er aeeeee ELECTRIE' ‘ciRCUIT ANALYSISAcquistion Ear Bil Zarit Mating Mamgee Kaiten Hep Throne Gene dil Sesio Designee Harry Nolan Ineor Design Miho! one (Cover Des Sue Nol Desi {Cover hess” Dr JvemyBurge/Stnce Pho Lian Photo Research Toe ook sprinted on aie apes Cope 01 © te Wie Sen a Ali el, No tf his elie may be ne, ol rel ee a mid ay frm oy ay mea. ceo, Incl phoecprig einem te, eel period Sei 07 e101 Une Sates ‘yi Ae sto ee hep write porn Paes esprit p= ‘Ste Copy Crna Cor 2 Reta es Dame a5) 80 fx OP) Oa Ree he ae Ferm Sd be eth Rosson Deut iy Sb Td vec, Now Yt NY 108015 [Stzasowr fx a2 esse ema PERUREOGWILEY COM, “oe onl e100, 25388 rel ample Pte Ere Pen ado Chappe get dirt sin mero su te me eT test tor et est cnn ce iges ely. Thee sl ‘tcl naming he coat dry enw en cr mite, We wes Your cme sao Conn Cigna Da mice SE anni yet imarmeeraeTo the humane and compassionate reaiment of animals Everything should be made as simple as possible, but no simpler ‘Albert EinsteinPreface ‘his ttir inne fis oes serene ambi cic, The ga > _—=——s—rti“<‘i‘ iéers~;~sésés—s—ssSsS™™ WP ang te ny ofc ssn seven ee se cto mpi ‘ecortaea wel ss Snipa mcg Oy ov tps aoe ery ‘Ssh lel an cl Hens ot nee 3 — =—=—<(aCmsesrsssrssst oo r—r—_— —s—~—-—“‘— 7 not metalic conduciors such a wires, cuent is exclusively the movement of negative fie electons. Tus the charges are moring opposte to the dvctin of he current designation, ‘the net postive charge movement ie neverbees i the diction we designate fori). lect currents produce forces as do saoury electric charges. The forces produced by cues (movement of charge are called magnetic res, and they posses many of the proper ties of thowe produced by onary bat magnets. Fgure 7b shows thatthe magnetic fl ines outa current re eyliniria, as opposed tothe electric eld lines of stationary charges, which fe directed rally avery fom the charge. The drection of the magnet fl lines i given by the vighehand rl ifthe thumb of the right hands potd inthe direction of the caret tbe Fingers wll point inthe drction ofthe magnetic fel. The needle ofa compass that is plein this field wil align with the fel ln.4.3 Current and Magnetic Forces © 9 Exercise Problem 1.5 “The curentie messed a pont ns condor ie found to be given by 4) = O fort = 0, = 501 = €-2)A for == I sand i) = 31.9450 A for = 1s, Determine the net postive charge tanec past this pont in the econ ofthe cutet at (a) = 03 5, (r= Is= 35, Anowers, 496 C, 082 C, 2838 C. Exercise Problem 1.6 “The postive charge passing a point othe sight is skached in Fig, B16. Determine the ‘erent ected othe right ove the various tine itera. Figure £1.6 Exereie Problem 16. Anowers: UA for0-a Exercise Problem 1.7 ‘The current directed to the right sketched in Fig. E17. Determine the net positive charge using the pot othe righ at = 05, 1,2, 3,458 Pi Figure £1.7 “xerie Problem 17. Aner: 1,2 1,0, 161.6.10 + Basic Defini sn and Laws TCI Ta let il of statnary charges extends throughout space, as 4.4 Lumped Circuit doce the magnetic Held due to the movement of charge. The crit. Elements and Power lenis that we will useto mode! electri circuits utilize these fields. vi Athough these ls ae dud ought sore, we wil consider hei effec ob com Le may 1 sone sal region bot he lec Ths we il ump thm into bes as shown in Fig, 19. We refer to there symbols a lnped elements. Each element has two termi nal id by sscited with, which we refer tas nodes. The element also as woiage (), ‘between the two terminals and acura, (), etring one ed ofthe element and exiting the ‘lie. The determination of hese clement voltages and curens fra particular interconnection ‘of elements wl be ou goa in cicut analysis In Chapters 2 and 5 we wil discuss the specific ‘ppes of electri eel lemons the boxes may coun. For the moment we wil leave the ele~ tment ypesundesignte, sine the various intrcounecton lw that govern these voltages and ‘Cents fra parol interconsecton of element ae not dependent on the types of elements ‘within the boxes ‘we nb the element voltage and current shown in Fg. 1.9, whee the current as- sumed enter te terminal of assumed higher vallge, ten the element voltage and eurent re ‘aid tobe labeled wit the passive sign convention. The origin ofthis terminology has odo with the power delivered oor delivered ty the element T determine this we wrt the instantaneous [power delivered othe element atthe time derivative ofthe energy stored inthe clement an “The unit of power isthe wat (W), where |W = 115. Thus the instantaneous power delivered to (absorbed by) a element at some tne isthe prot of the voltage and current assoctaed with ‘hat element time then the voltage and curen are labeled with he passive sgn convention. Trond to lst this concept of poner deivered tan element, consider charging ds- charged utomebile bry by connesting io fly charge one shown in Fig. 1.10. Connec- ing the + ternal and coonectng th ~ terminal, the fly charged baer supplies curent fut is postive terminal it the postive termina ofthe discharged battery, Since the eurrent Teaves the postive texinal ofthe filly charged ater. itis ait be delivering (40) wats oF [poner The caren enters the postive terminal of te dacharged batery, and ence this batey is En to be absorbing v()i0) walls of power, These inpartant concepts are summarized in Fi... The readers advised to tay and comm to memery al aspects of Fig 111 Figure 112 shows several example of power calculation that shoud be tied carey “The safest course of ction ito formulate he pore expression based onthe voltage and current sumed planes andthe subsite the aumeral values ito that expression For example, fonsder Fig 1124 Since the assumed curent dcction enters the negative terminal of the 2X Figure 1.9 ‘Alumped cit clement and its sociated voltage and cure.1.4 Lumped Circuit Elements and Power #11 Figure 1.10 Charging discharged automobile batery to illstate the concept of power delivered tor absorbed by an element nd the pusive sign convention, “ (eroue nia) em) Figure 1.11 Tustraton ofthe power delivered to absorbed by) an cleat ad the ower dtvered by the element - are a Pn ny tty By eat aad Poti Se Figure 1.12 Examples of te computation of power delivered tor by an element12 + Basic Definitions and Laws assumed voltage (or equivalently, eves the posve ina ofthe assumed voltage) the power olvered by this clement is Equivalent, we may sy that this element is absorbing ~6 W of pone, Exercise Problem 1.8 Determine the powers delivered to (absorbed hy) te slemens of Fig. ES Figure 1.8 7 7 eres Problem 18 Anowers: ~48, 15,14, 20. [Anclecre cet an interconnection ofc clement. Figure 1.13 shows an example ‘of an elec circuit Each elements labeled Witt a curent anda vole, which ae given ‘hnumed polarities Our task wl bet termine the sumeical values of hase element volages fa carens such that they satisfy ceva Laws fortis particular interconnection I the following sections we wil ody the avs that govern the voliages andthe currents of particular fmtewonnction, Kirehois cutent nw (KCL) dictates bow the currents of & paricular interconnection are relied in order to satisfy cerain physical laws (conservation of charg) Kirchot?s voltage law (KVL) dates how the voltages of 2 particular ifereonnetion are Featedin order fo sso sts certain physical laws (conservation of energy), In ar chapters we ‘wl study the various types of eit elemeats fat te boxes may contain. These element ‘elation either elite the clement voltage and eure to eachother (eg a ress) or dictate the ‘ale ofthe element voliage rcuret (source), Fr the moment we study the interconnection Tews KVL and KCL, which ae independent ofthe types of mens. Figure 1.13 gration ofan elec cruit a a particular inereonecton of ere elements1.5 Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) + 13 4.5 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KEL) 0c ne eens one a eit s-gach other. For example, consider the connection of five element ta node shown in Fie 114 KCL ca be stad in any of tee ways: © YELLS rhe sum ofthe currents entering a node mast equal ero (189) For Fig. 1.14, his wansaes Ati tnteinty sine a current ening anodes equivalent tothe negative of hat cute entering hat node an ge vera Alternatively, we may wite KCL as ‘The sum ofthe current leaving anode mus gual zr (18) For Fig. 1.14, thi eases to CHEW T Et C=O Since both hse results sum 022, the thi alternative(abih he author prefers) fo write KeLat Spent entering » node mus of the crrnts oie that nae G) For Fig. 14, this wansatesto KCL must be satisfied at all nodes of a circuit, Fer example, consider te crit of Fig. 1.15. Applying KCL atl odes yee a the ender should vei) rede Oni ti node bf +i +i =0 rode Omi ode heheh node er ode f thes ode in ode fthen hs ode Rabtetiy Figure 1.14 Mhasatin of Kirctoos cute law (KCL),14 + Basic Definitions and Laws Figure 1.15 ltaton of Kicebhos erent aw (KCL), [KCL aleo apis to lager, closed regions oa circuit elle supermodes. supernode i any clase region whose boundary intersects a iret element only once. Alternatively, Stpemode isa set of cloments which when remaved separates the ell ino two pars. A ‘Stpernode is shown in Fig. 1S. supernode encloses ast of nodes ofthe eu. Applying KEL tothe supernode yes beat htly [But KCL at this sperode is simply the sum ofthe KCL. equations forthe nodes within the superode: mole tat mode why ode nhl ode whe ht hot he = a= et b+ hn KCL is equivalent othe statment that nodes (or uperodes) cannot aecumuat o store ‘harge—whatever charge ers anode most immediatly leave hat node Hence KCL isa tat Ineo of conservation of charge, For example, i the total net postive charge entering a node is denoted by Q, = Q, + 0; ~ 0, nd Qy = Other it flows iat = dd de 0, Determine the caret jn jy inthe crit of Fig. 1.16by applying KCL. ‘Solution ‘The key t applying KCL t deeemine an unknown curent is o Joo for 8 ‘node such that only ope current etring or leaving itis unknown, Node d satis this s0 we ‘write KCL there yield 443. 2A1.5 Kirchhofi’s Current Law (KCL) + 15 siving Knowing , we can move lo node a and obtain i tutsano Substuting the vale of = ~1 A that was just determined gies 4a-3a Finally, we can apply KCL at node bo obtain i Satie 2An0 viving iano We could have also applied KCL at node co obtain fom ferent ‘Substituting the previously determined valve of = ~3. ito this again gives, = —6. ‘We could also have applied KCL to the supernde contining nodes a and das shown in Fig 16 0 obain Paarerre ving, = -3, Example 1.4 Determine the cures i oi i inthe cet o Fig 1.17 by applying KCL. Solution Aguin, the key to using KCL wo dtermire unknown cures st look for odes where only oe current in an atached branch i nknown, Nodes a ad f ually 50 writing KCL at these gies ode 2A=G4IA nodef: L+1A=4A, Solving these gues, = 1A andi, = 3A. Applying KCLat node b gives tani, ‘Substising the previously determined value o ode gies 1A gives i, = 3A Applying KCL at 3A+,16 + Basic Definitions and Laws Figure 1.17 Example 14 ‘Substinting the previously detemnined valve of, = 3 A yields, = 6 A. And now we ae sbleto determine the emainng ure, by aplying KCL to node co obtain +i+2A+2A=0 Subsinting the previously determined value off, = 6 A yields i, = —10 A. Thee ae Several soperodes One is dam in Fig. 1.17. Agpiviag KCL at that superode yields 2AHIASL TIA sin yielding = 3 Example 1.5 Determine current inj fin he cit of Fig. .18 by aplying KCL, ‘Solution Again we look for nodes such th there only one unkown cure in the attached branches: Nodes dand ear the only ides hat quality, so we apply KCL to node ‘aro obain At IAS3A ivingj, = 2A. Knowing this, we may apply KCL at node co obtain 4+2e +481.5 Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) +17 Substmting the previously determined value of, = 2 gives, at node a0 obtain A Next we apply KCL ii ee6ay=0 Substinting the previously determined vale of, = 4 gives, = 2A. And fall we apply KCL at node 510 give tht aaea Substinting th previously detemined value of, = 2 gies, = ~$ A. KCL writen at node e confine these eu (6A) 430-2444 sein giving, Exercise Problem 1.9 Inthe cet of Fig. E19, determine iy Figure £1.9 Boreie Problem 19. Exercise Problem 1.10 Inthe iret of Fig. E110, determine iy Figure £1.10 xerie Problem 11018 + Basic Definitions and Laws n \ Exercise Problem 1.11 Inthe cet of Fig E11, terme iy | Answers: 2A, “1A, “SA. Te Kirchhaf¥'s Voltage Law (ivi inflam er rb eet cireuit Before stating KVL we nso define the tems volo drop, voltage ise and iret lop. ‘Consider Fig. 1.19. A eit loop is a elon path formed by selecting a starting node proceeding though te circ elements in that pth, and retwrning 10 the starting node going through an elmen only once, The loop shown Sars at node a (an arbitrarily chosen starting ode), process though clement 1 io node b, thn though element 20 node chen through ‘Semen 0 node d, and rets to the staring noe by proceeding through element 4, Observe {har not only des actu loop have ast of elements trough which passes, but thre is also {3 dieton of movement associated with that chosen loop, We abit ele that drction of | Tnovement once we select the path. We could ehcose either a clockwise or a counterclockwise tizecton of movement, and citer dsetion of tral would be acceptable. "Next we define te terms voliag rise and volage hop. Consider Fig, 1.20. An clement has teen labeled with an assumed volgen an acme polar of that volnge, I the movernent ‘Sound the bop proceeds trough an element inthe direction toward the terminal of assumed figer voltage ae shown in Fig 1-2e, we say tat we have traversed the clement in the direction ff wltage rise of vale On the oe and ifthe detion of taversal hasbeen toward the termina of loner voltage a shown in Fig. 1-208, vey tht we bave traversed the element in he tivecton ofa voltage drop of value. These noon stem fom the idea that if we moe a positive ‘rg around the loop through the clement, ssmovement wll equire energy expenditure on ‘ourpr if we proceed in the direction of voltage rise and vie versa fora volage drop. Tiss ‘or similar 0 iing a mas above the surface ofthe earth, in which ease we sy that we have Imoved the object in he dretion of gravitatonl potential is. he de Figure 1.20 Figure 1.19 stration of the concepts of losin fa cst loop (a) vohage rte and (2) voltage drop.1.6 Kirchhofi’s Voltage Law (KVL) + 19 ‘Kites voltage law canbe stated in any of tre ways The sum ofthe voltage rises encountered i avesing a lop mast equal ze (1.98) For Fig. 119, this wansates 0 tert (wrt =0 ‘since a vliage drop i equivalent othe negative of the corsponding voltage ie and vce vers Alteratvely, we may wate KVL a The sum ofthe voltage dops encountered in ravesing a loop must equ ero (1.9) For Fig. 19, this ans to Coy toto +eng=o Since both these results sum to 220, the thi alternative wich the author prefers) is to write KVLas (196) For Fig. 119, hit ranaatesto [KYL mst be satisfied around al loops ofa ere. The reader ecstoned that one sign error in any ofthese KVL equation renders the entire set notes 50 we must be very earful to apply KVL correctly The same applies lo KCL, but KVL seem o give more dificult han KCL. The author prefers the following method, Consider Fig. 1.19 once agsin. Draw an imagi- ary ine bisecting the loop so that some ofthe cru elements eon one seo the lin id the ‘emaiing elements of the loop are on the the sde The lation choten for thi lini ata, Nex abit label ne end ofthis lin as postive (+) aed the ther end as negative (~)- This Js shown forthe lop of Fig. 1.19 in Fig, 1.21, Then wrte KVL by equating the sum ofthe ‘voltages onthe eft side ofthe ln that have cz postive values om the positive end ofthe line {othe sum ofthe volages on the right sie ofthe line tat have thst positive values on the pos tiveend of the lie, Voltages that ave tice negative end one poitve end of the line ae etered as pegatve quate. For example, from Fig. 1.21 we have ‘This seemingly trivial method has proven to minimize signerrors. As smother example, consider the cuit oop shown in Fig 122: Wing KVL inthis fashion yields A424 CDT CD =A ED HCD+ Figure 1.21 stration of method for eorety writing KVL with reference tothe ciel of Fig. 19,20 + Basic Definitions and Laws Figure 1.22 Avotber example llstating 3 method for ‘oresly writing KVL. Figure 1.23 has the imaginary tne drawn hough it with the -+and ~ ends labeled. Weng KVL i he ave fashion lel (as the eadr should verify) perress1.6 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) + 21 ee Ss ; Figure 1.24 “The seven loops in the cicuit of Fig. 1.23, with KVL writen for se,22 + Basic Definitions and Laws © Figure 1.25 ‘A tefl variant ofthe method fr writing KVL when only ~~ ae volgen th lop is ukxow, “Tee is wsefil variant ofthis method of writing KVL tat is used when one wishes to termine an unknown volage ina loop. Fr exanple, consider Fig. 125. The only unknown in the lop is the voltage vThe bieetng ine i drat so hat onthe element associated with, Ison one side andthe ceaining element ae on be other side. The + sign ofthe isting line isssiged othe same end asthe + sign of , Weting KVL for this gives va a342- Chet CDtd v Figure 1.26 shows another application of this variant All he voltages in the loop consisting of | ‘ements AACDE are known excep the vollage varors element 4 Placing the bisecting line so {hat element ison on sie wth he sigh of he bisecting ine on the same end asthe + sign of gives pe -2+Cn-3--2) nav “The reader is well vied wo study this simple but effective method for fawlesly writing KWL. ~ Figure 1.26 ‘Another istration of writing KVL fora lop where ‘aly on voltage is eknown,1.6 Kirchhofi’s Voltage Law (KVL) + 23 Figure 1.27 stration tht KVL it a esl of the nw of eonserration sews of energy VL is eset a statement of conservation of energy If we move a charge q sound & ‘iret lop, the sum ofthe energies expended in proceeding though a voliage iss andthe sums ‘ofthe energies expended in proceeding through a vole drop shoud be equa, since we era tothe stating pont. For example, consider the loop shwwn in Fig. 127- Moving a charge g sound the loop in the indicated dieson resus inthe following energy expenire: Element Energy Expenditure (J) Pa “4 4 4 “4 moms we factor out g om this sum we ative at KVL: GV-2V+4V43v-8v)9=0 KVL must hold for af loops in a ici, just as KCL. must hod for al! nodes and sper= odes ofthat crit. Also, each KVL equation applies tthe voages ofthat equation tthe same instant of ne nthe same way tha each KCL eqution spies to the current ofthat equation atthe sme instant of tne, Example 1.6 Detoine volgen the cei oF Fg 12abyaplyng KVL Solution As withthe application of KCL, the key to applying KVL in determining an ‘unknown voltage isto select loop that has only on ukow veliage. One loop saisying ‘his isthe loop consisting of elements 4, EC, Fas shown in Fig, 128, Drawing the bse torround the unknown voltage, ives Hay tary24 + Basic Definitions and Laws Figure 1.28 Example 1.6 tiving v, = 3 V. Next we may select the loop containing elements B, C,£ a8 shown in Fig. 1.28, since this contains the union and the otber unknown in that oop, Was previously determined Drawing the bisector sro the unkown and wating KCL gives v=2V-0, Substituting te previously determined, = 3 Velde v, = ~1 V. Finally we selec loop ‘onaining theta unknown volage containing elements 4, Easshown in Fig 1.284 Drawing the bisector sound v, and weing KVL around this loop gives Carey Example 1.7 Determine voltages 2,0, 0, inthe etc of Fig. 28a by applying KVL. ‘Solution Azsinve look for loops cntinag only one unknown voltae. There ae four ‘ch loops shown in Fig 29, and e. raving the bisector around the unknown vot- ‘age ond writing KVL pve for hese -6¥) -3V -6¥) SV e=-avtsy b= -SV HIVE (-AY) from which we obtain v, = 30, = 1N.0, = Yu, = TV1.6 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) + 25 Ore 4-10 LI Example 1.8 Deerminevoages 0 nthe cre of Fig 13a by applying KVL. Solution Agni we look for loops containing ony one unknown voltae. The Hop sntaining elements FE, D shown in Fig. 1306 contins only one unknown voltage, Drawing the iste and applying KVL gives = Cay esvE uv ‘The oop containing elements CD, EG shown in Fig. 1e contains two unknowns, and 1, But we just solved fore, so we draw the bisetor nd ite KVL, obtaining v= -6VH2V~4, Substinting the previously determined vale of v, = 11 yiel , = -15 V And inal the lop containing elements 4,8, H shown i Fig. | td contains ony telat unkown, Hom which we obtain asv+6v-3v =3v26 + Basic Definitions and Laws Figure 1.30 Example 18 Exercise Problem 1.12 Determine vokage v0, nthe circuit of Fi. E112 by applying KVL, Figure £1.12 eres Problem 1.12 Anowers: “DN, 6N.-TV. Problem 1.13 inthe crit of Fig. 1.13 by applying KVL.1.6 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) + 27 Exercise Problem 1.14 Determine voltages, 0, 2 inthe ect of Fg. Ey applying KVL, ‘Lets now combine KVL and KCL in oe cre soon. Example 1.9 Forthe circuit of Fig. 131, determine voltage o and caret Solution Writing KVL around the loop contining elements EH, pe-3+2+1—4 A,and 6 gives 4 Applying KCL atthe supernode cuting clement 4,8, aE gives Leaties 2428 + Basic Definitions and Laws iesa “The remaining voltages and current are obtained simarlyas tp=3-2=1V 3toe ® v ven 2+1=3V jen -2-12 3A ha2t3=5a asthe reader should ves Exercise Problem 1.15, In the cic of Fig. E19, determine the voltages, 0 andy Vi-sy-2¥ [An elect ie is considered tobe a lose system 4.7 Conservation of Power i rvui soem tht in the sm of the ene We 7 we difereate this expression with expect tine we obtain te sum ofthe owes delivered {o-ech clement an ives the following imporaa principle: Anowere: aay1.7 Conservation of Power + 29 wheres the power delivered element and ani arlabeled onthe elements wit the pas- Sve sign convention. This referred oa she principle of conservation of power or Tellegen's Theorem, ands stated as requiring that she sum ofthe por delivered to ll he elements of & ‘iret a any time must equal zero na particular cru, some cet lements wil be dlivering power while others wil be beorbing power a ny istan of ine, KVL and KCL. and the principe of conservation of power fare nota independent. In fact, ay wo imply the thie Example 1.10 ‘Vetity conservation of power forthe circuit o Fig. 1.3, Solution The cement curens and vouges were determined in Example 19. Com ting the powers delivered to the elements gives Element Power Delivered to Element 4 TAXIV=1W WHA x2V=-8W © 3AK3Ve-9W D “SAX 1V=—sW E BA x(-4V)= BW F SAX(-1V)=-3W 6 4 2Ax4V=8W CIA GVW T=0w Exercise Problem 1.16 ‘Verity thatthe vohages and cures inthe cuit of Fig. EL. that wore determined ia "Exercise Problems 19 and 1.18 sty conseration of power. Exercise Problem 1.17 Determine the unknown voltages and curens in the ‘conservation of power, ry Lh; 4 Figure £1.17 We xetiae Problem 1.17 Answers: = “3A, = ~6A,5,= “SAU, = IMe, = 20, = 530 + Basic Definitions and Laws Exercise Problem 1.18 Determine the unknown voltages and curets in the ctcuit of Fig. E118, and verity ceonservation of power Figure £1.18 Esetis Problem 1.18, AAS =5Mu,= Yo, = “SV. We frequently save occasion o conser What are known 1.8 Series and Parallel cries and pamille! connections of circuit elements. It is Connections of Elements important ha the wader understand the meanings ofthese terms, since many ofthe eros made in the nas of ccs are result of ot doings. . "Two or more elements ar ai to be connected in series if the current hough them mus e be equal (becuse of KCL). A series connection of three element is shown in Fig. 1.32. The Thre elements ae joined at nodes bande, Elements 4 and Ba ai o be connected in series ‘because the current levig element and entering node b must, by KCL, equa the cureat ‘that enters element and leaves node by and theory ly. Sir elements Band Care $id obs connected in sexes because KCL showsthat ff Allratvly we may sa that 90 ‘ements are connected i srk f hey are joint a common node at which no other elements fre attached. "Tio or mor element ae sid to be connected in parallel i he voltages across them mus ‘be equal (because of KVL) A parallel commechon of thee elements is shown in Fig. 1.328 The Figure 1.32 lktraon a (the series connection of elements, nd (2 the parallel conection of elements1.8 Series and Parallel Comections of Elements + 31 Figure 1.33 Examples to ilstate to proper clasifcation of series and panill conection, thre elements are conneted at node @ and at nde b. The elements ae sid vo be connected in Parallel because KVL shows thatthe voltages across all hee must be equal: ¥y = Uy = Bo. ‘Altematvely we may sy tht mo elements are comestd in paral! i the elements are ‘connected at both sts of terminal, ‘Some commen misconceptions and improper clasfeation of typical connestions are ‘stated in Fig. 133. In Fig. 34a elements B and C sre connected ih pall becae, by KVL, uy = uc However, elements 4 and B are notin ser, nor are elements 4 and C, beens ‘their curens ae not necessarily equ. Fo example, none for 4 an to be in seis would ‘requie that c= 0, which snot necessary te In Fig. 3b element Band Care in seis be ‘nus, by KCL, ~ ig Elements and arena in paral nor are elements and Cina hit ‘olages are not necessarily equal. For example, inorder fo Aan B to be in parallel would equi that ve» 0, which st neces tue Exercise Problem 1.19 Determine which elements in Fig, EI19 reconnected it series and which re connected in paral Figure £1.19 Exereise Probiem 1.19, Answers: J M(B, Ch (K 1 Exercise Problem 1.20 Determine which elements in Fig E20 re connected i series and which are connected in paral32 + Basic Definitions and Laws Answer: (A,B, Ch UF, Gl (Hs DEL Exercise Problem 1.21 Determine whichelemets in Fig. E121 are concen series and which reconnected in pale Figure £1.21 veteise Probiem 12 —— The concept ofequtalen circ is another npstant and pom 4.9 Equivalent Circuits ul circuit analysistool that we will frequently employ. But like and parallel connections of elon, its requenly misunderstood and mis pillusate hs imporan principe, consider two circuits, cut 4 and cet hg psoas nso ni Spor we eps crete EAH B with anther ie, circa C, a5 shown in Fig. 134. Cre B and iret Care aldo Be cyuvalnt tthe exeralrminals fy couse the same curens and olages 10 ‘cur ict A when eer atached fo cout 4 nore for this tobe tre, the vole ‘Chen lation the tw external terminals muse identical, the relation between Uy ad fy or cut B mst be ie tothe relation berten vc and fr cre C. For example if ty 10%, ~ 15 then we must have ve = 10}, ~ 15in ode fr ereuits Band Co be equivalent ere extemal terminals This important to note that equivalence dos aot mean that he internal structre of iets ‘Band Cust ook the sume. Generally they will Bu with respect tothe eurens and voltages that wll be produced incu A when either B Cis atached tots terminal, there wil be no Figure 1.34 Toston ofthe concept of equivalent circuits.1.9 Equivalent Circuits + 33 340s = 8.64 N01 the beadighs ofthe vehicle are inadvertent let on fete engine ist ‘down ad they consume $0, hw long wil he batary lat? The cuten enw by the ht is SOW/2V=417 A. Hence the batery should last 200 A‘Ni4.17 A= 48—an unrealistic answer in thatthe Batery would not beable to suply 417 A right up othe poin that i is ‘completly dea,40 + Basic Definitions and Laws Section 1.1 Charge and Electric Forces 1L4-t Two charges of equal magni 5% 10"? Cut opposite sign are separated by a distance (Of 10 m Determine the net free exerted on a pose charge, = 2 10°" C that i placed midway between the two charges. Answer: 7.2% 10", 1.2 Twopoitivechages,Q = $ % 10-"Cand Q, = 2% 10°C, are held fied and separted by acerain distance. A thitd, negative charge, Q, = ~2 % 10", is nrodueed between them. ‘escrmine the rat ofthe itance between 0, anc Qy andthe distance between Q, and Q sich that Q, wil notmove. Answer: 0.6325 1.13 Two charges te held fined in a two-dimensional cooriaate sytem. One charge isn tie, Qu 2% 10 Cand is placed at x= m, y= 2 m. The ater charg is postive, On =35. 10°C ands placed ats = 3 m,y'~ Om. A postive charge, q = 10 Gis peed at {Re nginx = 0m. y= 0m. Determine the maghtude ofthe oa force exerted on g andthe ‘Sicton ofthis resaltan in terms of the angle measured fom the x axis. rowers S408 > 10" N, 123.69" Section 1.2 Voltage 12:4 Twopositve charges, = 2 10°" Cand, = 5 10°" are separated by a distanee ‘Of 1m, Determine the work equa to move a pastve charge q = 1% 10°C along saght fine between Q, and Q, fom a distance of | m avy from Q, ta dstance of T maway from O= Anoner, 10° 1.2: Two charges, Q, = 3% 10" C and Q, = -2 10°C are eld fied and separated by 8 tissnce of 6m: Determne the volage v, Between two pots along a line between the S80 ‘Srges Ponta is 1 ftom Q, and point bis 2m from Q,, Answer: ~25.65 RV. 1.2.3 Two charges ached fixed ina rectangular coordinate system. Charge Q, = 2X 10-* Cis located ats = Omand y= Or, andcharge Q, = 3% 10°" Cis located tx = $mandy = Om, Desermine te voltage 0, between point a al = 1 mandy = 0 mand pint b atx = 3 mand yeOm. Answer: “$25¥, 1.244 Two charges aes xed in rectangular sontinate system. Charge Q, = =1 % 107 C ie oeatad str Om, ) = Om, and charge Q,= 3 % 10°" C is located at x = Om, y= 2m. Determine the voltage ty, between point loca at x= 3m, y= Om and point located at yelmy=0m. Answer LAlY, 1.24 Determine the work quired to move a pstve charge of 2% 10°" C through a vote increase of 100. Answer: 20 112-6 Movement of charge though a voltage inrease of 1 KV requires 1 of eneray expen tue: Determine the charge moved. Answer: 1 AC.Problems + 41 42-7 Aight bulb has 12 V applied across it 1100 of charges posed trough it, determine the energy deliver tthe bulb, Answer Section 1.3 Current and Magnetic Forces 1341 The caret passing through an element is sketch in Fig P31. Determine the net postive charge wansere in th diction ofthe cute at = 1c Answers: 05, A15,-2,-15, 1-05,0,1,2:3.48 Figure P1.3-1 13:2 The charge passing a point w the sight is sketched in Fig, P32. Sketch the eartent dlzeted tothe righ asa function oftime. newer: ~3A for ~2s <1<—18,05A for 1 SrelsOAforls<£225,2Afr2ect 235 -2Afor}s <1 450A fore> ss, ame Figure P1.3-2 133 Automobile storage batteries are tate i tems of Ue trminal voltage (12 V) ad thee smper-houreapacies. Fora typical 12-V baery having 11S-A-h copay, determine de length of tne his bey wil light a 6-W bub. (Assume te battery voltages constant at 12 V throughout the tes, eventhough thats not tr.) Determine the ttl energy stored in the batery ‘fore it i connected to the bulb, Determine te ttl amowt of charge ht has passed trough the wie tht connect the bate ad he bulb, “Anewer: 230 8 4968 ME, S18 KC, 1.344 The current through an clement sketched a function of ime in Fig PL.3-4. Determine the net posive fiomofthe cument. Answers hagetansfrred tough the element a= MIS “LL LIC 0,1, 2,3, ands inthe dire Figure P1.3.4 1.35 The net postive charge pasing point the right sketched in Fig. PLS, Detennine the euron dicted othe right at = Ansvers: ~2,2,3,0,-3,0 5,05,05,15,25,356,42 + Basic Definitions and Laws “lb - 13.6 A curtet has the waveform deseribed by i) = 0 for <0, () = 10e"™ pA for = 0. eermine the et positive charge tansfered a= 05, 1,58. Answers: 2.59, 3.17, 3:3 HC. 13-7 Thenet postive charge tasferred pasta points described by g(t) = 50 ~ €°%) we for fo and gm Ofort=0, Determine the cmt t= 03,1, 85, Answers: 195,152, 0205 pa Section 1.4 Lumped Circuit Elements and Power 1444 Determine the power delivered wo (absorbedby) the clements shown in Fig, PL. ‘Aasmer (a) “6 W, (0) ~12 W, (0) ~6 W,() ~4W, (€) ~6W. (0) 12 W, 7 we = we ® o Figure P1.4-1 1.42 Determine the power delivered to (sated by) the elements shown in Fig. PL42. Aner (3) 8 W,() 12 W, (2) ~6 W @) ~6We) ~6W. Figure P1.4-2 4143 Determine the power delivered to (bserbod by) the clements shown in Fig, P1423. Anse: (a) 6 W, (0) ~6W, (6) 6 W, (20 W &)~1BW, (f) 30 W.Problems + 43 bap a gad _. 1.444 Determine the power delivered to (absoebed hy) th lements shown in Fig PLA, Answers: (8) “16 W,() ~30 W. 6) 18 W,() 8 W, (2) ~21 W, (1) 40W. ame -oe -oe 7 av Fm e a ws Oh gure era 148 Determine the power delivered wo (absorbed by) the ements shown in Fig. PLAS. Aner: (4) 20 W,() “12 W, (2) ~28 W,() ~6 W,(@) “15 W(f) “10 W. So. oe -o anal — ao o & © Figure P1.4-5 Section 1.5 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) S41 Determine the currents i yf inte crit of Fig. PLS-L. newer §,= 1A, BOA, = SAL AIAFigure P1.5-1 15:2 Determine the eumens i iin the circ of Fig PLS-2. Answers f= 4A,1,= 581,28, Figure P1.5-2 4.853 Determine the cents fy inthe cit of Fig. PLS. A= SAH EAs EA, Figure P1.5-3Problems + 45 1.544 Determine the current, inthe cit o Fig. PL. dnmwers = 3A = tA Ww FR Oo c vas ran Figure P1.5-4 1.54 Determine the current inthe cet of Fig. PLS. 14. Answers = 10A,i, Figure P1.5-5 Section 1.6 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) 1.641 Determine the voltages v8, and in the cect o Fg PLB Answers 0, = 6.0, = 4M = Figure P1.6-146 + Basic Definitions and Laws 1.62 Determine the vag 0, 20d, nthe cout Fig, P12, Figure P: 1.653 Determine the voltages 2, and nthe cut of Fg. PI.63. Can you determine the vwolagesandv,? nove: = -1Vu,=4V.v,= ~8Vin0,0, +0, = “3 ¥. Figure P1.6-3, |U64 Determine te voages 0 and, in thecirut of Fig, PL6. Answers: 0, v= 5\o,= 6Problems + 47 1.65 Determine the voltages 0 and in the cicutofFig. PLES. Anmers: = ~2¥, 1X0, AV Figure P1.5-5 1.646 Determine the votage 0-0 nd in he cca of Fig PL.6. Figure P1.6-6 1167 Determine the voluge vin the circuit of Fig PLO. Answer: ~6. Figure P1.6-7 Section 1.7 Conservation of Power 17-1 Determine voltage vad current inthe crit of i PII, Determine the power eliv= ered to element A, Solve for oer voltages and current, and check conservation of power Answers: “SV, ~3A,42W.Figure P1.7-1 1.722 For the circuit in Fig. PL7-2, determine the powers delivered to all four elements Check conservation of power for this cout, dnsvern P, = —4W,P, = —4W,P, = 12 W, P= 4. Figure P1.7-2 1.73 Forte circuit in Fig PIT-3, determine the powers delivered ta all elements. Check cone Seation of power fr this circuit. dnewers: Py 8W,Py = 3W,Po= “1 W,Pp = 12W, Pro 2W,P, = ~20W, Po = 4W, Py = -2W, P= —6W. Figure P1.7-3 1.74 Forte cireuit in Fig PIT, determine the yes delivered to ll elements Check con- ration of power fr this cet’ dnmwers: Py= BW, = ~2W, Fo 6W.Pp. Pre TWP, = IS WP, = 6 W,Py = WeProblems + 49 “Www Figure P1.7-4 jection 1.8 Series and Parallel Connections of Elements 141 Forthe circuit shown in Fig. PL.8- determine which cements rin series and which are inpanllel Answers series, (1011), 12) (67 paralle (4,9) Figure P1.8. 1.82 Forte czcuit shown in Fig. P18-2 determine which element arin series and which are inparle,—dnowors seis, (5,67: parallel, (29), [1,31 (48) Figure P1.8-250 + Basic Definitions and Laws Section 1.9 Equivalent Circuits 41941 Determine whether cic 4 and B in Fig. P.9L are equivalent at terminals @ and 6 Anower: Ys : Figure P1.9-1{Kireos ottage law (KVL), relates the element voltages ir a ici teach oe, nd Kec ‘of cutent law (KCL), relates the element currents to each ther th iret. So far we have ‘not needed to describe the content of the elerent bos, since KCL and KVL aeindepeneat of | those cone, n this haper we wil examine the types of ements thatthe clement bes may ‘comin Some elements, the independent voltage and caren ources, constrain the element vol- ‘ge rete to be specif value, while smother clement, te resistor, simply relates an ele- ‘mont vltage tit arent without specifying either one. Stil ober elements, the dependent or Controlled sources, relat the voltage or crrent ofthe elemento he voliage or curent associated ‘vith spotier element. In Chapter, we itodace the remaining elements needed for msling an ‘et circuit the inductor and the capacitor The totality ofthese elements wil allow us 0 de- ‘se accrate mathematical model ofthe majority of physical eleuical devices. Our essential "an shen to learn how wo analyze creat model thats canposed of these elements such hat the clement voltages and creo stsfy KVL, KC, andthe element relations forthe parcalar ‘interconnection of those elements (he cca, ‘The independent vllage source, whose symbol is 2.4 The Independent Voltage ivr intiy 21 cman econ tlage and Current Sources WW ‘bee known (tet) function of time The valu of element volage is given ae vp), The source is denoted wa circle having + and ~ sgn in Imterior to designate the polarity ofthe vltagev4()- The element volage 2) equals 0(?) the + terminals of the two ae aligned; otherwise of) = ~0s(P) The current though te source, (i not determied as yet. Once the source is ineeporated int acre, that eet ‘wll then determine the curent through the source. The speciation of v() ean take many Forms. A de (tet current waveform is shown in Fig. 22a oe his waveform (2) = 3V and the voltage aeross the element does ot change with tine, muh ike that ofa hater. An ac (l= ‘erating cures) waveforms showa ia Fig- 2.2. Far this waveform, v5 () = $ sin 3° andthe vole eos the element changes sinusoidally. Observe thatthe complete specifston ofthese Sources isa) the specification ofthe + and ~ sigsin the cide and (othe specification of (0,52 + Basic Circuit Elements and Analysis Techniques Figure 2.1 ‘The ladopendest votage source, Figure 2.2 ‘Types of voltage source waveforms (a de, nd (6) © 0 wn) > Daiwa se 20 => Qaorvun Figure 2.3 Combining voltage sources) in seves an (0 in parallel “Two independent voltage sures in seis canbe replaced, sing KVL, with aneauvaent lage source whose vale fs the sum ofthe indivi Source volages as shown in Fig. 23 “Two independent voliag sources in paral shown inFig 2.36 must have intial values or else KVL would be volaed Example 2.1 Residential power distribution was discussed in Section 1.1.1 of the previous chapter Model te service enrance pane! using independent vole sures. ‘Solution Tice wie ae suplid tothe sesilence fom the powerline see Fig 141 and Fig. 24)-One ofthe wires bare and is comected o earth (ground) Te ober 190 ‘wires have their insulins color coded as red and block. The voltage between the red and ‘black wies is 240-V ands independent ofthe anut of curent dawn by the residence, Hence we may mode! this sour asa single voltage source a shown in Fig. 246 The p> plied voltage isa ssid a 6 Hz (eycles por second), The 240-V specification isms. The peak volge ofthe sauoi isthe rms vale malted by V2, a we wl sein Chapter 6. Fence the equation ofthe waveform ofthe source 240V2 sin 2% 60 % 1). Within the service entrance panel a ground bus is provided and the volages between he red wire fd ground and between the black wie abd ground are! % 240,120 V ans. Hence we may2.1 The Independent Voltage and Current Sourc 0 Fuceneny Figure 2.4 Example 21 Moding residential power distribution sinependent source: (the service entrance pane ofa residence, 2) the model, and (the voltage waveform. rmodel_each of these as sinusoids ving the equation of their wavefoems_ as 1203 sin 2m x 60 x 1) Observe the polaris of thee voage sourees. They mast be sch that KVL yields 240 = 120°+ 120. Exercise Problem 2.1 Replace the combination of voltage soures shown in Fig, E21 with single source thats quant at the to terials Ouv @Qw O* Figure €2.1 . Eerste Problem 21 Answer: The euivalent source has value of 4 ~ 3 Vand has its positive erin a termina The independent curren source, whose symbol is shows in Fig 25, constans the element Dane . ono ap Figure 2.6 A . * (Cute sourexs (a) in o pall and (6) in series. otnerwise = ~ig( Te votge aera the sure, (i ot determined as yet, Ones the tac incorporate it a cieut hat ect wil determine te voltage, The speifiation of ‘Euean als ake many forms: de, ee, Observe hata with the voltage source, the complete ‘eeltcatin of thi source i () the sposifation of he iretion of the arrow inside the cle hd @) the speiication of (0. “hw independent crtent source in pall ca be replaced, using KCL, with an equ sent curent source whose values the sum ofthe nda Source crrent s shown in Fig 26a “Two independent uren sources in seis as shown nig 26b must have detical values else KCL would be violated Example 2.2 Model lighting stoke asa current source Solution A tshning stoke originates bone ofthe separation of eharge Between & ‘Sout and carthasshownin Fig. 2.22, Negative cage accumulates on the cloud an positive ‘Sige (or an abscore of notive charge) accumulates on the earth Below the cloud. When ‘hat ehrge separation becomes large enough ther breaks down and eurent fw fom {he cao the clo, neatalizing the charge separation. The waveform ofthe hihming arent is shcthedin Fig. 2.7 ad restos peak of around SKA in round 1 ws = 10° iM decay to zero rapidly therefer. Since the igang channel es like a current source {ia i is independent of objects ints path (Sch as seplane), we may model i 35 an independent curent source as shown in Fig. 278. Observe the polarity ofthat current source: direted from the eth tothe loud Anan Figure 2.7 ‘ample 22, Modeling ighming stoke as2.2 The Linear Resistor and Ohm's Law + 55. Exercise Problem 2.2 Replace the combination of cure! sources shown in Fig E22 witha singe source thats cquvaleat a tbe wo terminals. Answer: Toe equivalent source ha a vale of (7 + 2 si 3) A, which erected fom termina ato terminal & Exercise Problem 2.3 Determine v(?) and is) forthe cicait in Fig. E23 such at the wo cet ae equivalent stterminals and b " . av) sanQ w@ nO Ow 3 wQ Ow w@ al a Figure £2.3 Exereise Problem 23, Answers: 2 61~ 5 sin 2and3 + 21~ 20063 2.2 The Linear Resistor syuin/ust) fu sence nitag o cune, wb the and Ohm's Law St af oe cee le ma ence tl ements tached to a celt-The resistor, onthe otber hand, dos ot consain ether the ele- ‘ment voltage othe element current, ut instead simply rats the wo. The values ofthe resistor ‘rent and volage are determined by the crit that etched tt 0 erinal. “The symbol forthe linear resistor show in Fig. 2.8 slong with the graph ofthe relason- ship between the resistor vollage and it caret, Fr many materials the vollage across block ‘ofthe materi simply related tothe current tough i wih staigh-line relation and his Slscovery is credited to a German physicist Georg Simon Chun. Since the relation between the ‘esistor voltage and is current sagt ine, we can spans withthe graph and simply write [ease en56 + Basic Circuit Elements and Analysis Techniques voy mp = Figure 2.8 ‘The linea resistor where Ris the slope ofthe chaste and scald the resistance. Is uit isthe ohm (1, ‘medi honor of Georg Simon Ob. The reciprocal of resistance is comictance, hg=t @2y ck ‘whose units the semen (S), ako named fora pioneer i the fla In terms of conductance, ‘iw i writen [azo] ex “The power delivered to (absorbed by) a resistors obit 04 (Observe that the power delivered wo resistor is always postive, regardless ofthe sian ofthe Soltage or cuent Hence a resltor always absorbs power and never delivers power. In 8 ysl resistor this absorbed powe is disputed ete fom of het “Ohms law in 1) an i eiprocal in 23) presume tat the element volage and current ar labeled with he passe sign convention as shown in Fg. 23, Lethe rents assmed to ner the asnmed postive vollge terminal Ifthe se nt, ten a negative sgn mus be inserted Sto Ob ew are to observe this isa fequea mistake, For example, consider ue noes {ie reir thown in Fig. 29. Here the clement votage and curent are again labeled withthe passive sign eoventin, bat (9 = R10 nd the power absorbed by 2 ngative resistor wo - Figure 2.9 ‘A togative ress.2.2 The Linear Resistor and Ohm's Law * 57 qe «Figure 2.10 [Examples ofthe corect writing of Om’ law fr various 2 volage and cutet labeling. Observe tat a re ngatv reir deiner power. It is posible to construct opative resistors sing elements such as tunel diodes. But these require ada sources of energy such as ba ‘erie for operation, andthe delivered power comes from thesesources, We will oly consider the Posie resistor inthis tex. "Therefore the sign in Ohm's law is critically importa. A fequent mistake isto writ ‘Ohm’ iw asin (2.1) without regard to the labeling f the wsistor vole and cure I the element volage ad curret are no labeled withthe passive sign convention, minus sgn mast be inserted into Om’ aw in (21), ie. 0) = ~Ri) which des notrepesent negative eitor ‘utis simply dueto labeling the esitr voltage and cure contrary tothe passive sgn conve tin. The safest couse factions, when given the choice to ibe! the ress voltage anderen according tothe passive sgn convention. Some important examples are illstrated in Fig. 2.10, land shoal be sed saicienty eo thatthe reer wll ut make this eral sign ero in teplying Obl, Example 2.3 ‘Write Obi’ law forthe four resistors shown in Fig 211 Solution tn Fig. 21a, the curentis assumed to enter the negative voltage tein. Since tis is contrary to the passive sign coaventon, Obs aw becomes vay (Observe that i can also be ssi that the current leaves te postive voltage terminal In Fig. 2.115, the caret is gain assumed to enter the nepativevolage emia ie this isconary othe pasive sign comet, Ohm's av becomes si In Fig. 2.11, the current is assumed to enter the positive voltage terminal, Since this com foxms ote pasive sign convention, Obs av becomes a In Fig. 2.14, the currents assumed to leave (eter the postive (ongative) vole termina Since this is contrary to the passive sign convention, Obmslaw becomes v= 101 le | Figure 2.11 ° o ® Bxample 23,58 + Basle Circuit Elements and Analysis Techniques Example 2.4 Determine the unknown voltage or cutest forthe fur esisors in Fig. 2.12. ‘Solution tn Fig. 2.12 the voltage and euseu are not labeled withthe passive sign ‘convention and hens the unknown cures In Fig, 2.126 he voltage and cure ae agun not ced with he passive sign convention, Hence the unknown vole is “392A -6v In Fig, 2.12 he current enters the postive voltage termina (or eaves the negative voltage ‘terminal and the labeling conforms tothe passive ig convention, so tha p= 60x38 =iv And finaly, te wolae and current in Fig. 2.124280 conform othe passive sign coven: tion, and hence Ohm yields w 40, =0754 . + Figure 2.12 o o 6 (Example 24 Exercise Problem 2.4 Determine he indisted unknown volage or euret forthe esstrs of Fig, E2 Figure 2.4 Exeteise Problem 24 Answers: “LALA, “ANIA,ir Circuits + 59 2.3 Single-Loop and Single-Node-F Da SAISLOSS ED SARLGL We OY coms the wo most fndarentl iets that 2.3 Single-Loop and Single- win te cacoumterci: the single-loop circuit and the Node-Pair Circuits single-node-pair cirit. First consider the single-loop ete jg. 213.KCL shows hatthee willbe one carentcomsontoallelements. Sole, SB Uap Iedarbrry asanes ecton finial send op. } jagh element inthe lop will have urea throug: and teefre we ave essetially Ww ied KCL to this cet. Next we apply Ohm's aw othe resistors to expres their Voltages in tm of this errent. To ii cores applying Ohm's aw denote the detion of ‘ureot trough cach resistor and label the resulting votage acording tothe passive sign ‘ometion We have now completly applied Om’ av andre with nly KVL to apply Dra= ingan imaginary line though hecirultand labeling itsendswith+ and signs, we rte KVL as Mey RU + Oy RUA RI + 0+ Rd Rewriting gives poeta ty RARTRER “This shows an important and apd way of analyzing singl-oop cca 1. Assume a direction for flowing around the loop 2 Theresling current then 23) 8. The voltages across the individual resistors can be obtained as he product of Land ‘the resistance with he appropriate sign to conform o Ohm’ law Determine voltages, and in the ict of Fig. 2.14 ‘Solution Aibixariy assuming a cureot inthe clockwise direction around the ctu as shown in Fig. 2.148, we write AV=3vesv— toy Tas 20+ 4as 6a -4v Ba =030860 + Basic Circuit Elements and Analysis Techniques Figure 2.14 o a Example 25) In determining the votags, we observe that is labeled withthe passive sign convention vith expect creat shat ax = -041sv Vollage os mor beled withthe passive sgn convention with respect to current, that = -6axr Example 2.6 Determine votes, 0, and in th cca of Fi, 2 15a Solution Arbitrary assuming a cures / in the counterclockwise direton (for va 29) round the cit a shown in Fg 2 15D, we wite av-sv+sy—2v Ta+on+3a3an+s0 av ist 0267 Figure 2.15 Example 26.2.3 Single-Loop and Single-Node-Pair Circuits + 61 In determining the voltages, we observe ha, sabe ith he passive sign cventon vt espeet current 50 at yetaxr = 0267 ‘Voltage sno labeled withthe passive sgn convention with respect to current, 0 tht saxt av [Not that voltage 2 is across the $V voltage soure and th 2-0 resistor Hence the volage {nit by KVL, the sum of the voltages aro these tw element Fst we labo the vollage ‘serous the 2 resistor, 2, withthe passive sgn comvetion Hence the volage 0 wasve2axs SV +20x (0267) SV +0533 =5538V Example 2.7 Determine voltages and nthe cet of Fig 2160 Solution Arbitaily assuming a cuent in he clockvsedneton around the cuit as shown in Fig. 2168, we wee 3v-sv-6v—10v Mmesaeenesa =v “2a “15a 1 In determining the voltages, we observe thao, is labeed with he passive sign convention with espeet current 50 that axt $3 x-15a) 45v Figure 2.16 Example 2762 + Basle Circuit Elements and Analysis Techniques “The voltage is across oth the 10-V source and the2-0 resistor Hence vs according to [VL te sum ofthe voltages across the two element. Fist express the voliage across the 2-0 resistor a 21 vo, abel this with the passive sgn convention. Next write KVL a8 y= lov —29 “WV 20 xi-1SA) =-1V Exercise Problem 2.5 Determine the votges v, nd inthe crit of Fig E25, »@ On Figure £2.5, Answers: “12, 06V. Exercise Problem 2.6 Determine the voltages and onthe eve of Fz £26. SS . ws b Figure £26 % Etna Answers: ~2N, “25. Exercise Problem 2.7 Determine the voltages and in the ici of Fe, E227. Figure £2.7 Exereis Problem 27 Answers: ~675¥, -0SV.2.3 Single-Loop and Single-Node-Pair Circuits + 63 © igure 2.17 ‘Thesingle-nodepae circa [Next consider the single-mode pair lel shown in Fi, 217. KVL shows that tere wil ‘boone common voltage actos all lmens So ets designate its Vand assume a detion for it inthis case, postive athe top. Fac element wil, according to KVL, have vltage V across, postive atthe tp ofthe element. We have esenally completely apled KVL fr this icit "Next we apply On’ aw othe resistors to express her cents in terms ofthis voltage. Toa in erect spplying Ohm’ la, abel the voltage V azo each resistor an label the resulting ‘urea aecording tthe passive sign convention We have nov completly applied Ohm 3nd sae left with only KCL to apply which we apply othe top noe il a Rewriting ies eens nine ‘This shows an important and said way of analyzing singlenode pice 1. Assume advection for ¥acras al elements. 2. The resulting voliage is then 26 13. The cwrens through the individual resistors canbe otane asthe rato of Vo the ‘resistance mith he eppropriat sign to conform to Oke kn Example 2.8 Determine caret abi athe cei oF Fg 2.18 ‘Solution First abel the voltage Vs shown in Fig. 2188. Then weit m2A+5A-4A ys+is+is as =-062v6a + Basic Circult Elements and Analysis Techniques, Figure 2.18, Bvample 28 ‘Ohm’ law gives the cures hough he esistors. Cent isabeed withthe passive ign ‘onvetion with eapeto voltage V. Hence psy 70 “01s Curent snot beled with he passive sgn cometon wih eset to voltage Hence v 38 632, 30 Example 2.9 Desermine caret, and inthe cuit of Fig 2.1%. Solution First label the voltage Vas shown in ig. 2.196. Then write pa SAnSAS6A Tstis 5a is =6v ‘hms law gives the eurens through the resistors, Current i mo Inbeled with the passive ‘gn comvention ith rorpect 0 vltage V- Hence i2 Sls be2.3 Single-Loop and Single-Node-Pair Circuits * 65 97> (ER Figure 2.19 Example 29. (Care isthe sum of the cure through the 3-0 resitr andthe 6-A current source. Fist, abe the curent trough the 3-0 resistor acording tothe diteton of Vad the pss sign convention (down). Hence Example 2.10 Determine current i, and inthe cruit of Fig, 220. Solution Fist abel the vokage shown in Fig, 2206, Then write _TIOA+5A=24 naa ‘Ohm's aw gives the currents through the resistors. Current labeled with he passive sign ‘convention with respect t vole ¥- Hence66 + Basic Circuit Elements and Analysis Techniques: (Curent ithe sum of the currents through the 30 ress, the $4 current soured the 2A curteat source. Applying KCL yields “This can als be calculated as the sum of the currents trough the 4-0 resistors andthe 1O-A source v Tata Exercise Problem 2.8 Determine the cures andj inthe cet of Fig. B28 wfb of nd sf Op ap, Anowers: “OSA, 0288. Exercise Problem 2.9 termine the aren nd in the circuit of Fig. 2. AnD] nome “J Exercise Problem 2.9. Anowers: -O315 A, “AISA, Exercise Problem 2.10 Determine the cute and in the circuit of Fi E210fb af =D =] nee ee moon, Answers: ~21S4A,3385 A, Resi tat are in sees ot in parle canbe replaced with equivalent resistances sch tha the Fesuling cates and volages ‘nay circulated tthe ternal will remain unchanged. us. consider the ease of thre resistors in series as shown in Fig, 21, KCL shows tht, beau they nein eres the currents through them are identical In order replace them withan equivalent e- sine, the o-eltionhip atthe external erminal ofthe ses connection nda eternal 7) ~ ofthe equivalent resistance must be the same, Writing KVL fr the series conection yee in Series RUT RAR ‘Observing that, ecu they re in sere, and ubsitutng gives De +R RYE % ‘Therefore n esitors in sere canbe replaced with an equivalent resistance th extra termi- also vale en =o be nenes, Figure 2.21 = oh Resistor in sera and ther equivaleat resistance68 + Basic Circuit Elements and Analysis Techniques Example 2.11 Determine the equivalent resistance seen at terminals ab in Fig 2.22, Figure 2.22 * sample 2. Solution Adding he resists, since thy are in eis, gies AH3N+SN+5N=160, Exercise Problem 2.11 Determine te equslen resistance een at terminals ab in Fg. E211, Figure £2.11 “WH ——_Exetese Poem 2.11 Answer: 210, ‘Next, onside te case of toe resistors in poral as sown in Fig, 223. KVL shows thst, because thy are in parle, the volage cross them ae identical. In orer to replace them with [hogutalen conductance, the oi elatonship atthe een terminals of te parallel conne< ‘on anda the terminals ofthe equivalent conductan: must be the same. Wang KCL yields Go, + 0.4 Gp, where we have writen Ohm's aw in terms of conductances. Observing tat since they are in paral, : sf cle oy eee Figure 2.23 Resistor in parallel and their - : -h quiaent resistance2.4 Resistors in Series and in Parall and substituting gives G4+G+ayo “Therefore resistors in pall canbe replied with an ecvlet resistance atthe external terminals whose conductance is 28) We tend to dea wth the resistance of aesstor more requeniy than ts conductance, s0 (2.8) can ‘be more usefully writen forthe paral! combination a ofthe estancesinpralle) es) Example 2.12 Determine the equivalent resistance sen athe terminals a in Fig. 2.24 [| Figure 2.24 Example 2.12, Solution Since the resistors tin puril, ther euialent conductance i leveting his ies Exercise Problem 2.12 Determine the equivalent resistance cen at terials a in Fig. E212, Figure £2.12 “ eres Problem 2.12. Answer: 1.091 9,70 + Basic Circuit Elements and Analysis Techniques, ‘The port case of Wo resistors in parallel nd : 7 sequal resistance “There isan important ase of wo resistors parle shown in Fig 225, hat wil prove to be very wef in oe future calculations Using (2.9) fortis ase gives e109) “The symbol of two vertical bars in his formula is ead in pall with” Sonne important special aes of to resslors in pall restated in Fig. 226. Two ual resistances in paral! re ‘muivalet to single resistance whose valve is one-alf the value of each in the parallel ‘combination: ey ‘Also, the equivalent resistance ofthe parallel combimtion of two resistances canbe no Iarger than the smaller ofthe tthe larger the disparity in th two value, the closer the result isthe ‘ale ofthe smaller resistnce, ‘The resultn 2.10) ofcourse only applies o wo esstos in parallel, butitcan be applied ‘the computation ofthe equivalent eitanee of mor han wo parallel reitances by repeatedly "plying ia illasrated in Fig, 227- I doing so itis iportant to abel the terminals where are- ‘placements made inti ee with) vo that it willbe clear whee that replacement was made woot wot => son wot woot iat => toma — “ Figure 2.26 ° Seven impart ies of wo resin npr2.4 Resistors in Series and in Parallel © 77 2 = 8 L Figure 2.27 alt= a ‘Masuatin ofthe repeated use of the ‘woresistr-in-arll reduction rule i to dain an equivalet resistance Example 2.13 ‘Determine te equivalent resistance at terminal ab inthe cic of Fig. 2.28 Solution Although we could combine any two resisars, we choose to combine he 4 resistor, since it is easy to sce that 4 (2412 ~ 2 whichis then in parallel with the 5:Arestor ping veto Fg. 228% From hat chev we aginst tose inparl eo obain R= 2030 = 40" “+ ale . o Example 2.13, sap} aparto aaie-ta Exercise Problem 2.13 Determine the equivalent resstaace seen a terminals ab in Fig 2.13, Figure £2.13 G Exeteise Problem 213. Anover: 120, Pethaps the mst fequent mistake made incre analysis is falling to comet ido which voltage ard current variables are ls in a reduction. The following expe states the combination of series and pall reductions and the pote for no correc iden the remaining voltages and cures inthe reduced equivalent eeu72 + Basic ircuit Elements and Analysis Techniques: Example 2.14 ‘Determine the equivalent resistance terminal b in be ici of Fi 2.29. Figure 2.29 : sample 214 ‘Solution Firs we add = 1 and R, = 12 in series o btn an equivalent ei aes B= 20. Note that in doing so, node chs dssppeared and volages and five dapper (lthogh hsm snow cos the equaent 2-0 esto ad he cae dh insi, =) Next we combine his equivalent resistance and R, = 202 wich Sera toean equivalent combination cf Ry |(R; +R) = 21]2= 16. Nove that aarrent iso in the reduction bot the vole aeoss this equivalent resistance still Te pourve tn the curtent hough this equal! eit is by KCL the sum ofthe cu aaah tr estos 0 +i Fay we combine the previous equivalent rarer erie with , to produce the nal equivalent resistance at terminals ab of nas R) = 3-+ 1 =-0Notein hs nl stp that vlna Ben st, bu Brel cought final equivalent eisance stil, The voltage aeross te terminals esc, tbr The eader swell advised o sy this example carefullySeries and in Parallel + 73 Exercise Problem 2.14 Determine the equivalent resistance at termiaals ab for he iret of Fig. E214 Bey ey 8 ST Figure £2.14 : [serie Problem 2.14 Anower: 20, Example 2.15 Determine te equivalent resistance sen a terminals abi Fig. 2.30, ED i ue Figure 2.30 Frama Solution Fintwe combine the 4-0 resistors tht are apa to give 2, and then we combine te 6-0 resistors hat arin paral! wo give 30, giving the ciel of Fig, 2306, “Then we ad the 2-0 and 3-0 resistors that arin serie to give two 5-0 resistors in pale ‘whose equivalent resistance is 25. Exercise Problem 2.15, Determine the equivalent resistance sen at trmitals ab ie Fig. E215, See ee eee Anover: 1459 0, 2.4.1 Circuit Solution by Circuit Reduction The notion of equivalent fesstnes can be used io solve circuits that have only one independent source by successively ‘reducing the circuit attached othe source give an Rte erin Using Olam, We at casly determin the cure leavng the erinals of fe source and work back ito the fesse ‘iru to determine any fhe volages and euentof inter. though this technique is very74 + Basic Circuit Elements and Analysis Techniques. powerfl and wsefil thee i very common a srio1s mistake tat sequently made ints {plication area corvectly identify whic nodes votages, and currents are Tot teach tage Inthe redaction, Labeling oodes wil grealy reduce thelikelinod of uch mistakes being made Example 2.16 Determine he current jy {and voltages 0, in ecru of Fig. 2310 Solution Combine th I and 2-0 resistors tht are in seve into an equivalent eis tance of 9 £1 a shown in Step | in Fig. 2310. Noten his step that node d and voage fave disappeared. Care, however, romans, bere iis de eurent hough the series ‘Combination. Nex combine this 3-0 resistor apd th 2-0 resistor that sin pall wit 10 Yield an equivalent resistance of} $a shown in Step 2 in Fig. 2.3, Note in ths step tha ‘aren adi, ave dsappesre, but lage u, remains, since tis the vollage aes the Panlll combiaaon, or equivalemly between nodes c anda. Final combine this 5 Fesstor withthe I-0 resistor ht ein serie wit giving an equivalent resistance of 3 the terminal ofthe source, a shown n Step 3 nig 234d Noein this step hat node ‘ Figure 2.31 says Bxample 2.162.4 Resistors in Series and in Parallel © 75 and voltage o have disppeaed Inti imal step we havea simple single-lop cist and beable to solve forthe erent And, aly, fom the original cicat we may determine 10x, ‘This example illustrates that ne must be cael ienily which voltage and cu rents have been lst at each stage of a reduction, Labeing nodes ill help avoid such rmisientifcaons. Example 2.17 Determine te curens Jan vltage Vin he cist ofFig. 2.32, ‘Solution Combine the 1-9 resisors that are i sei to yield 20a shown in Step 1 inFig. 232. Observe that pode das bees lost inthis rdition but current ems, snce ‘tis the current through the sces combination. Next combine this 2-0 resistor th! i in wap of sage me tin if oasty =f tte “° or om Figure 2.32 Example 2.17.76 + Basic Circuit Elements and Analysis Techniques, pall wit the other 2-0 resisorto yield an equiva 1-2 resistor as shown in Step 2 in Fig 2 32c Note tat current / hs disappeared i this duction but voltage V remains stee itis across the paral combition, Thi fal step ives singleloop clei, which canbe solved forthe cuentas rom this we obtain the voltage Vas varia Moving back to Step 1 we obtain te curent 38 Example 2.18 ‘Determine voltages Van , and currents andj inthe eeu of Fig. 2.330 Solution Combine the 2-1 resistors that ar is paral yield the citi Step 1 Shown in Fig 233h, Observe that current has bean losin this eduction but volage v, enain, since it was acts the pall combination Silay, caren, remans. Fills, ‘Sombine this [- essor and the 1-0 rete tu iin series wit tt ied the cic of Step 2 shown in Fig. 23. Note tht noe cand wala u, ave disappeared in his rede Tin, bat wllae P remains, sine twas aross the paral combinstion. Also cwtet J, Temain At thi stage we could edace the two 2-0 reir an equialent 1-0 resistor ‘Shout the caren sure. However, his not necesary since we havea single-node-pair ‘eit andthe voltage an be determined as SA. “Taste “Thecurentcan alo be determined using Ohm’ hw as Moving back to Step 1, we determine the voltage v using Om’ 38 o5x1 aw