals, and soft
particles, such as the elastomers and fibres. The particle contamination is classified as ‘silt’ and
‘chips’, according to the size of the particles present in hydraulic systems. The silts are particles
less than 5 m. These particles can accumulate in the critical areas of a component and can cause
its failure over a period. On the other hand, the chips are particles greater than 5 m. These
particles, when present in the component, are liable to cause its catastrophic failure. However,
remember that the silt particles with the size corresponding to the typical component tolerance
are more dangerous to the system than the larger chip particles. The rubber compounds and
elastomers from hoses, bladders of accumulators, and seals of the system components tend to
degrade with age, and the degraded particles may be released into the system fluid sooner or
later.
Chemical: The chemical contaminants in the hydraulic fluid are formed by the breakdown of the
additives in the fluid, as a result of the chemical reactions. These reaction products can, in turn,
generate other contaminants in the form of acids or oxidants, especially in the presence of water
and heat.
Water: Water/moisture is virtually the universal contaminant present in hydraulic systems. It
may be introduced in a hydraulic system by way of the condensation of humid air that is in
contact with the top part of the fluid in the system reservoir or when adding a volume of new
fluid to the system from drums that may not be adequately sealed. The unprotected reservoir
opening, leaking actuator seals, and the ineffective heat exchangers in the system are other
potential means of entry of water contamination to the system. Water in hydraulic fluids remains
either in the dissolved state or in the emulsified state or in the ‘free’ state. A fluid medium can
dissolve water up to its saturation point. Above the saturation point, the water remains in the
emulsified state. The addition of more water to the emulsified fluid will eventually separate the
water from the fluid. The separated water is said to be in the free state. The dissolved or
emulsified water in the fluid can change to free water when the fluid cools. A mineral fluid can
permit water content up to100 ppm (0.01%) without adverse consequences. Once the water
content exceeds about 100 ppm, the fluid begins to appear hazy.
Air: Air can also impair the proper functioning of the hydraulic system. Air in the fluid can be
either in the ‘free state’ or in the entrained state. An air pocket trapped in a part of the system is
an example of the free air, whereas, air bubbles typically less than one millimetre (mm) in
diameter dispersed in the fluid is the entrained air. Air can enter into the fluid medium through
the system leaks, pump aeration, or fluid turbulence in the reservoir. In general, the fluids used
in hydraulic systems contain about 10% entrained air by volume.
Biological: Hydraulic fluids are susceptible to the biological contamination if the storage
conditions are favourable to the growth of microbiological matter. The growth of bacteria and
fungi can take place in hydraulic fluids contaminated with water and air. Under favourable
conditions, bacteria can reproduce exponentially.
Effects of Hydraulic Fluid Contamination

The contaminants present in hydraulic fluids are the natural enemy of the associated hydraulic
components and systems. They cause most of the hydraulic system failures. According to some
estimate, 70 to 80% of the hydraulic system failures are attributed to the adverse effects of
contaminants. Due to the existence of minuscule clearances in today’s hydraulic system
components, even the minute particles in hydraulic fluids can damage the components, such as
pumps, motors, cylinders, and valves. Solid as well as liquid contaminants causing abrasion, wear,
and corrosion have an adverse impact on the physical and chemical properties of the fluids. In
addition, the excessive water contamination in the fluids is liable to accelerate their aging process.
The following paragraphs enumerate the most important effects of contaminants present in
hydraulic systems:
Particle contamination present in the fluid medium of a hydraulic system can cause abrasion,
fatigue, and silting in the parts of the system. The abrasive particles scrap metal from the
surfaces of hydraulic components. The freely-circulating particles can cause the premature wear
of the component parts and tend to increase their internal leakages. The small particles build up
on the metal surfaces or orifices in the components and clog the flow paths of the system fluid.
The result is the sticking or jamming between the sliding parts of the components. Most of the
component replacements in a hydraulic system are due to the surface degradation caused by the
abrasion, fatigue, and adhesion in the components.
Chemical compounds, such as acids and oxidants, present in the hydraulic fluid can cause
physical and chemical changes in the additive elements of the fluid. These changes can lead to
the deterioration of the additives and the subsequent fluid breakdown.
Ingressed moisture present in the fluid can cause long-term problems for the system, in
particular. The moisture present in the fluid is capable of providing the necessary oxygen for
some potential chemical reactions in the fluid. Once the oxidation is started, other compounds,
such as acid, sludge, varnish, and resins are formed in the fluid, as a result of a chain reaction.
The sludge decreases the lubricity of the fluid, producing the scoring and friction on the
component surfaces with close tolerances. In the presence of water, the anti-wear additives in
the fluid assist in the formation of acids and consequently cause the fluid breakdown. The
chemical reaction, between the acids formed and the metal surfaces in the system component,
produces corrosion. The result of the rusting and corrosion in the component is the degradation
of the associated metal surfaces. Further, the oxidation rate increases, when the fluid is
subjected to high temperatures. Pitted and corroded metal surfaces in the component are the
result of the galvanic action due to the presence of water, heat, and dissimilar metals.
Air entrained in the fluid can cause cavitation and foaming, as it cycles through the system. The
entrained air tends to make the system operation spongy and the system response weak. The
compression and decompression of the air present in the system can generate heat and can
increase the oxidation and noise level in the system.
Excessive heat in the hydraulic system dilutes the system fluid, accelerates the natural process
of oxidation in the fluid, bakes the system seals, and blisters the system hoses. These problems
then lead to the wear and internal contamination of the system components. Fluids used at
higher temperatures might trigger the chemical breakdown of the fluid constituents, such as the
anti-wear additives.
Biological contamination in the system may grow into an interwoven mass that is likely to clog
the openings in the system. It can also produce significant waste products and acids capable of
attacking most metals in the system.

1. The presence of _______________particles is the main reason for the premature wear in
the components of hydraulic systems.
2. ________________ present in the system fluid makes the operation of a hydraulic system
spongy.
3. ___________particles in the fluid medium of a hydraulic system can cause failure of the
system over a period.
4. _________________ occurs in a hydraulic system fluid, when the moisture and the
oxygen carried by the fluid attack the ferrous metal parts in the system.
5. ________________ present in hydraulic fluids promotes oxidation and formation of rust.
[Choose from: Air, Cavitation, Chip, Contamination, Corrosion, Heat, Moisture, Oxidation, Silt]
Sources of Contamination
There are many sources of contamination present in a hydraulic system. It may be generated
internally within the fluid, or it can enter the fluid from external sources during its normal operation
or during the manufacturing or servicing time. These probable sources of contamination are briefly
explained below:
Internally-Generated Contamination: The internal operation of the system can generate
contaminants within the system. For example, metal parts may break out from the internal
surfaces of pump vanes, rod ends, and valve spools in the system. They may also appear due to
the cavitation, friction, the metal-to-metal contact of sliding surfaces in the system or the hard
particles bridging between the dynamic surfaces of the system.
Externally-admitted Contamination: This type of fluid contamination comes from the
environment surrounding the system. Dirt can enter the fluid medium through the breather caps
of the system reservoir. Metal filings can enter the fluid medium through the worn-out seals in
the system cylinders. Pieces of Teflon tape are likely to be left out in the system during the
manufacturing or servicing process, or during the repairing of the system components. Even a
volume of newly-purchased hydraulic fluid is likely to be contaminated to a level that is much
higher than the acceptable limit for the system. Further, keeping the fluid to a low level in the
system reservoir can cause more air to get into the reservoir and the consequent increase in the
contamination level in the system.
Contamination Control
If a hydraulic system is not monitored properly, the contamination level in the system tends to go
up soon. Some symptoms, such as the pump failure, premature wear, leakage, loss of fluid, sticking
valves, erratic operation, solenoid burnout, chattering noise, and/or cylinder scoring, provide an
early warning of the presence of excess contamination in the system. It is essential to control the
contamination in the system to prevent the system degradation and the progressive damage to it.
The most favourable location for monitoring and carrying out serious contamination control
activities is the system reservoir. It is the place where the system fluid gets enough dwell time, and
the particles in the system tend to settle. In general, the contamination control in a hydraulic system
primarily involves the removal of particles, water, air, sludge, acid, and chemicals, from the system
fluid.
The particles in the fluid medium of a hydraulic system can be removed by installing
correctly-sized filters at appropriate locations in the system. The removal of acids, sludge, gums,
varnishes and other oxidation products requires the use of an adsorbent filter with active type clay,
charcoal, or activated alumina. Magnets installed at appropriate places in the fluid tank can remove
the ferrous particles and rust matters from the fluid. The problems due to the air contamination in
hydraulic systems can be eliminated by providing system air bleeds and return-line diffusers. A
‘water removal’ filter or a vacuum dehydrator can be installed to remove the water from the fluid.
A heat exchanger can be installed to remove the heat from the hydraulic system. Chapter 4 presents
the details of the filtration methods in hydraulic systems.
Fluid Cleanness Standards

The present day hydraulic systems demand high-quality fluids in a clean state for their efficient
operation. As such, the cleanliness of hydraulic fluids needs to be monitored as per the relevant
standards for maintaining the components of hydraulic systems at the satisfactory level. Many
national and international organizations, including ISO, ASTM, and SAE, have developed
standards for specifying the ‘particle size classification’ and the ‘contamination concentration
levels’ of hydraulic fluids. In the following paragraphs, however, we confine mainly to the ISO
standards.
ISO 4402 and ISO 4406:1987 were the standards used some years ago for specifying the particle
size classification and the contamination concentration levels respectively. In recent times, these
standards have been amended to upgrade the contamination scales to match the present-day
application environments. At present, the particle size classification standard is the ISO
11171:2010. This standard specifies a three-dimensional size of particles (i.e., 4, 6, and 14
microns), instead of the two-dimensional size of particles (i.e., 5 and 15 microns, as specified in the
ISO 4402 standard), for representing the concentration levels of fine as well as coarse particles.
In addition, the standard for specifying the contamination concentration levels of hydraulic
fluids is the most widely used ISO 4406:1999 standard. As per this standard, the cleanness level of
a given sample of fluid can be defined by the three-number range code representation, such as
18/16/14, based on the numbers of particles of sizes greater than 4, 6, and 14 microns respectively
present in one ml of the sample fluid.
The first two range codes, corresponding to the 4+ and 6+ micron particles, are used as a
reference for the measure of silt particles present in one ml of the fluid medium. The last range
code corresponding to the 14+ micron particles indicates the amount of coarse particles present in
one ml of the fluid medium. Table 3.2 provides the range of particles per ml for each of the range
codes from 21 to 11. Further, Table A7.1 of Appendix 7 provides the complete range codes from 1
to 30.
Table 3.2: A sample of contamination code rating as per the ISO 4406:1999
Range code Number of particles per ml
> <=
21 10 000 20 000
20 5 000 10 000
19 2 500 5 000
18 1 300 2 500
17 640 1 300
16 320 640
15 160 320
14 80 160
13 40 80
12 20 40
11 10 20
For example, consider the measured cleanliness level 18/16/14 of the hydraulic fluid as per the
ISO 4406. The three numbers 18, 16, and 14 represent the range codes for the numbers of particles
of sizes greater than 4, 6, and 14 microns respectively, present in one ml of the fluid. It can be seen
from Table 3.2 that corresponding to the range code 18, the number of particles of size greater than
4 microns present in the fluid lies in the range from 1301 to 2500. In a similar way, the numbers of
particles of sizes greater than 6 microns and 14 microns corresponding to the range codes 16 and 14
respectively in one ml of the fluid can be found out from Table 3.2. The next section presents the
typical fluid cleanness recommendations for hydraulic components, expressed in terms of the
three-dimensional range codes.
The cleanness code as per the ASTM standard is D6786 that gives the count of the number of
particles with the ranges stipulated by the ISO 4406 and the SAE AS 4059 standards.
Typical Cleanliness Level Targets for Hydraulic Components

Subjecting the components of hydraulic systems to fluids with higher contamination levels than
permissible may result in much shorter lifespan of the components. For this reason, hydraulic
equipment manufacturers, fluid suppliers, and fluid power associations have established target fluid
cleanliness levels applicable for the general types of hydraulic components. These target cleanness
levels also depend on the highest pressure level in the system. In Table 3.3, a few components and
their typical target cleanliness levels, using the ISO range codes are given in the most generalized
way. The recommended cleanliness levels for the petroleum oil to be used in some hydraulic
components, at three ranges of pressure levels, namely < 140 bar [<2000 psi], 140 - 210 bar [2000 -
3000 psi], and >210 bar [>3000 psi]), using the ISO codes, are given in Table A7.2 in Appendix 7.
Remember, it is always better to discuss with component manufacturers and obtain their written
target fluid cleanliness level recommendations for the elements meant for practical applications.
Table 3.3: Typical fluid cleanness recommendations for hydraulic components

Components Range codes as per the ISO 4406 standard
Flow control valves, cylinders 21/18/15
New, unused fluid 21/18/15
Gear pumps/motors 20/17/14
Vane pumps/motors 19/16/13

Piston pumps/motors 19/16/13
Directional & pressure control valves 19/16/13
Proportional valves 18/15/12
Servo valves 17/14/11
Hydraulic Fluid Analysis

Fluid analysis can be carried out to ascertain the health of the fluid medium used in a hydraulic
system. The fluid analysis of a given sample of hydraulic fluid essentially counts the number of
contaminant particles in the fluid, detects the level of oxidation, identifies the component wear,
determines the condition of the fluid additives, establishes the overall level of system
contamination, and verifies the composition of the fluid. It may pinpoint the sources of
contamination and indicate the adequacy of the existing filtration in the system. If the analysis
meets the necessary cleanness target of the sample fluid, then we only need to continue to maintain
the filters and retest the fluid periodically. If not, appropriate actions must be taken to rectify the
problems in the system. A significant increase in the particle counts of the sample fluid indicates
many problems, such as a failed filter or a higher wear rate, in the system. Probably, it is required
to replace the existing filter with a finer grade of filter elements, and at other times, it is required to
change the maintenance practice followed in the system.
An excellent analysis of a hydraulic system fluid first establishes the target cleanness level, the
sampling location, and the testing frequency. Ensure that the sample taken from the system is a
representative sample of the system fluid. It may be noted that the visual examination of the fluid is
not an accurate method to assess its cleanliness level. Depending upon the sensitivity, the analysis
can be conducted on the fluid sample by the following methods or instruments: They are (1) Patch
test using a portable fluid analysis kit, (2) Portable laser particle counter, (3) Laboratory analysis,
and (4) On-line fluid monitoring. These methods are briefly explained below:
Patch Test: It is a simple visual analysis of the fluid sample extracted from a hydraulic system,
using the fluid analysis kit. Figure 3.7 shows the graphic of a typical patch test kit. It consists of
100x magnification field microscope, filter test patches, a vacuum pump to extract the fluid
samples from the system, sample bottles, solvent dispensing bottles, visual correlation charts or
photographs, and membrane filter forceps. In this method, a predetermined amount of fluid,
usually, 100 ml is passed through the filter media of the test patch. The patch is then dried and
analyzed under the microscope for both color and content and compared to the reference
photographs of known particle concentration levels to determine the approximate ISO cleanness
code and the type of particles captured on the patch. Higher particle levels in the fluid produce a
darker gray or more highly colored spot on the patch. This method provides an on-the-spot
analysis of cleanness levels of the fluid. However, the margin of error for this method is
relatively high due to the association of human judgment.
Figure 3.7 | A graphic showing a portable fluid analysis kit.

Courtesy: Oil Filtration Systems Inc., U. S. A.
Portable Laser Particle Counter: The contamination in hydraulic systems can be measured and
controlled by using various types of portable diagnostic devices, such as laser particle counters.
Particle counting is the most popular method used to derive the cleanness levels of hydraulic
fluids. Calibrated to ISO 11171, and evaluated to ISO 4406 and SAE AS 4059, the portable
particle counter identifies and reports the range code for the number of particles, of size greater
than a specified size, present in one millilitre (ml) of the sample fluid. Using the contamination
reference scale, the cleanness level of the fluid can then be determined. Finding more complex
parameters, such as the viscosity, water content, and wear metals, in the fluid sample would
require a full-scale laboratory analysis.
Laboratory Analysis: The laboratory analysis of the fluid sample from a hydraulic system is a
complete scrutiny of the fluid sample. Most of the qualified fluid analysis laboratories offer the
following important fluid parameters or tests amongst others:
1. Viscosity,
2. Neutralization number (Total Acid Number, TAN),
3. Water content,
4. Particle counts,
5. Spectrometric analysis for finding the wear metals, trending graphs, and
6. Photomicrography for the analysis of magnified image of the sample.
The neutralization number related to the fluid medium is a measure of the quantity of potassium
hydroxide (KOH) expressed in milligram (mg), required for neutralizing the acid present in one
gram of the fluid. This number is indicative of the age of the fluid and can be used to decide when
to replace the fluid. The spectrographic analysis of hydraulic fluid identifies and quantifies the
elemental constituents present in the fluid sample.
Online Fluid Monitoring: With the advancement of computer technology and the introduction of
sophisticated online fluid monitoring instruments, the analysis of a hydraulic system fluid can
be done on-site in a consistent manner while the system is in operation. Today’s on-line fluid
contamination monitoring instruments can detect the changes in the quality, contamination
level, and chemical composition, of a given volume of hydraulic fluid. It can also measure the
amount of wear metals present in the fluid. In this way, it is possible for the maintenance
personnel to monitor the health of the fluid in the hydraulic system on an ongoing basis.
The online monitoring of the fluid condition can be performed by connecting a particle
counter directly to the system. The flow from the system is allowed to pass through the sensor
of the particle counter, and the parametric values can be read directly from the instrument. The
measurements are automatically stored in the instrument, and this stored data can be used to
print reports in a wide variety of formats. In addition, the stored data can be transmitted to a PC,
thus, providing the user with the flexibility in the analysis of data. This method requires no
sample containers and clean-room facilities. It provides accurate and repeatable results. The
online monitoring of the fluid also assists in extending the intervals between the fluid changes
and reducing the wastage and maintenance costs.

1. ________________ is the international standard for specifying the particle size
classification of hydraulic fluids.
2. ________________ is the international standard for specifying the contamination
concentration levels of hydraulic fluids.
3. 4, 6, and __ are the three critical particle sizes as per the current ISO standard for
specifying the contamination concentration levels in hydraulic fluids.
4. ______________ is the course of action for establishing the overall level of contamination
in the power transmission medium of a hydraulic system.
5. ______________ is a portable diagnostic device used in the analysis of hydraulic fluids.
[Choose from: 14, 15, 16, Dehydration, Fluid analysis, ISO 11171, ISO 4406, Laser particle
counter, Patch test kit)
Disposal of Hydraulic Fluids

The fluid used in a hydraulic system must be disposed of when it is unsuitable for use in the
system. The disposal of the used hydraulic fluids has always been a problem as they are, usually,
considered to be harmful to the environment. With the introduction of synthetic fluids, the problem
has become even more complicated. The used hydraulic fluids are always associated with financial
consequences. Local laws govern the manner of disposal of hydraulic fluids. For this reason, in
recent times, the recycling or reclaiming of used hydraulic fluids has gained importance to reduce
the fluid disposal concerns.
Reclaiming Hydraulic Fluids

Dirty hydraulic fluids can be recycled or reclaimed. The recycling is the process of filtering a dirty
hydraulic fluid to a prescribed cleanness level, for the purpose of reusing. The reclaiming process
not only cleans the fluid but also restores the base stock and additives to a prescribed level of
cleanliness. The following paragraph briefly explains the multistage process of reclaiming
hydraulic fluids.
The opening phase of the reclaiming involves gravity settling, which eliminates the water and
dirt. In the second phase, the fluid is chemically treated with adsorbents to remove the unwanted
elements from the fluid. This phase is time-consuming, as the fluid must be tested throughout the
period to ensure satisfactory results. Finally, the test results are used to determine the type of
additives required to be added to the partly reclaimed fluid to bring it back to the proper
specifications.
Objective Type Questions

1. An ideal hydraulic fluid is the one which
a. behaves like a perfect gas
b. has zero viscosity and remains perfectly stiff
c. can flow through pipes with high inertia
d. possesses a low bulk modulus
2. Which is not a function of hydraulic fluids?

a. Transmit power
b. Lubricate system parts
c. Store energy
d. Seal clearances
3. What is the typical range of viscosities for hydraulic fluids measured at 40 0C?
a. 01 to 10 cSt
b. 10 to 400 cSt
c. 100 to 400 cSt
d. 100 to 1000 cSt
4. Viscosity Improver (VI) can be used in a hydraulic fluid to:

a. improve the viscosity of the fluid
b. stabilize the viscosity against the variations in temperature
c. prevent fluid breakdown against high shear stress
d. protect the integrity of the fluid against the harsh working condition
5. Extreme pressure additive is used in a hydraulic system fluid to:

a. prevent the metal-to-metal contact of sliding surfaces
b. prepare the fluid for high-pressure applications
c. stabilize the viscosity of the fluid against high-pressure
d. improve the load-carrying capacity of the fluid
6.
6. Multi-grade hydraulic fluids are:
a. fluids with VI improvers
b. fluids without VI improvers
c. a mixture of different grades of fluids
d. a class of fluids with high ISO Viscosity Grades
7. An anti-wear additive added to most of the hydraulic fluids is the:

a. Polyalphaolefins
b. Silicone oil
c. Zinc dithiophosphate
d. Polymethacrylates
8. Oxidation of hydraulic fluid causes:

a. the breakdown of fluid constituents
b. the formation of acids, sludge, and varnish
c. the increases of lubricity of the fluid
d. All of the above
9. Demulsibility property of a hydraulic fluid allows:

a. the heat to be quickly dissipated from the fluid
b. the water to be readily separated from the fluid
c. the air to be released from the fluid
d. None of the above
10. Hydrolytic stability of hydraulic fluid indicates the resistance against:

a. shear stress
b. heat
c. pressure
d. None of the above
11. The ISO standard for specifying contamination concentration levels in hydraulic fluids is the:
a. ISO 4402
b. ISO 4406
c. ISO 11171
d. ISO 1209
12. The appropriate fluid cleanness specification for a servo application as per the ISO 4406 could
be:
a. 21/18/15
b. 20/17/14
c.
c. 19/16/13
d. 17/14/11
Questions
1. What are the primary and supporting functions of hydraulic fluids?
2. What are the characteristics expected of an ideal hydraulic fluid?
3. How are real-world hydraulic fluids different from the ideal hydraulic fluid?
4. How are hydraulic fluids prepared?
5. Why are hydraulic fluids supplemented with additives during their preparation?
6. Mention five additives used in the preparation of hydraulic fluids.
7. List ten properties of hydraulic fluids.
8. Briefly, explain the viscometric characteristics required of hydraulic fluids?
9. What are the adverse effects of using low viscosity fluids in hydraulic systems?
10. What are the adverse effects of using highly viscous fluids in hydraulic systems?
11. Why is it significant to determine the correct viscosity of the fluid for a given hydraulic
application?
12. Explain what the viscosity index of a fluid means.
13. Differentiate the terms ‘viscosity’ and ‘viscosity index’ of hydraulic fluids.
14. What is the primary function of VI improvers?
15. What is the viscometric requirement of hydraulic fluids used in systems operating on wide
variations in temperatures? Briefly, explain how we can achieve the requirement.
16. List some hydraulic applications, where high viscosity index fluids are essential.
17. What are the effects of varying the temperature on the viscosity of the fluid in a hydraulic
system?
18. What are the effects of using fluids with higher compressibility in hydraulic systems?
19. Explain the role played by hydraulic fluids in reducing friction between working surfaces in
hydraulic devices.
20. Describe the lubricity property of hydraulic fluids.
21. What are extreme-pressure (EP) additives as used in hydraulic fluids?
22. How does the extreme-pressure (EP) additive in a hydraulic fluid act while in use?
23. What is the purpose of formulating hydraulic fluids with anti-wear additives?
24. Differentiate between the following: EP additives and anti-wear additives

25. Give a brief note on zinc dithiophosphate (ZDP) fluid additive.
26. Explain the need for excellent oxidation resistance for hydraulic fluids.
27. What are the adverse effects of oxidation in a hydraulic fluid?
28. What essential measures can be taken to protect a hydraulic fluid against oxidation?
29. Briefly, explain the corrosion problems in hydraulic systems.
30. What are the necessary measures that can be taken to improve the corrosion resistance property
of hydraulic fluids?
31.
31. What are the effects of oxidation, system rusting and chemical corrosion in hydraulic fluids?
32. Explain the process of formation and effects of the foam in hydraulic fluids.
33. Explain the importance of having low foaming property for hydraulic fluids. Suggest a method
for achieving the low foaming property of a hydraulic fluid medium.
34. What is the importance of having good air release property for a hydraulic fluid?
35. What are the adverse effects of air present in hydraulic fluids?
36. What are the effects of water present in hydraulic fluids?

37. What are the adverse effects of operating hydraulic fluids at higher temperatures?
38. State the reasons for the heat build-up in the fluid medium of a hydraulic system.
39. What are the factors affecting the overall stability of hydraulic fluids? Explain.
40. What are the adverse effects of using hydraulic fluids at higher temperatures?
41. What actions may you take to improve the thermal stability of hydraulic fluids?
42. Give a brief account of the chemical stability of hydraulic fluids?
43. Give a brief account of the hydrolytic stability of hydraulic fluids?
44. Briefly explain, with examples, the compatibility issue of seal materials with hydraulic fluids.
45. Give a brief note on the filterability of hydraulic fluids.
46. Explain the fluid property terms: (1) Demulsibility and (2) filterability.
47. Briefly explain the following hydraulic fluid property terms: (1) Pour point, (2) flash point and
(3) fire point.
48. What are the essential properties of hydraulic fluids? Discuss any four of them in detail.
49. What are the main classes of hydraulic fluids? List their distinguishing features.
50. Briefly, explain the advantages and disadvantages of petroleum-based fluids used in hydraulic
systems.
51. Briefly, explain the two basic types of fire-resistant fluids?
52. What are the different types of water-based fluids used in hydraulic systems?
53. What are the essential characteristics of water-based fluids?
54. What precautions can you take while maintaining water-based fluids used in hydraulic
applications?
55. What are high-water-based-fluids (HWBF)?
56. Differentiate oil-in-water emulsions and water-in-oil emulsions.
57. Give a brief account of synthetic hydraulic fluids.
58. Differentiate between the following: (1) Water-based and (2) Synthetic fire-resistant fluids
59. Give a brief note on eco-friendly hydraulic fluids.
60. What are the areas of application for biodegradable fluids? Explain.
61. How do ecologically-safe hydraulic fluids protect the environment?
62. How fluid manufacturers typically formulate biodegradable fluids?
63. Give a brief account of food-grade hydraulic fluids.
64. Differentiate monograde and multi-grade hydraulic fluids.
65.
65. What are the general requirements for hydraulic fluids?
66. What are the important factors you may consider while selecting a hydraulic fluid for a given
application?
67. What would happen, if a maintenance technician does not control contaminants in a hydraulic
system?
68. How does the fluid in a hydraulic system get contaminated?
69. What are the different types of contaminants present in hydraulic fluids? Briefly, explain each
type.
70. Describe effects of particle contamination in hydraulic systems.
71. Explain the effects of water present in hydraulic systems.
72. Explain the effects of oxidative reactions in hydraulic fluids.
73. Describe the effects of excessive heat on the fluid medium of a hydraulic system.
74. Why is the cost of contamination very high in hydraulic systems? Explain.
75. What are the reasons for the fluid breakdown in hydraulic systems?
76. How does fluid contamination destroy hydraulic components?
77. What are the sources of contamination in hydraulic fluids? Briefly, explain.
78. Briefly, explain a typical approach to good contamination control in hydraulic systems.
79. Mention some of the symptoms of excessive contamination in hydraulic systems.
80. Enlist some necessary measures to avoid contamination in hydraulic systems.
81. What are the ways to remove particle contaminants from a hydraulic system?
82. What are the ways to remove water from a hydraulic system?
83. What are the ways to remove air from a hydraulic system?
84. What are the ways to remove heat from a hydraulic system?
85. Explain various ways of conditioning hydraulic fluids.
86. State steps you may take to avoid contaminated fluid being reused in a hydraulic system.
87. What measures may you take to maximize the life of hydraulic systems?
88. Explain the ISO cleanness standards for evaluating the contamination level of hydraulic fluids.
89. Explain the meaning of the fluid cleanness level 18/16/13 as per the ISO 4406 standard.
90. Is the ISO range code of 17/18/15 better than the range code of 17/14/11? Explain.
91. Why is it essential to conduct the fluid analysis in a hydraulic system?
92. Explain the laboratory analysis of hydraulic fluids.
93. Why maintenance technician take samples of hydraulic fluid during preventive maintenance of
hydraulic systems?
94. Explain the procedure to conduct the fluid analysis of the fluid in a hydraulic system.
95. What are the two important maintenance actions in a healthy hydraulic system?
96. What are the corrective measures necessary, if the health of the fluid used in a hydraulic
system is not meeting the target cleanliness levels?
97. Mention two important methods used for finding the fluid cleanness level of the fluid in a
97.
hydraulic system. Briefly, explain any one method.

98. What are the expected results of the fluid analysis of a hydraulic fluid?
99. What are the advantages of the on-line monitoring of hydraulic fluids?
100. Give a brief note on each of the following: (a) Hydraulic fluid cleanness, (b) The disposal of
used hydraulic fluids, and (c) The recycling and reclaiming of hydraulic fluids.
References
1. Article on: ‘Clean up hydraulic circuits’, by Phillip Johnson, PlantServices.com
2. Article on: ‘Contamination Control - A Hydraulic OEM Perspective’, by R.W. Park, BE
(Hons), MIE Aust., CP Eng., Managing Director, Moog Australia Pty Ltd.
3. Article on: ‘Hydraulic Fluid Care Guide’, MTS Systems Corporation, Minnesota, USA.
4. Article on: ‘Oil Analysis 101, Part 1 of 2’, by Daniel P. Walsh, Business Development
Manager, National Tribology Services Inc.
5. Article on: ‘Reclaiming hydraulic oil eliminates disposal problems’, by W. Stofey and M.
Horgan, assistant editor.
6. Article on: ‘WHY OIL NEEDS ON-LINE MONITORING’, by Zhang Qisheng, Zhao Jingyi
and Li Shuli, Fluid Transmission and Control Institute, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao,
P.R.China.
7. Article on Hydraulic contamination - part 1&2’, Penton Media, Inc. & Hydraulics &
Pneumatics magazine.
8. Document on: ‘A guide to contamination control for hydraulic and lubrication systems
Brochure: FDHB138GB1’, www.parker.com
9. Document on: ‘Eaton® Hydraulic Fluid Recommendations’ Eaton Corporation, U. S. A.
10. Document on: ‘Industrial Hydraulics’, Donaldson Europe B.V.B.A., www.donaldson.com
11. Document on: ‘ISO Cleanliness Levels, Fluid Service Catalog’, HYDAC
12. Document on: ‘Water Based and Synthetic Fire-Resistant Fluids’, RA 09 296/06.98, Rexroth
Bosch Group.
13. Document on Cat® Hydraulic Systems, Management Guide, Caterpillar, www.cat.com
14. Donaldson Technical Reference Guide "The Blue Pages," Donaldson Company, Inc., U. S. A.,
www.donaldson.com
15. Filtration Catalog Technical Catalog, Eaton, Eden Prairie, MN, USA.
16. Fluid Condition Handbook, MP FILTRI S.p.A.

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Chapter 3 Hydraulic Fluids

State how hydraulic fluids are prepared.

Functions of Hydraulic Fluids

assist these systems in the removal of contaminants and heat,

Characteristics of an Ideal Hydraulic Fluid

Preparation of Hydraulic Fluids

Table 3.1 Some hydraulic fluid additives and their functions

Figure 3.1 | A schematic diagram summarizing hydraulic fluid characteristics

for the basic concepts of the viscosity index.

critical applications that require fire-resistance.

Test your knowledge #3.1

Categories of Hydraulic Fluids

Figure 3.3 | A pictorial representation of hydraulic fluid categories.

Mineral-based Fluids (Petroleum-based Fluids)

Classification of Fire-resistant Hydraulic Fluids

Test your knowledge #3.2

[Choose from: Bio-degradable, Bulk modulus, Compressibility, Food-grade, Mineral-based,

Requirements for Hydraulic Fluids

Figure 3.4 | A pictorial representation showing requirements of hydraulic fluids.

Hydraulic Fluid Selection

Fluid Contamination & its Control

Contamination in Hydraulic Fluids

Effects of Hydraulic Fluid Contamination

Test your knowledge #3.3

Fluid Cleanness Standards

Typical Cleanliness Level Targets for Hydraulic Components

Table 3.3: Typical fluid cleanness recommendations for hydraulic components

Vane pumps/motors 19/16/13

Hydraulic Fluid Analysis

Figure 3.7 | A graphic showing a portable fluid analysis kit.

Test your knowledge #3.4

Disposal of Hydraulic Fluids

Reclaiming Hydraulic Fluids

Objective Type Questions

2. Which is not a function of hydraulic fluids?

4. Viscosity Improver (VI) can be used in a hydraulic fluid to:

5. Extreme pressure additive is used in a hydraulic system fluid to:

7. An anti-wear additive added to most of the hydraulic fluids is the:

8. Oxidation of hydraulic fluid causes:

9. Demulsibility property of a hydraulic fluid allows:

10. Hydrolytic stability of hydraulic fluid indicates the resistance against:

24. Differentiate between the following: EP additives and anti-wear additives

36. What are the effects of water present in hydraulic fluids?

hydraulic system. Briefly, explain any one method.

16. Fluid Condition Handbook, MP FILTRI S.p.A.

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