materials
Article
Matrix Description of Non-Linear Properties of Materials or
Structural Components—Idea and Application Examples
Tomasz Janiak






Citation: Janiak, T. Matrix
Description of Non-Linear Properties
of Materials or Structural
Components—Idea and Application
Examples. Materials 2021, 14, 5837.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195837
Academic Editors: Haim Abramovich
and Tomasz Trzepiecinski
Received: 14 August 2021
Accepted: 4 October 2021
Published: 6 October 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2021 by the author.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Materials 2021, 14, 5837. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195837
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Architecture, Bydgoszcz University of Science and
Technology, 85-796 Bydgoszcz, Poland; tomasz.janiak@pbs.edu.pl
Abstract: Numerical methods are widely used in structural analysis problems. In the cases of the most
complex and practical problems, they are often the only way to obtain solutions, as analytical methods
prove ineffective. The motivation for this paper was the desire to extend the scope of numerical
methods to cover the problems of creating constitutive models of structural materials. The aim of this
research was to develop a matrix or numerical discrete constitutive model of materials. It presents the
general assumptions of the developed method for modeling the physical properties of materials. The
matrix model is only useful with an appropriate numerical algorithm. Such an algorithm was created
and described in this paper. Based on its findings, computer software was developed to perform
numerical simulations. Presented calculation examples confirmed the effectiveness of the developed
method to create constitutive matrix models of various typical materials, such as steel, but also, e.g.,
hyper-elastic materials. It also presents the usefulness of constitutive matrix models for simulations
of simple stress states and analyses of structural elements such as reinforced concrete. All presented
examples involved the physical nonlinearity of the materials. It is proved that the developed matrix
constitutive model of materials is efficient and quite versatile. In complex analyses of structures
made of nonlinear materials, it can be used as an effective alternative to classical constitutive or
analytical models based on elementary mathematical functions.
Keywords: constitutive model; elastoplastic materials; numerical simulations
1. Introduction
Structural materials used in the construction industry feature a number of parameters
that are important primarily in terms of material strength and structure mechanics, but
also in terms of other parameters related to, for example, building physics. One of the basic
parameters is the material stiffness that is necessary to determine displacements and forces
in structural systems.
Basic construction materials (steel and concrete in particular) behave in a non-linear
way through the whole operating range. This means that their stiffness changes along with
the increase of strain and stress. In the process of designing steel structures, the amount
of stress or strain is limited to a certain acceptable level. This level is related to material
specification (e.g., a clear yield point) or it is a defined arbitrary limit. This approach
means that steel structures almost always operate in constant stiffness range and it is
justified to assume the constant material stiffness in static calculations. The situation is
completely different in case of reinforced concrete structures. Here, cracks occur very
quickly (at a relatively low level of internal forces) in the tensile zones of concrete cross-
sections. As a result, tensile stresses in the cross-sections of bent reinforced concrete
structural elements are mainly transferred with reinforcement bars, and compressive
stresses are mainly transferred with concrete. When internal forces increase, concrete or
steel becomes plasticized, i.e., it behaves in a non-linear way. Yet, most static analyses
of reinforced concrete structures are carried out in a simplified way, assuming that the
geometric characteristics of cross-sections correspond to an uncracked concrete cross-
section (without any reinforcement). This primarily applies to engineering calculations. It
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 2 of 25

leads to displacement values even several times lower compared to the values experienced
in real life. In statically indeterminable systems, significant errors also appear in the results
of internal forces.
The simulation of actual behavior of reinforced concrete requires non-linear calcu-
lations. Such analyses have been carried out for decades, but have also recently been
the subject of many research studies. For example, Dudziak [1] presented the non-linear
analysis of reinforced concrete structures for engineering applications and proposed a new
constitutive hypoelastic–brittle model of concrete. Yapar et al. [2] carried out numerical sim-
ulations of the behavior of prefabricated pre-tensioned concrete beams in specific phases
of operation, also after exceeding limit states (which resulted in damage). The calculation
took into account the non-linear, degradation, elastic–plastic concrete model and the slip
between bars and concrete. Lou et al. [3] performed numerical analyses of double-span
post-tensioned reinforced concrete beams with a non-linear course of prestressing tendons.
They took into account non-linear constitutive relations for concrete, tensioned reinforcing
steel and un-tensioned reinforcing steel. The analyses took into account the effects of con-
crete creep and concrete shrinkage, and tendon relaxation. Material non-linear properties
were taken into account in the analysis of composite elements where steel profiles interacted
with a concrete cross-section. Chiorean and Buru [4] developed a method for non-linear
analysis of beams consisting of a steel I-beam profile and a reinforced concrete slab (the
connection between elements was non-continuous and used steel shear connectors. Liang
and Fragomeni [5] in turn were engaged in the non-linear analysis of columns consisting
of concrete-filled steel pipes. Richard et al. [6] also worked with reinforced concrete beams,
but they focused on the modeling of corroded reinforcement. Their paper formulated
and used a non-linear steel/concrete interface constitutive law. Non-linear behavior of
steel and concrete was also taken into account. Non-linear analyses of constant curvature
cantilever beams loaded with follower force at the end [7] and non-linear calculations were
also performed in studies related to less typical structural components. Zhang et al. [8]
analyzed displacements of geocell mattresses that are a kind of geosynthetic reinforcements
of the ground, e.g., beneath an embankment. In this case, a geometrically non-linear beam
resting on non-linear subgrade soil was taken as the calculation model for geocell mattress.
Davids [9] in turn analyzed arch structures made of inflatable (pressurized) fabric circular
profiles. Displacements and buckling of such arches were analyzed. The material starts
to wrinkle under loads, which was modeled by adopting a non-linear moment–curvature
relation. Patel et al. [10] have performed a non-linear analysis of micro-beams. They
were structural elements of micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) and nano-electro-
mechanical systems (NEMS). A non-linear analysis of the behavior of beam-to-column
connection zones in precast structures was also performed [11]. Various topics related to
concrete structures were also discussed in the research papers [12–16].
Many researchers have been involved in the modeling of hyper-elastic materials.
Rubber and rubber-filled compounds are best examples of such materials. Hyper-elastic
materials can experience large elastic strains and behave non-linearly in the entire operating
range. Therefore, correct modeling of constitutive relations is essential for the analysis of
stresses and displacements that are produced under loads. Many review and comparison
articles have been created on models of hyper-elastic constitutive materials (e.g., [17–20]).
New or improved models are continually being developed. Liu and Hoo Fatt [21] de-
veloped a hyper-viscoelastic constitutive equation to simulate steady-state response of
rubber-filled compounds subjected to cyclic loads. A number of works of a similar nature
were created (e.g., [22,23]). A six-parameter model, distinguished by its complexity, was
developed by Nguessong Nkenfack et al. [24]. Hyper-elastic models are also suitable
for modeling soft body tissues. This case was discussed by, e.g., Zanelli et al. [25] with
modeling the urethral tissue. They carried out complex analyses to determine optimal
values and the number of relevant model parameters. The issues related to the analysis of
various hyper-elastic materials were also discussed in the articles [26–30].
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 3 of 25

The discussed studies were mainly related to two issues: non-linear analyses of
construction elements (mainly reinforced concrete) and non-linear models of hyper-elastic
constitutive materials and their utilization. In some cases, the cyclic load of the system that
usually generates a hysteretic response is taken under consideration ([6,10,11,21,30,31]).
The studies feature a common theme that is creating models of constitutive materials
or elements—using algebraic or differential mathematical relations describing the stress–
strain or moment–curvature relation. Whether models in analyses are correct was most
often verified by comparison with experiment results or other independent numerical
calculations of the same issue. The desired situation was the high compatibility of the
obtained results with the experiment, which could not always be achieved. Moving towards
the increased compatibility of the constitutive model and actual material behavior during
the experiment, Sussman and Bathe [32] proposed an alternative approach to describe
the physical properties of the material. They presented the concept of constructing a
constitutive relation in the form of a spline function, consisting of segments of a cubic
spline. This enables us to achieve a very high consistency with the results of experimental
research. The Sussman and Bathe concept was used in other authors’ studies [33,34].
This paper presents the concept of the matrix description of material properties, e.g.,
constitutive relations. This concept is similar to that of Sussman and Bathe in one point—
interpolation approach in both cases is used to ensure high consistency of constitutive
relation with the experiment. The difference is that Sussman and Bathe used the interpo-
lation of a one-variable function and the study uses the approximation of a two-variable
function. The utilization of two-variable function is the most important difference between
the presented solution and those used so far in other studies. The stress–strain (or moment–
curvature for bending elements) relation is usually the basis for determining the material
stiffness. The stiffness determined this way is a function of one independent variable, i.e.,
stress or strain. This paper proposes to treat stiffness as a function of two variables: stress
and strain. This description of stiffness allows us to include more information about the
material, e.g., partial history of previous strain or strain states.
The first part of this paper presents general assumptions for the description of stiffness
using matrices and discusses the numerical algorithm to use stiffness matrices for analyses
of the displacement and strain of a structure under load. The second part contains calcula-
tion examples and some possibilities of describing stiffness using a matrix are presented.
The summary of the paper outlines the possible development of the presented concept and
potential fields of its use.
The motivation for this paper was an interest in numerical methods and a desire
to broaden their application scope in order to create alternative constitutive models of
building materials. The main objective of this paper was to present the developed method
for modeling the physical characteristics of materials. It is a discrete, matrix-described
model. An appropriate numerical algorithm was developed to demonstrate the model
effectiveness and some application examples. It was used in the presented calculation
examples. The developed method of creating numerical constitutive models is alternative
to classical, analytical approaches. No similar approach presented in this paper has been
found in the scientific literature. Matrix modeling of constitutive features of materials has
both advantages and limitations, compared to classical approaches. It has a potential for
researchers involved in nonlinear structural analysis, e.g., made of hyper-elastic materials.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. The Matrix Description of Material Stiffness Concept
In order to improve the commonly used approach to describe the properties of building
materials, the concept of describing the coefficient of elasticity E as a function of two
variables was developed, i.e., strain ε and stress σ. Different values of elasticity coefficients
for load and unload may occur in a given state of the body defined by values (σ, ε),
therefore the description of material stiffness requires two functions, which are indicated
as Ep and En . Ep (σ, ε) is a function of Young’s modulus at primary load cycle, En (σ, ε)
 variables was developed, i.e., strain ε and stress σ. Different values of elasticity
cients for load and unload may occur in a given state of the body defined by values
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 therefore the description of material stiffness requires two functions, which 4 of 25 are ind
as E and E . E (σ, ε) is a function of Young’s modulus at primary load cycle, E
is a function for the unload and secondary load cycle. These functions are related
gential modules.
is a function for the unload and secondary load cycle. These functions are related to
Function
tangential E(σ, ε) is presented in the form of a discrete array of values that
modules.
Function
conveniently used E ( σ, ε)inis computer
presented incalculations.
the form of a This
discrete array
value of values
table that can
is called the bestiffness
conveniently used in computer calculations. This value table is called the stiffness matrix in
in this paper. The graphical representation of the idea of such a matrix structure
this paper. The graphical representation of the idea of such a matrix structure is presented
sented in1.Figure 1.
in Figure

1. Graphical
Figure 1.
Figure Graphical interpretation of theof
interpretation stiffness matrix structure.
the stiffness matrix structure.
In Figure 1, both the X axis (ε values) and Y axis (σ values) were digitized, but the
In Figure
division does not1,have
bothto the X axis X-axis
be uniform. (ε values) valuesand Y axis (σ
are collected values)
in the were digitized,
X vector: b
division does not have to be uniform.  X-axis values  are collected in the X vector:
X = ε1 , ε2 , . . . , εj , . . . , εn (1)
X = ε ,ε ,…,ε ,…,ε
and Y-axis values—in the Y vector:
and Y-axis values—in the Y vector:
Y = [σ1 , σ2 , . . . , σi , . . . , σm ] (2)
Y = σ ,σ ,…,σ ,…,σ
The graphical interpretation of Young’s tangential moduli for the primary load cycle
is shown
The with solid blue
graphical arrows pointing
interpretation ofupwards,
Young’sand for the unload
tangential and secondary
moduli load
for the primary loa
cycles—with red dashed arrows pointing downwards. Arrow directions are tangential to
is shown with solid blue arrows pointing upwards, and for the unload and seconda
possible σ(ε) graphs. The general form of stiffness matrices is the following:
cycles—with red dashed arrows pointing downwards. Arrow directions are tangen
possible σ(ε) graphs. The general
 p p p 
E11 form
· · · ofE1jstiffness
· · · Ematrices
1n is the following:
 . .. . . 
 .. . E .. ⋯ E ..p 
⋯ E
⎡ ⎤

 p p
Ep (σ, ε) =  Ei1 · · · Eij · · · Ein , (3)

 .. ⎢ ⋮ ..
⋱ ⋮. ⋮ ⎥
..
 
E (σ, pε. ) = ⎢ E p. ⋯ E ..
. ⋯ E ⎥,


Em1 · ·⎢· Emj ⎥

p
· · · Emn
⎢ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⎥
En11 · ·⎣·E En1j ⋯· · · EEn1n ⋯ E ⎦
 
 . .. .. ..
 ..

. .
 En · · ·E En ⋯ E .n ⋯ E


n
E (σ, ε) =  i1 ⎡ ij · · · Ein .

⎤ (4)
 .. ⎢ ⋮ .. ⋱. . ⋮ .. ⋮ ⎥
 
⋯ . E n.

E (σ, nε. ) = ⎢ E n. ⋯ E ⎥.
 
Em1 · ·⎢· Emj · · · Emn ⎥
⎢ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⎥
⎣E ⋯ E ⋯ E ⎦
Matrix values describe the following relations:

E = tg α ,
 E = tg α .
The α and α angles are shown in Figure 2, that is a fragment of t
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 sented in Figure 1. 5 of 25

Materials 2021, 14, 5837

Matrix values describe the following relations:
 
p p
Eij = tg αij , (5)
 E = tg α .
Enij = tg αnij . (6)
The α and α angles are shown in Figure 2, that is a fragment of the gra
p
The and αnij angles
αij Figure
sented in 1. are shown in Figure 2, that is a fragment of the graph presented
in Figure 1.

Figure 2. α and α angles at point σ , ε .

Stiffness matrices created according to discussed principles are used la

per.

2.2. Calculation Algorithm That Utilizes Stiffness Matrices

p
Figure Stiffness
Figure 2. α and α angles at point tabular
2. αij and αnijmatrices contain values of tangential moduli and are


angles at point σi , εj .
σ ,ε .
ableStiffness
for use primarily in incremental methods of solving non-linear issue
matrices created according to discussed principles are used later in this paper.
two basic
Stiffnesscalculation problems
matrices created arise. The
according first one principles
to discussed is to determine
are used thelater
value
in
2.2. Calculation Algorithm That Utilizes Stiffness Matrices
modulus
per. at any point outside the nodes. The second problem is related to t
Stiffness matrices contain tabular values of tangential moduli and are therefore suitable
tion of the modulus value in a given calculation step (including increment)
for use primarily in incremental methods of solving non-linear issues. In this case, two basic
2.2. Calculation
A node
calculation problems
Algorithm
should arise.be
That Utilizes Stiffness
Theunderstood as a point
first one is to determine
Matricesdefined
the value of thewith
Youngamodulus
pair of value
at anyStiffness
occur point outside
in vectors Y nodes.
matrices
the and XThefor
contain tabular
second
which values
problem of tangential
is related
the modulus to value E is given
moduli
the determination and areintheref
of the the s
modulus
ableIn value
forgeneral, in a
use primarily given calculation step
in incremental (including increment).
methods of solving
ces. it is necessary to set modulus values
A node should be understood as a point defined with a pair of values σi , εj that
for non-linear
any points.
issues.
For a In t
sele
two basicwith
defined calculation
occur in vectors Ya andpair problems
X forof values
which
arise.
(σ ,The
the modulus ),first
ε valuethe one is to determine
determination
Eij is ofthe
given in the stiffness thevalue of th
modulus
matrices.
modulus
In
quires to itat
general, isany
run thepoint to
necessary outside
algorithm the nodes.
set modulus
in two values The
steps. second
for any
The firstproblem
points. For a is
step is related
selected
to to the det
A point,
establish the va
tion ofwith
defined the amodulus value
pair of values in
,
( A A)
σ ε a given
, the calculation
determination of step
the (including
modulus value increment).
E requires
Y andtheXalgorithm
between which the point A islies. This step is just A
to determine such
to runA node should in two
besteps. The first step
understood to establish
as a point defined the value
withofa vectors
pair ofY values
and σ
jX that
between σ which
≤ σ the ≤σ point A lies. εThis
and ≤ step
ε ≤ ε to. determine
is just The second such step
valuesis to jdetermine
i and that
occur in vectors Y and X for which the modulus value E is given in the stiffnes
σi ≤ σAat
value ≤ the
σi+1 and
ces. In general, A itpoint.
εj ≤ εA The
≤ εj+1 . The secondisstep
is necessaryprinciple
to set modulus
is to determine
shown valuesin Figure the modulus value at
for any 3.points. For a selected
the A point. The principle is shown in Figure 3.
defined with a pair of values (σ , ε ), the determination of the modulus value
quires to run the algorithm in two steps. The first step is to establish the value of
Y and X between which the point A lies. This step is just to determine such value
j that σ ≤ σ ≤ σ and ε ≤ ε ≤ ε . The second step is to determine the m
value at the A point. The principle is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Determining the modulus value at point A.

Figure 3. Determining the modulus value at point A.

Taking into account the markings shown in Figure 3 and additionally

∆σ = σ − σ , ∆ε = ε − ε , ∆σ = σ − σ , ∆ε = ε −
Figure 3. Determining the modulus value at point A.
 Materials 2021, 14, 5837 6 of 25

Materials 2021, 14, 5837

Taking into account the markings shown in Figure 3 and additionally defining:

∆σi = σi+1 − σi , ∆εj = εj+1 − εj , ∆σA = σA − σi , ∆εA = εA − εj , (7)

the requested E 1 − ∆∆ with

= isE determined
value 1 −the ∆ following relation:∆
∆
+E, 1 − ∆ ∆∆ + E , ∆∆ 1 − ∆∆ +
 ∆ ∆
EA = Eij 1 − ∆σ ∆εA E ∆σA ∆ε ∆σA ∆εA
     
A
∆σi 1 − ∆εj + Ei,j + 1 1 − ,
∆σi
A
+
∆j ∆
∆ε Ei.+ 1,j ∆σi 1 − ∆εj +
(8)
Ei+1,j+1 ∆σ∆εA
A
∆σi .
∆εj(8),
As presented in Figure 3 and formula linear interpolation was used to de
the modulus value
As presented outside
in Figure 3 andthe nodes.
Formula (8), linear interpolation was used to determine
When value
the modulus determining
outside thethe elasticity modulus in a given calculation step, it is a
nodes.
that When
the value of stress
determining theincrease ∆σ is known.
elasticity modulus The
in a given determination
calculation step, it isofassumed
its correspon
that the value of stress increase ∆σ is known. The determination of
value, and thus the value of Young’s modulus in a given step, is done with su its corresponding
∆ε value, and thus the value of Young’s modulus in a given step, is done with successive
approximations. The idea of this process is presented in Figure 4.
approximations. The idea of this process is presented in Figure 4.

Figure 4.4.Determining
Figure Determiningthe modulus value invalue
the modulus one calculation step.
in one calculation step.
Let us assume that stiffness matrix, point A coordinates and increment value ∆σ
Let us
are given. The assume
value ofthat stiffness
the stiffness matrix,atpoint
modulus A coordinates
the A point and increment
shall be determined accord- value
given. The value
ing to Formula (8). of the stiffness
During modulus
the first, initial at the A point
approximation, angle αshall be determined
0 is assumed so that acco
tg ( α ) =
formula (8).
0 E A During the first, initial approximation, angle α is assumed so that t
and the position of the B0 point is calculated. Then, with a second approxima-
tion, the EB0 modulus value is determined (i.e., value at the B0 point) and the α1 calculated
E and the position of the B point is calculated. Then, with a second approximat
angle is that tg(α1 ) = 0.5(EA + EB0 ). This enables the calculation of the position of the B1
E
pointmodulus valueactions,
and with similar is determined
as in case (i.e.,
of α1 ,value the B
at the
determine point)Such
α2 angle. the α calculate
andcalculations
is
arethat (
performed )
tg α to=achieve (
0.5 Eassumed )
+ E α. Thisangle enables
accuracy theand calculation of the
thus the accuracy Young’sof the B
position
of the
modulus.
and with The valueactions,
similar of the modulus can be
as in case α , determine
of determined in thethe
sameα way if theSuch
angle. straincalculat
increase ∆ε in one step is known.
performed to achieve assumed α angle accuracy and thus the accuracy of the Y
The basic elements of a calculation algorithm to use the stiffness matrix are very simple,
modulus.
and based on The value ofmathematical
elementary the modulus can be determined
operations. However, the in the same
algorithm way if the st
simplicity
crease
should be ∆εconsidered
in one step
as itsisadvantage.
known.
The basic elements of a calculation algorithm to use the stiffness matrix are ve
2.3. Flowchart of the Calculation Algorithm
ple, and based on elementary mathematical operations. However, the algorithm s
Figure 5 shows a general basic block diagram of the calculation algorithm. It is a
ity should be considered as its advantage.
simplified diagram that focuses on activities relevant to the issues at hand. The activities
performed in the operation block marked with a double box are shown in Figure 6. These
2.3.
referFlowchart
to the issuesofdescribed
the Calculation Algorithm
in Section 2.2.
Figure 5 shows a general basic block diagram of the calculation algorithm. It i
plified diagram that focuses on activities relevant to the issues at hand. The activit
formed in the operation block marked with a double box are shown in Figure 6
refer to the issues described in Section 2.2.
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 7 of 25
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 7 of 25

START

Task data: design scheme,loads, material

parameters (e.g. in the form of a stiffness
matrix)

Task data: design scheme,

loads, material parameters
(e.g. in the form of a stiffness matrix)

𝑖=1

Assumption of system stiffness based on its state (𝛔 , 𝛆 )

at the beginning of the step. Computational model formulation.
Model solution (calculation of increments ∆𝛔 i ∆𝛆 )

𝑖 =𝑖+1
Stiffness system update based on its state at the beginning
and end of the step (dodanie przyrostów ∆𝛔 i ∆𝛆 )

Re-formulation of the computational model. Model solution ∆𝛔 = ∆𝛔 ,

∆𝛆 = ∆𝛆
(calculation of increments ∆𝛔 i ∆𝛆 )

|∆σ − ∆σ | ≤ ∆𝜎 no
for each structure node

yes
Further calculations, e.g. 𝛔 = 𝛔 + ∆𝛔
no
𝑖=𝑚 and 𝛆 = 𝛆 + ∆𝛆

yes
Presentation of results

END

Figure 5. A flowchart
Figure of theofcalculation
5. A flowchart algorithm.
the calculation algorithm.
 Materials 2021, 14, 5837 8 of 25
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 8 of 25

For each
For each nodenode ofdiscretized
of the the discretized structure:
structure:

Reading ∆E . Reading system state (σ , ε ) at the beginning of a specific

step. This state corresponds to the position of the A point according to
Figure 3. Reading the value of E based on the relationship (8).

Determining the system state in relation to point B : (σ + ∆σ , ε + E ∆σ ).

Reading the value E .

Calculating value E = 0,5(E + E ).

𝑗=1

Determining the system state in relation to point B (σ + ∆σ , ε +

E ∆σ ). Reading the value E .

𝑗=𝑗+1
Calculating value E = 0,5 E + E .

no
E −E ≤ ∆E

yes

Inserting E value in the following calculations

Figure 6. A flowchart
Figure that presents
6. A flowchart the stiffness
that presents analysis
the stiffness within
analysis the main
within algorithm.
the main algorithm.

3. Results
3. Results
The The
first first
part part
was was
limited to the
limited to presentation
the presentation of simulation examples
of simulation of relatively
examples of relatively
simple
simple sample tests made of an abstract elastic–plastic material. These teststhe
sample tests made of an abstract elastic–plastic material. These tests are are axial
the axial
tensile stress
tensile bar test,
stress cyclic
bar test, tensile
cyclic and and
tensile reliefrelief
stress bar test,
stress and and
bar test, the tensile stress
the tensile bar test
stress bar test
withwith
relief, compression
relief, compressionand and
another reliefrelief
another stage. During
stage. the second
During part,part,
the second the tension of of
the tension
threethree
bars bars
connected withwith
connected a rigid beam
a rigid was was
beam simulated and and
simulated the reinforced concrete
the reinforced beam
concrete beam
was was
calculated.
calculated.
For the
Forpurpose of the
the purpose of presented
the presentedsimulations, a hypothetical
simulations, material
a hypothetical was was
material adopted,
adopted,
the Young’s modulus
the Young’s of which
modulus is described
of which withwith
is described the values of dimensionless
the values of dimensionlessdeformations
deformations
ε collected in the
ε collected X vector:
in the X vector:
X= X =0.000.00
 0.040.040.080.080.12 0.120.16
0.160.20
0.20. . (9) (9)
σ stress values expressed in (MPa), collected in the Y vector:
σ stress values expressed in (MPa), collected in the Y vector:
Y = 0.00 1.22 2.44 3.67 4.89 6.11 7.33 8.56 9.78 11.00  (10)
Y = 0.00 1.22 2.44 3.67 4.89 6.11 7.33 8.56 9.78 11.00 (10)
and two stiffness matrices, expressed in (MPa):
 200 200 195 185 163 135 100 50 20 0
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 ⎡200 200 195 185 163 135 100 50 20 0⎤ 9 of 25
⎢ ⎥
200 200 195 185 163 135 100 50 20 0⎥
𝐄 =⎢ , (1
⎢200 200 195 185 163 135 100 50 20 0⎥
⎢200 expressed
and two stiffness matrices, 200 195 185
in (MPa): 163 135 100 50 20 0⎥
⎣200 200 195 185 163 135 100 50 20 0⎦
T
200 200 195 185 163 135 100 50 20 0

200
 200 200
200 200
195 200 163200135 200
185 100 200
50 20200
0  200 200
⎡200

 200 200
200 200
195 200 200 200
185 163 135 100 200
50 20200
0  200

200⎤
E =⎢ 
p  , ⎥
(11)
200
 200 200
200 200
195 200 163200135 200
185 100 200
50 20200
0  200 200⎥
𝐄 = ⎢  . (1
⎢200 200 200 200 163200135 200 200 20200 200 200⎥
 200 200 195 185 100 50 0 
⎢200200 200
200 200
195 200 200 200
185 163 135 100 200
50 20200
0 200 200⎥
⎣
 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200
T 200⎦
200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200
 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 
3.1. Example A. Axial

 200Bar 200
Tension
200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 

En = 
 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200  .
 (12)
The first analyzed
 issue is relatively simple. Its solution is to be used primarily
study the course of200the 200
σ(ε) 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 

function. It is clear that in case of analyzing real issues, l
200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200
boratory tests must first be performed to identify the σ(ε) relation, and then appropria
stiffness matrices
3.1. Example E Bar
A. Axial and E must be created. However, stiffness matrices themselve
Tension
and graphs
The first analyzed issueare
based on them not directly
is relatively represented
simple. Its solutioninistheto beσ(ε)
usedrelation.
primarilyOnlyto the l
boratory
study thesample
coursesimulation,
of the σ(ε) e.g., the axial
function. bar tension,
It is clear that in casewillofallow the corresponding
analyzing real issues, σ(
laboratory tests
graph to be depicted. must first be performed to identify the σ ( ε ) relation, and then appropriate
stiffness p and En must be created. However, stiffness matrices themselves and
matrices Ethat
It is assumed a bar that is stretched has a length L = 2.0 m and a cross-sectio
graphs based on2them are not directly represented in the σ(ε) relation. Only the laboratory
area A = 0.01 m . The bar material is described with matrices (11) and (12). Tension
sample simulation, e.g., the axial bar tension, will allow the corresponding σ(ε) graph to
static and continues until a tensile force of 105kN is reached.
be depicted.
ToItsolve the issue
is assumed that aofbarthe
thattensile bar simulation,
is stretched has a length Lthe algorithm
= 2.0 discussed area
m and a cross-section in the prev
= 0.01 m2was
ousAchapter . Theused. The algorithm
bar material is described was
with the basis for
matrices (11) aand
computer program
(12). Tension is staticwritten
and in th
Scilab environment. The selection of the ∆σ step (see Figure 4) was carried out adaptive
continues until a tensile force of 105kN is reached.
so thatTo solve
the the issueof
transition of the
the tensile
graphbar simulation,
through onethe algorithm
cell discussedmatrix
of the stiffness in the previous
(the field sep
chapter was used. The algorithm was the basis for a computer program written in the Scilab
rated with two adjacent values from the X vector and two adjacent values from the
environment. The selection of the ∆σ step (see Figure 4) was carried out adaptively so that
vector) took place
the transition ingraph
of the aboutthrough
four steps.
one cell of the stiffness matrix (the field separated with
twoThe graphvalues
adjacent basedfromon the
theXsimulation
vector and two is shown
adjacentinvalues
Figure 7. Since
from a continuous
the Y vector) took stre
increase
place inwas
aboutpresent during the simulation, only the E matrix was used in the calcul
four steps.
tions. The graph based on the simulation is shown in Figure 7. Since a continuous stress
increase was present during the simulation, only the Ep matrix was used in the calculations.
σ (MPa)

ε
Figure 7. 7.
Figure Diagram of σσ(ε)
Diagramof relation
(ε) relation obtained
obtained afterafter performing
performing bar tension
bar tension simulation.
simulation.

The graph presented in Figure 7 shows the material behavior, described with X vectors
The graph presented in Figure 7 shows the material behavior, described with X ve
according to (9), Y vectors according to (10) and the Ep matrix given in (11).
tors according to (9), Y vectors according to (10) and the E matrix given in (11).
Based on experimental data, it is quite simple to create a suitable stiffness matri
This will be presented in the next example.
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 10 of 25

Materials 2021, 14, 5837 10 of 25

3.2. Example B. Stiffness Matrix Calibration with Axial Tensile Bar Test Simulation
• Case 1
The following
Based example
on experimental shows
data, the results
it is quite simpleoftostiffness matrixstiffness
create a suitable calibration. It was
matrix. Thiscreated
manually by introducing subsequent
will be presented in the next example. corrections in the matrix values and observing the
obtained effects. Let us assume that the tensile bar test produced the F(∆L) relation
3.2. Example
graph. SomeB.characteristic
Stiffness Matrix Calibration
points with Axial in
are indicated Tensile
this Bar Test and
graph then the σ stresses cor-
Simulation
responding to the F forces and the ε strains corresponding to ∆L elongations are calcu-
• Case 1
lated The
for these points.
following Finally,
example showsthetheσ(ε) graph
results shouldmatrix
of stiffness go through the vector
calibration. points
It was created
manually by introducing subsequent corrections in the matrix values and observing the
ε = 0 0.002 0.0022 0.0031 0.004 0.006 0.009 0.014 , (13)
obtained effects. Let us assume that the tensile bar test produced the F(∆L) relation graph.
Some characteristic points are indicated in this graph and then the σ stresses corresponding
and
to the F forces and the ε strains corresponding to ∆L elongations are calculated for these
σ = 0should
points. Finally, the σ(ε) graph 0.58 go
0.60 0.605the
through 0.61 0.75
vector 0.85 0.90 .
points (14)
Values in theε̂ ε= vector
[0 0.002are dimensionless
0.0022 and
0.0031 0.004 values
0.006 0.009 the σ], vector are expressed
in 0.014 (13) in
(MPa). Additionally, the graph in the first section (between points 1 and 2) should be lin-
and
ear.
The vectors X, Y and σ̂ =the E matrix were produced
[00.580.600.6050.610.750.850.90 ]. with successive value (14) adjust-
mentsValues
to finally
in theobtain theare
ε̂ vector following:
dimensionless and values in the σ̂ vector are expressed in
(MPa). Additionally, the graph in the first section (between points 1 and 2) should be linear.
X=
The vectors X, Y and the Ep matrix were produced with successive value adjustments (15)
to finally0obtain
0.0010the0.0020 0.0022 0.0031 0.0040 0.0041 0.0060 0.0090 0.0140 0.0160 ,
following:

Y = 0.0020
X = [0 0.0010 0 0.290.0022
0.58 0.0031
0.60 0.605
0.00400.61 0.615
0.0041 0.75
0.0060 0.80 0.0140
0.0090 0.85 0.90
0.01600.95
], (15)
, (16)
Y = [0 0.29 0.58 0.60 0.605 0.61 0.615 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95], (16)
290 290 290 5.6 5.6 5.6 77 70 37 15 6.3 0
290 290
2902902905.6 5.6 5.6
5.6 5.6 77 377015 376.3 150 6.3 0
 T
E × = 290 5.6 77 70 . (17)
p
 290 290 290 5.6 5.6 5.6 77⋮ 70 37 15 6.3 0 
E11×12 =  290 290 290 5.6 5.6.. 5.6 77 70 37 15 0 6.3
(17).
 
 . 
Values in the X290
vector
290 are dimensionless,
290 5.6 5.6 5.6 and
77 values 15 Y6.3vector
70 37in the 0 and the E ma-
trix are expressed in (MPa). For a specific material stiffness determined with this method,
Values in the X vector are dimensionless, and values in the Y vector and the Ep matrix
the axial tensile
are expressed in test wasFor
(MPa). simulated
a specificuntil a stress
material value
stiffness of 0.9 MPa
determined withwas reached.
this method,A com-
puter program created for example A was used. Figure 8 shows an achieved
the axial tensile test was simulated until a stress value of 0.9 MPa was reached. A computer tensile sim-
ulation
program graph forfor
created the calibrated
example A wasstiffness matrix
used. Figure (solid an
8 shows line). Pointstensile
achieved defined with ε and σ
simulation
vectors arethe
graph for marked with
calibrated crosses.
stiffness It can(solid
matrix be seen
line).that the defined
Points tensile simulation
with ε̂ and σ̂graph
vectorsmatches
arebase
the marked withquite
points crosses. It can
well. Thebeshape
seen that theresulting
of the tensile simulation graph matches
graph corresponds to athe base with
material
apoints quite
distinct well.strength,
yield The shape of the
e.g., resulting graph
low-carbon steel.corresponds to a material with a distinct
yield strength, e.g., low-carbon steel.
σ (MPa)

ε
Figure 8. σ(ε) relation graph achieved for the calibrated stiffness matrix in case 1.
Figure 8. σ(ε) relation graph achieved for the calibrated stiffness matrix in case 1.
 In the second example, the same actions were performed as before, assuming th
lowing set of base data:
ε=
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 11 of 25
0 0.001 0.0016 0.0022 0.0030 0.0040 0.0051 0.0063 0.0074 0.0082 0.0090 ,

σ = 0 0.21 0.29 0.33 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.44 0.52 0.63 0.80 .
• Case 2
These are the experimental data read from Figure 6b in the paper [23].
In the second example, the same actions were performed as before, assuming the
In set
following thisofcase, stiffness is described with the following vectors
base data:
X=
ε̂ =[0 0.001 0.0016 0.0022 0.0030 0.0040 0.0051 0.0063 0.0074 0.0082 0.0090], (18)
1 1.02 1.06 1.11 1.2 1.31 1.42 1.68 1.94 2.49 3.03 3.43 3.75 4.07 4.26 4.45 ,
σ̂ = [00.21 0.29 0.33 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.44 0.52 0.63 0.80]. (19)
These Yare=the experimental data read from Figure 6b in the paper [23].
In this case, stiffness is described with the following vectors
 0 0.1 0.15 0.24 0.33 0.44 0.51 0.69 0.77 0.96 1.24 1.44 1.71 1.97 2.2 2.42 ,
X = 1 1.02 1.06 1.11 1.2 1.31 1.42 1.68 1.94 2.49 3.03 3.43 3.75 4.07 4.26 4.45 , (20)
 and the matrix 
Y = 0 0.1 0.15 0.24 0.33 0.44 0.51 0.69 0.77 0.96 1.24 1.44 1.71 1.97 2.2 2.42 , (21)
E =
and the matrix×
7 2 1.6 1.5 1.1 0.9 0.65 0.35 0.38 0.4 0.53 0.65 0.85 1.05 T
1.12 1.3
7 21.1 1.60.9 1.50.651.10.350.9 0.38
0.650.40.35
0.53 0.38
0.65 0.4
0.850.53
1.05 0.65
1.12 0.85
1.3 1.05 1.12 1.3

7 2 1.6 1.5
 7 2 1.6 1.5 1.1 0.9 0.65 0.35 0.38 0.4 ⋮0.53 0.65 0.85 1.05 1.12 1.3 
p
E16×16 = . (22) 1.3
 
 7 2 1.6 1.5 1.1 ... 0.9 0.65 0.35 0.38 0.4 0.53 0.65 0.85  1.05 1.12
7 2 1.6 1.5 The
1.1 graph shown
0.9 0.65 0.35 in0.38
Figure
0.4 9 0.53
was obtained
0.65 0.85 with
1.05 simulating
1.12 1.3 the tensile test. A
degree of compatibility
The graph with
shown in Figure the obtained
9 was base data was
with also achieved.
simulating the tensileThe shape
test. of the gr
A high
similar
degree to the ones corresponding
of compatibility towas
with the base data hyper-elastic materials
also achieved. The shapethatof offer a stiffness
the graph is in
similar to the ones corresponding to hyper-elastic materials that
at high deformations. Rubber is a good example of such material. offer a stiffness increase at
high deformations. Rubber is a good example of such material.
Nominal Stress (MPa)

Strech

Figure
Figure 9. Relation
9. Relation graphgraph achieved
achieved for the for the calibrated
calibrated stiffness
stiffness matrix matrix
in case 2 (theinaxis
case 2 (the axis design
designations
used
used in Figure
in Figure 6b in6b in[23]
Ref. Ref.were
[23]used).
were used).

In both examples, material stiffness matrices were developed to reproduce hypothet-

In both examples, material stiffness matrices were developed to reproduce hyp
ical laboratory tensile sample tests of different materials with high accuracy (evaluated
ical laboratory tensile sample tests of different materials with high accuracy (eval
visually, based on graphs). It should be noted that there were different increments between
visually,
the values ofbased
X and Yon graphs).
vectors. As aItconsequence,
should be thenoted that thereused
∆σ increments were different
in the algorithmincremen
tween
are theaccordingly.
adjusted X and
values of This Y vectors.
means As adensity
that the value consequence,
in X and Ythe ∆σ in
vectors increments
the zones used
with more rapid
algorithm arechanges
adjustedin the elasticity modulus
accordingly. automatically
This means that thecaused
value adensity
decreaseininX∆σand Y v
step and thus better algorithm accuracy.
 in the zones with more rapid changes in the elasticity modulus automatically caus
decrease in ∆σ step and thus better algorithm accuracy.
In both cases, the values in vectors X and Y are mostly repetitions of the base
Materials 2021, 14, 5837
set in vectors ε and σ. Such a relationship is fairly obvious, but not a requirement. 12 of 25
S
tion of values in vectors ε and σ depends on the person that builds the stiffness m
of a given material. It must be done in such a way that it closely reproduces the ten
In both cases,
graph obtained the values
in the in vectors
laboratory. In Xzones
and Y ofarelarge
mostlychanges
repetitions
ofofthe
theinclination
base data setangle th
in vectors ε̂ and σ̂. Such a relationship is fairly obvious, but not a requirement. Selection
tangent to the
of values graph,ε̂ the
in vectors and value drops
σ̂ depends on in
thevectors
person thatε and σ the
builds have to bematrix
stiffness small—this
of a is cl
visible
givenin FigureIt8.must
material. Incorrect
be done selection
in such a wayof that
baseit values in vectorstheε tension
closely reproduces and σgraph will lead t
creation of an inadequate constitutive model. A solution to the problem would also
obtained in the laboratory. In zones of large changes of the inclination angle that is tangent
usetosmall
the graph, the valuein
increments drops in vectors
complete ε̂ and σ̂ εhave
vectors andto σ
be, but
small—this
it wouldis clearly
lead visible in
to a significant
Figure 8. Incorrect selection of base values in vectors ε̂ and σ̂ will lead to the creation of
increase of the stiffness matrix.
an inadequate constitutive model. A solution to the problem would also be to use small
increments in complete vectors ε̂ and σ̂, but it would lead to a significant size increase of
3.3.the
Example
stiffnessC. Axial Cyclic Tension and Relief Stress Bar Test
matrix.
This example shows a simulation of the tension and relief stress test of the bar
3.3. Example C. Axial Cyclic Tension and Relief Stress Bar Test
subject This
of the analysis will be exactly the same bar that is made of the same material
example shows a simulation of the tension and relief stress test of the bar. The
example
subject Aof (Section
the analysis3.1).
willThis time, the
be exactly however,
same baritthat
wasis assumed
made of thethat the
same bar would
material as be c
cally
in stretched
example A to a certain
(Section 3.1). force value
This time, and then
however, relieved.
it was assumedDuring
that theindividual cycles, te
bar would be
cyclically stretched to a certain force value and then relieved. During individual
forces of 95, 100, 103 and 105 kN, respectively, were assumed to be achieved. The obta cycles,
tensile forces of 95, 100, 103 and 105 kN, respectively, were assumed to be achieved. The
tension graph is shown in Figure 10.
obtained tension graph is shown in Figure 10.
σ (MPa)

ε
Figure 10. σ(ε) relation graph for the simulation of cyclic tension and relief of the bar.
Figure 10. σ(ε) relation graph for the simulation of cyclic tension and relief of the bar.
In this case, only the Ep matrix was used during the first load cycle. During the relief
andInanother
this case,
loadonly
stagethe E previously
to the matrix was usedstress
achieved during
level,the
thefirst load
values cycle.
were takenDuring
from the
the E n matrix. When applying load above the previously achieved stress level, the Ep
and another load stage to the previously achieved stress level, the values were taken
matrix was reused.
the E matrix. When applying load above the previously achieved stress level, th
The graph obtained in Figure 10 corresponds to the model behavior of such materials
matrix wasExtreme
as steel. reused.upper parts of the graph from Figure 10 should match the graph pre-
The graph
sented in Figure obtained in Figureof
7. The confirmation 10this
corresponds to thebymodel
rule was obtained behavior
comparing of such mate
both graphs
in Figure
as steel. 11.
Extreme upper parts of the graph from Figure 10 should match the graph
The graph shown in Figure 10 shows that the lines corresponding to reliefs and
sented in Figure 7. The confirmation of this rule was obtained by comparing both gr
consecutive repeated loads in successive cycles are parallel to one another. This is obvious,
in Figure
as only 11.
the En matrix with constant coefficients is used in the simulation during these
phases. Appropriate calibration of this matrix may result in a change of the slope in graph
sections related to relief and another application of load. Another method is to change En
stiffness matrix coefficients during the calculation. Figure 12 shows an example graph of
cyclic tension and relief with such matrix modification.
 σ (MPa)
aterials 2021, 14, 5837
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 13 of 25

ε
σ (MPa)
Figure 11. Comparison of the cyclic tension and relief graph (solid thin line) with a single c
tension graph (dashed thick line).

The graph shown in Figure 10 shows that the lines corresponding to reliefs a
secutive repeated loads in successive cycles are parallel to one another. This is obv
only the E matrix with constant coefficients is used in the simulation durin
phases. Appropriate calibration of this matrix may result in a change of the slope i
sections related to relief and another ε application of load. Another method is to cha
stiffness matrix coefficients during the calculation. Figure 12 shows an example g
Figure 11. Comparison of the cyclic tension and relief graph (solid thin line) with a single cycle
cyclic
Figuretension and relief
11. Comparison of with suchtension
the cyclic
tension graph (dashed thick line).
matrixand modification.
relief graph (solid thin line) with a single
tension graph (dashed thick line).

The graph shown in Figure 10 shows that the lines corresponding to reliefs a
secutive repeated loads in successive cycles are parallel to one another. This is obv
only the E matrix with constant coefficients is used in the simulation durin
phases. Appropriate calibration of this matrix may result in a change of the slope i
σ (MPa)

sections related to relief and another application of load. Another method is to ch

stiffness matrix coefficients during the calculation. Figure 12 shows an example g
cyclic tension and relief with such matrix modification.

ε
Figure 12. σ(ε) relation graph produced during the simulation of cyclic tension and relief of the bar
σ (MPa)

Figure
with12. σ(ε) Erelation
changing graph produced during the simulation of cyclic tension and relief
n matrix values.

bar with changing E matrix values.

In the presented example, after the sample material exceeded certain deformation
limits (0.07 in this case), the matrix was multiplied by En , by a coefficient whose value was
a In the function
certain presented example,
of achieved after the
deformation. sample
Such material
a mechanism can beexceeded certain defor
used, for example,
limits (0.07degradation
to build in this case),
models.the matrix was multiplied by E , by a coefficient whos
was a certain function of achieved deformation. Such a mechanism can be used, fo
3.4. Example D. Sample Tension and Compression—Hysteretic Material Response
ple, to build degradation models.
This example shows the simulation of a tensile sample test described in example A
(Section 3.1) with a force of 107 kN, followed ε by a relief, compression with a force of 107 kN
3.4. and
Example D. Sample
final relief. In order Tension andthe
to exclude Compression—Hysteretic
possibility of stability lossMaterial Response
by the compressed
sample,
Figure σ(ε) relation
this time
12. example
This it was
shows assumed
graph that
theproducedthe
simulationsample
during length
of athe will be
simulation
tensile 0.2
samplem.
of cyclic tension and
test described inrelief
exa
The simulation required to extend the stiffness matrix. First, the vectors were ex-
bar with
(Section changing
3.1)X with E matrix
a force values.
of (9)
107andkN,
panded: with the relation Y followed by a relief,
with the relation (10) that compression with a forc
add specific values
p
kN and final relief. In order to exclude the possibility of stability loss by Ethe
symmetrically to the 0.00 values and then change their signs to negative. In case of the com
In
matrix the presented
given with a example,
Formula (11), after the
symmetrizationsample
relative
sample, this time it was assumed that the sample length will be 0.2 m. material
to the first exceeded
column certain
(containing defo
limits (0.07
values in this
of 200) case), theand
was performed matrix was multiplied
an appropriate number ofby E , byrows
repeating
The simulation required to extend the stiffness matrix. First, the vectors w a coefficient
was also who
was a certain
panded: X with function of achieved
the relation (9) anddeformation. Such a mechanism
Y with the relation (10) that addcan be used,
specific fo
valu
ple, to build
metrically to degradation models.
the 0.00 values and then change their signs to negative. In case of
 σ (MPa)
matrix given with a formula (11), symmetrization relative to the first column
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 14 of 25
values of 200) was performed and an appropriate number of repeating row
added. The E matrix has been expanded to appropriate size and filled with
(see relation (12)). For the data prepared in this way, a simulation was perf
added. The En matrix has been expanded to appropriate size and filled with 200 values
produced
(see relation the (ε)the
(12)).σFor relation graphinshown
data prepared in aFigure
this way, 13. was performed that
simulation
produced the σ(ε) relation graph shown in Figure 13. ε

σ (MPa)
Figure 13. The σ(ε) relation obtained duringε the tension and subs
simulation.

As it can be seen in Figure 13, a hysteresis loop graph wa

from the adoption of the symmetry of values in the E matr
(0.013.) The
Figure point additionally
σ(ε) relation obtained during theindicates highcompression
tension and subsequent accuracy sample of
Figure 13. The σ(ε) relation obtained during the tension and subsequent compression
the algor
simulation.

As it can be seen in Figure 13, a hysteresis loop graph was obtained. The shape results
simulation.
from the adoption of the symmetry of values in the Ep matrix. Precise loop closure at the
3.5. Example E. Tension and Relief of the Three Bar System
(0.0) point additionally indicates high accuracy of the algorithm used.
As it can be seen in Figure 13, a hysteresis loop graph was obtained. The sh
from
3.5. The
the
Example nextand
adoption
E. Tension analyzed
of the symmetry
Relief issue
of the Three is related
ofSystem
Bar values in thetoE the tension
matrix. Preciseofloop
the clo
sy
(0.0 ) point
shown
The nextin Figure
analyzed issue 14.
additionally is indicates high
related to the accuracy
tension of the
of the system algorithm
of three used.
connected bars
shown in Figure 14.
3.5. Example E. Tension and Relief of the Three Bar System
The next analyzed issue is related to the tension of the system of three con
shown in Figure 14.

Figure 14. A three bar system in tension.

Figure
Figure 14. 14. A three
A three bar in
bar system system
tension.in tension.
The bars have the same length L and the distances between them are constant and
are indicated as a. It is assumed that the upper fastening position of each bar (marked
The bars as i have
= 1, 2 the same length L and the
The bars have the same length L and the distances bet
with numbers and 3) are not displaced in any distances
way. between
At the bottom, them
the bars are are co
are indicated
attached to a beam,aswhich
a. Itwas
is assumed
treated as a that the upper
rigid body. fastening
The tensile force P is position
transmittedofto each b
are indicated as a. It is assumed that the upper fastening p
with numbers as i = 1, 2 and 3) are not displaced in any way. At the bottom, t
the system through the beam. Individual bars have different cross-section areas A i and can
with numbers
attached to a beam, as i =was
which 1, 2treated
and 3)as aare not
rigid displaced
body. inforce
The tensile anyPwa is t
toattached
the systemto a beam,
through which
the beam. was treated
Individual asdifferent
bars have a rigidcross-section
body. The ar
can
to also
the be made of
system materialsthe
through thatbeam.
featureIndividual
different properties. Tensile
bars have forces
differe
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 15 of 25

also be made of materials that feature different properties. Tensile forces inside the bars are
indicated as Pi .
The system being solved is statically indeterminable. Three equations have been
formulated to solve the problem: two static equations and one displacement-related
equation, resulting from the assumption that the beam is a rigid body (no deformations).
The sum of forces equation of the analyzed case is as follows:

P1 + P2 + P3 = P. (23)

The equation of the sum of force moments related to any point on bar no. 2 results in
the following relation:
P1 − P3 = 0. (24)
The last relation on the assumed geometry of the system is in the form of the following:

u1 + u3
u2 = or u1 − 2u2 + u3 = 0, (25)
2
where ui indicates the vertical displacement of the no. i bar end, that is elongation of this
bar. Introducing the relation describing the classical Hooke’s law (Pi = Ei Ai ui /L) into the
above equations, a system of three equations with unknown ui displacements is obtained:
    
E1 A1 /L E2 A2 /L E3 A3 /L u1 P
 E1 A1 /L 0 −E3 A3 /L  u2  =  0 . (26)
1 −2 1 u2 0

Assuming that Ei = f(σi , εi ), and thus Ei = f(ui ), the above system is non-linear.
As in previous examples, the equation system was solved using the incremental
method with a previously described computational algorithm implemented in the pro-
prietary program created in the Scilab environment. The stiffness of the bar material is
p
described with Ei and Eni matrices. For rods No. 1 and 3 the stiffness matrices identical
to problem D were used, while in case of rod No. 2 the matrices from problem D were
multiplied by 0.75.
A cycle consisting of a load phase until the P force reaches 3.5 MN and a load relief
phase were assumed. The following length L = 2.0 m and bar cross-section areas are
assumed: A1 = 0.17 m2 , A2 = 0.20 m2 , A3 = 0.09 m2 . It was assumed that the whole system
is weightless and that there were no stresses in the bars before the start of applying the load.
Calculation results are shown in Figures 15 and 16. Figure 15 shows the relations
between the Pi forces (MN) in specific bars and their elongations ui (m). The graphs are
color coded: red for bar No. 1, green for bar No. 2 and blue for bar No. 3. The combined
maximum forces achieved with individual bars reach a value of 3.5 MN. After load relief,
there are forces in the bars, the sum of which is 0. Bars No. 2 and No. 3 were extended
from their original length and bar No. 1 was shortened.
Graphs in Figure 16 show the relation between σi stresses [MPa] and εi strains. It can
be seen that the load curves for bars no. 1 no. 3 overlap (partly as more stress is achieved
in bar no. 3), while the curve for bar no. 2 is more inclined. This is also the case during the
relief stage. It is caused by different stiffness of the materials from which the bars are made.
 load. 
Calculation  results  are  shown  in  Figures  15  and  16.  Figure  15  shows  the  relations 
between the  P   forces (MN) in specific bars and their elongations  u   (m). The graphs are 
color coded: red for bar No. 1, green for bar No. 2 and blue for bar No. 3. The combined 
maximum forces achieved with individual bars reach a value of 3.5 MN. After load relief, 
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 16 of 25
there are forces in the bars, the sum of which is 0. Bars No. 2 and No. 3 were extended 
from their original length and bar No. 1 was shortened. 

P MN  

Materials 2021, 14, 5837 16 of 25

Figure 15. P (u ) graph (i = 1—red; i = 2—green; i = 3—blue).

Graphs in Figure 16 show the relation between σ stresses [MPa] and ε strains. It can be
seen that the load curves for bars no. 1 no. 3 overlap (partly as more stress is achieved in
  the
bar no. 3), while the curve for bar no. 2 is more inclined. This is also the case during
u m  
relief stage. It is caused by different stiffness of the materials from which the bars are
made.
Figure 15. Pi (ui ) graph (i = 1—red; i = 2—green; i = 3—blue).
 
σ MPa

16. σσi(ε
Figure16.
Figure (εi)) graph
graph (i
(i = 1—red; ii == 2—green;
= 1—red; 2—green; ii ==3—blue).
3—blue).

Thepresented
The presentedexample
example differs
differs from
from the
the previous
previous ones
ones as
asits
itssolution
solutionrequired
required solving
solving
a system of non-linear equations. Based on the achieved results, it was concluded
a system of non-linear equations. Based on the achieved results, it was concluded that: that:

•
• Obtained
Obtained solutions (in each calculation step) met the equations of the solved equation system;
solutions (in each calculation step) met the equations of the solved equation
• σ1 (ε1 ) and σ3 (ε3 ) stress graphs have the same shape as the graph in Figure 7 (stiffness
system;
matrices are the same in each case); a similar check was also performed for the σ2 (ε2 )
• (ε ) and
σgraph, and σin (ε
this) case,
stressthe
graphs
chartshave
werethe same
also shape as
confirmed tothe graph in Figure 7 (stiff-
be consistent.
ness matrices are the same in each case); a similar check was also performed for the
Indicated observations prove the correctness of the algorithm and the usefulness of
σ (ε ) graph, and in this case, the charts were also confirmed to be consistent.
the stiffness matrix for solving non-linear systems that are statically indeterminable.
Indicated observations prove the correctness of the algorithm and the usefulness of
the
3.6.stiffness
Examplematrix for solving
F. Bending non-linear
of a Reinforced systems
Concrete Beamthat are statically indeterminable.
The last example is the most complex and, at the same time, features the most reference
3.6. Example F. Bending of a Reinforced Concrete Beam
for practical aspects. It refers to bending of a double-span reinforced concrete beam shown
The last
in Figure 17. example
The beamiscross
the most complex
section and, at in
is rectangular theshape
samewith
time,the
features the most
following refer-
dimensions
ence for practical aspects. It refers to bending of a double-span reinforced concrete
b × h = 40.0 cm × 60.0 cm. The bottom reinforcement of 3 Ø20 in positive moment zones, beam
shown in Figure 17. The beam cross section is rectangular in shape with the following
dimensions b × h = 40.0 cm × 60.0 cm. The bottom reinforcement of 3 Ø20 in positive mo-
ment zones, and the top reinforcement of 8 Ø20 in negative moment zones were assumed.
C30/37 concrete and 34GS reinforcing steel were used, and concrete features were taken
from standard [35] Distances between reinforcement centers of gravity and beam edges
 3.6. Example F. Bending of a Reinforced Concrete Beam
The last example is the most complex and, at the same time, features the most refer
ence for practical aspects. It refers to bending of a double-span reinforced concrete beam
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 17 of 25
shown in Figure 17. The beam cross section is rectangular in shape with the following
dimensions b × h = 40.0 cm × 60.0 cm. The bottom reinforcement of 3 Ø20 in positive mo
ment zones, and the top reinforcement of 8 Ø20 in negative moment zones were assumed
and the top
C30/37 reinforcement
concrete and 34GSof reinforcing
8 Ø20 in negative moment
steel were zones
used, andwere assumed.
concrete C30/37
features were taken
concrete and 34GS reinforcing steel were used, and concrete features were taken from
from standard [35] Distances between reinforcement centers of gravity and beam edge
standard [35] Distances between reinforcement centers of gravity and beam edges are
are 4.0cm. The stiffness of intermediate elastic support is k = 700 MN/m.
4.0 cm. The stiffness of intermediate elastic support is k = 700 MN/m.

Figure 17. Static diagram of the beam being analyzed.

In this case, the stiffness matrices of two considered beam cross-sections (with different
reinforcement) were built first. The algorithm for determining the stiffness of reinforced
concrete bend cross-sections was used, which was defined in the paper [36]. It uses cross-
sectional dimensions, surface area and location of main reinforcement, as well as the
physical relations for concrete and reinforcing steel as defined in Eurocode 2. Based on
achieved results, stiffness matrices were defined. Section stiffness with the reinforcement
of 3 Ø20 is described with vectors

X1 = [0 1.22 2.44 3.65 4.38 7.06 9.50 12.18 14.61 17.05 25.00] × 10−3 , (27)

Y1 = [0 53.5 106.7 159.5 191.0 203.8 205.3 206.5 207.2 207.8 208.3 250.0] (28)
and the matrix
 T
44135 43854 43606 43186 41405 650 450 200 200 200 200 200 0
 44135 43854 43606 43186 41405 650 450 200 200 200 200 200 0 
p
E1 (11×13) =  . (29)
 
..
 . 
44135 43854 43606 43186 41405 650 450 200 200 200 200 200 0
The En1 (11×13) matrix consist entirely of 44,135 values.
Section stiffness with the reinforcement of 8 Ø20 is described with vectors

X2 =[0 1.00 2.20 3.40 4.40 5.40 5.60 7.80 10.00 12.20 14.40 16.60 18.80 31.70] × 10−3 , (30)
Y2 =[0 95.3 212.6 327.8 418.2 506.9 512.9 521.1 526.3 529.9 532.5 534.5 536.0 537.5 600.0] (31)
and the matrix

T
· · · 800 0

98576 97360 95640 93719 92190 90424 8000 2200 1726 1449 800
p
 98576 97360 95640 93719 92190 90424 8000 2200 1726 1449 800 · · · 800 0 
E2 (14×15) =  . (32)
 
..
 . 
98576 97360 95640 93719 92190 90424 8000 2200 1726 1449 800 · · · 800 0

The En2 (14×15) matrix consist entirely of 98,576 values.

Vectors X1 and X2 are curvature vectors here (κ) expressed in (m−1 ), Y1 and Y2 are
p p
bending moment vectors (M) expressed in (kNm), and matrices E1_ , En1 , E2_ and En2 describe
the bending stiffness of sections expressed in (kNm2 ). The M(κ) relation graphs generated
based on the data compiled above are presented in Figures 18 and 19.
 Materials 2021, 14, 5837 18 of 25
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 18 of 25
Materials 2021, 14, 5837  18  of  25 
 

M (kNm)
M kNm  

κ (m−1)   
κ (m−1)
p
Figure 18. The 
Figure18. MMκM(κ)
18.The
The relation
relation graph
graph corresponding
corresponding toEEthe
(κ  )relation graph corresponding to the 
to the E matrix (reinforcement of 3 Ø20).
  matrix (reinforcement of 3 Ø20). 
Figure 1 matrix (reinforcement of 3 Ø20).
M kNm  
M (kNm)

κ (m−1) 
κ (m−1)  
Figure 19. The  M κ   relation graph corresponding to the  E p  matrix (reinforcement of 8 Ø20). 
Figure 19.The
Figure19. TheMM(κ)
(κ) relation graph
relation corresponding
graph to the
corresponding 2 matrix
toEthe (reinforcement
E matrix of 8 Ø20).
(reinforcement of 8 Ø20).
The problem was solved with the finite difference method and the incremental algo‐
The problem was solved with the finite difference method and the incremental al-
The problemstiffness 
rithm  incorporating  was solved with the
matrices  that finite differenceearlier 
was  discussed  method and
and  the in 
used  incremental
previous  algo-
gorithm incorporating stiffness matrices that was discussed earlier and used in previous
problems. The beam undergone discretization assuming a digitizing range of 0.1 m. One 
rithm incorporating stiffness matrices that was discussed earlier and used in previous
problems. The beam undergone discretization assuming a digitizing range of 0.1 m. One
load cycle for the beam and the subsequent relief was assumed. Maximum load value of 
problems. The
load cycle for thebeam
beamundergone discretization
and the subsequent assuming
relief was assumed. a digitizing
Maximum range
load of 0.1 m.
value of One
q = 160 kN/m was chosen so that the plasticization effect of beam sections could be clearly 
q = 160 kN/m was chosen so that the plasticization effect of beam sections could be clearly of
load cycle for the beam and the subsequent relief was assumed. Maximum load value
seen during the simulation. Building the load increment vector, the load phase was di‐
q = 160 kN/m
seen during the was chosen Building
simulation. so that thetheplasticization
load incrementeffectvector, ofthe
beam
loadsections
phase was could be clearly
divided
vided into two ranges. The first range, covering the force range from 0 to 0.95q 
seentwo
during theThesimulation. Building the (i.e., up to 
into ranges. first range, covering theload
forceincrement
range from vector, the load
0 to 0.95q (i.e., phase
up to thewas di-
the value of 144 kN/m), was divided into 15 subranges with an increment of 9.60 kN/m. 
videdofinto
value 144 two
kN/m),ranges.
was The firstinto
divided range, covering the
15 subranges withforce range from
an increment 0 to kN/m.
of 9.60 0.95q (i.e.,
Theup to
The second range, covering the force range from 0.95
the value
second of 144
range, kN/m),
covering thewas
forcedivided
range frominto 0.95 q qto (i.e.,
15 subranges
q to q  (i.e., from 144 to 160 kN/m), 
with
from an
144increment
to 160 kN/m), of 9.60
was kN/m.
was divided into 15 subranges with an increment of 1.067 kN/m. The load phase (from the 
The second range, covering the force range from 0.95 q to q (i.e., from 144 to 160 kN/m),
divided into 15 subranges with an increment of 1.067 kN/m. The load phase (from the
value 
valueqq= 160 kN/m to 0) was divided into 15 subranges with an increment of 10.67 kN/m. 
= 160 kN/m
was divided into 15tosubranges
0) was divided
with into 15 subranges
an increment with an
of 1.067 increment
kN/m. The loadof 10.67
phase kN/m.
(from the
The 
Theqdisplacement 
displacement (deflection)  graph  obtained  during 
duringspecific  steps 
steps(for 
(forsuccessive 
value = 160 kN/m to(deflection)
0) was dividedgraph intoobtained
15 subranges specific
with an increment successive
of 10.67 kN/m.
load values in the load and relief phases) is shown in Figure 20. The x axis describes the 
load values in the load and relief phases) is shown in Figure 20.specific
The x axis describes the
The displacement (deflection) graph obtained during steps (for successive
coordinates of the beam sections starting from the leftmost support. 
coordinates of the beam sections starting from the leftmost support.
load values in the load and relief phases) is shown in Figure 20. The x axis describes the
coordinates of the beam sections starting from the leftmost support.

 
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 19 of 25
Materials 2021, 14, 5837  19  of  25 
 Materials 2021, 14, 5837
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 1919ofof2525

w m  
(m)
w(m)
w

 
x m  
 
w(x) xx(m)
(m)
Figure 20. Beam deflection w(x) graph during
Figure 20. Beam deflection graph duringspecific
specificload
loadand
andrelief
reliefsteps.
steps.
Figure 20. Beam deflection w(x) graph during specific load and relief steps.
Figure 20. Beam deflection  w x   graph during specific load and relief steps. 
Theother
The
The othergraphs
other graphs(Figures
graphs (Figures21–25)
(Figures 21–25)show
21–25) showonly
show onlythe
only thecalculation
the calculationresults
calculation resultscorresponding
results correspondingto
corresponding to
to
maximum
maximum load
load (q
(q == 160
160 kN/m)—solid
kN/m)—solid lines,
lines, and
and the
the total
total beam
beam relief—dashed
The other graphs (Figures 21–25) show only the calculation results corresponding to 
relief—dashed
maximum load (q = 160 kN/m)—solid lines, and the total beam relief—dashed lines. lines.
lines.
maximum load (q  = 160 kN/m)—solid lines, and the total beam relief—dashed lines. 
m
w w (m)
w(m)
 

xx(m)
(m)
x m   maximum and after relief.  
Figure21.
Figure
Figure 21.The
21. The ww(x)
Thew(x) [m]deflection
(x) [m]
[m] deflectiongraph—at
deflection graph—at
graph—at maximum and
maximum and after
after relief.
relief.
Figure 21. The  w x   [m] deflection graph—at maximum and after relief. 
(rad)
φ (rad)
rad
φ φ  

xx(m)
(m)
x m    
Figure22.
Figure
Figure 22.The
22. The ϕφ(x)
Theφ(x) (rad)angle
(x) (rad) angleofofrotation
rotationgraph—at
graph—atmaximum
maximumand
andafter
afterrelief.
after relief.
relief.
Figure 22. The  φ x   (rad) angle of rotation graph—at maximum and after relief. 

 
 Materials 2021, 14, 5837 20 of 25
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 20 of 25
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 20 of 25
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 20 of 25

)) )
(m −1
−1
κ(m
κκ(m −1

x (m)
x (m)
Figure 23. The κ(x) (m−1−)curvature x (m) maximum and after relief.
graph—at
Figure 23.
Figure23. The κ(x)
The κ(x)
23.The κ(x) (m −11)curvature
(m−1)curvature graph—at
) curvaturegraph—at maximum
graph—atmaximum and
maximumand after
andafter relief.
afterrelief.
relief.
Figure
(kNm)
M(kNm)
MM(kNm)

x (m)
x (m)
x (m)graph—at maximum and after relief.
Figure 24. The M(x) (kNm) bending moment
Figure 24. The M(x) (kNm) bending moment graph—at maximum and after relief.
Figure
Figure24. The M(x)
24.The M(x) (kNm)
(kNm) bending moment graph—at maximum and after relief.
(kN)
T(kN)
TT(kN)

x (m)
x (m)
x (m)
Figure 25. The T(x) (kN) shearing force graph—at maximum and after relief.
Figure 25. The T(x) (kN) shearing force graph—at maximum and after relief.
Figure 25. The T(x) (kN) shearing force graph—at maximum and after relief.
Figure 25. The T(x) (kN) shearing force graph—at maximum and after relief.
From the achieved results, it can be observed that the beam did not return to its orig-
From the
From the achieved
achieved results,
results, it
it can
can be
be observed
observed that
that the
the beam did
did not
not return
return to
to its
its orig-
orig-
inal shape
Fromafter
the load relief.results,
achieved The system is be
it can statically
observed that beam
indeterminable
the beamanddid
therefore non-zero
not return to its
inal
inal shape
shape after load
afterinload relief.
relief. The
The system
system is statically indeterminable and therefore non-zero
internal
original forces
shape the beam
after load also The is
remained.
relief. statically
system indeterminable
is statically and therefore
indeterminable and non-zero
therefore
internal
internal forces
forces in the
in the beam
beam also remained.
In the
non-zero presented
internal forces in also
example, remained.
the there
beam were different values of bending moments and cur-
also remained.
In the
In the presented
presented example,
example, there
there were
were different
different values
values of
of bending
bending moments
moments and cur- cur-
vatures in individual cross-sections. The most significant plastic rotation of cross and
sections
vatures in individual cross-sections. The most significant plastic rotation of
vatures in individual cross-sections. The most significant plastic rotation of cross sections cross sections
Materials 2021,
Materials 14,
2021, 14,5837
5837 21 of 25 21 of 2

occurred
In the at beam start
presented and end
example, there(at terminal
were differentsupports). The factmoments
values of bending that plastic joints were
and cur-
vatures
formedinonlyindividual
in the cross-sections.
most stressedThe most significant
sections is typical plastic
for barrotation of cross
structures. Thesections
plasticization
occurred at beam start
of the outermost and end
sections (at terminal
is indicated supports).
by large valueThe fact that
jumps plastic
at these joints were
locations seen in Fig
formed only in the most stressed sections is typical for bar structures. The plasticization
ure 23. In Figure 22, the presence of plastic cross sections in these sections is indicated of les
the outermost sections is indicated by large value jumps at these locations seen in Figure 23.
clearly, but it is due to the limitations of the finite difference method used. Figure 26 show
In Figure 22, the presence of plastic cross sections in these sections is indicated less clearly,
the M(κ) relation graph in these cross-sections overlapped with the graph from Figure
but it is due to the limitations of the finite difference method used. Figure 26 shows the
19.(κ) relation graph in these cross-sections overlapped with the graph from Figure 19.
M
M (kNm)

κ (m−1)
Figure 26. The M(κ) relation graph in cross-sections at beam start and end (thick dashed line)
Figure 26. The M(κ) relation graph in cross-sections at beam start and end (thick dashed line)
overlapped with the graph from Figure 19.
overlapped with the graph from Figure 19.

Highcompatibility
High compatibility of both
of both graphsgraphs
can be can
seen be seen in
in Figure 26. Figure 26. Someoccurred
Some differences differences oc
curred
at at the
the point of point
severeofchanges
severe ofchanges of graph inclination
graph inclination angle. These angle. These differences
differences could be could
reduced, for example,
be reduced, as a result
for example, of reduced
as a result load increments.
of reduced load increments.
The
Theanalyzed
analyzed beam was previously
beam solved in
was previously study [37].
solved Calculations
in study performed there
[37]. Calculations performed
took into account stiffness functions determined in accordance
there took into account stiffness functions determined in accordance with the same algorithm
with the same algo
(study [36]), but without using the stiffness matrix description. One load cycle up to
rithm (study [36]), but without using the stiffness matrix description. One load cycle up
q = 50 kN/m was taken into account. At such load, the maximum deflection value of
to q = 50mkN/m
0.0031073 was taken
was obtained intoHaving
in [37]. account. At such
solved load,problem
the same the maximum
using thedeflection
algorithm value o
0.0031073inmthis
discussed was obtained
paper, in [37].deflection
a maximum Having solved
value ofthe same problem
0.0031061 using the
m was obtained. algorithm
This
discussed in this paper, a maximum deflection value of 0.0031061 m
means that the relative error of the deflection value is −0.04%. This confirms that thewas obtained. Thi
means that
algorithm the relative
works correctlyerror of the deflection value is −0.04%. This confirms that the algo
as planned.
rithm works correctly as planned.
4. Discussion
The purpose of this paper was to present the developed matrix constitutive model of
4. Discussion
structural materials. The main assumptions of this method and the numerical algorithm to
allowThe purpose
for its efficientofuse
this paper
were was toinpresent
presented Section the
2. developed matrix constitutive model o
structural materials. The main assumptions of
In Section 3, the paper presented calculation examples this method and the
that confirm thenumerical
effectivenessalgorithm
to the
of allow for its efficient
developed methoduse andwere
showpresented
some fieldsin of
Section 2.
application. Example B presented
In Section stiffness
two constructed 3, the paper presented
matrices calculation
for the assumed examples
baseline data, that
with confirm
the second thematrix
effectivenes
(Case 2) referring to the data extracted from the experiment. Despite manual
of the developed method and show some fields of application. Example B presented calibration of two
the stiffness matrix, a good compliance between the tension test simulation results
constructed stiffness matrices for the assumed baseline data, with the second matrix (Case and the
baseline data was obtained. The versatility of the method is also apparent here. Stiffness
2) referring to the data extracted from the experiment. Despite manual calibration of the
matrices can be constructed for materials with distinct yield strength, for hyper-elastic
stiffness matrix, a good compliance between the tension test simulation results and the
materials, and material types not considered in this paper.
baseline data C
Examples was
andobtained. The versatility
D show simulations of therelief,
of tension, method is also apparent
and compression here. Stiffnes
of a sample
matrices can be constructed for materials with distinct yield strength,
in axial compressive stress. Obtained simulation results confirm the high versatility of for hyper-elastic
the
materials,
method and as
as well material
the easetypes not considered
of adaptations. in this
In example E,paper.
a degradation model was built
Examples C and D show simulations of tension, relief, and compression of a sample
in axial compressive stress. Obtained simulation results confirm the high versatility of the
method as well as the ease of adaptations. In example E, a degradation model was buil
by introducing a coefficient that depends on strain history, but a similar effect could be
 Materials 2021, 14, 5837 22 of 25
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 22 of 25

by introducing
was modified to easilya account
coefficient forthat depends stresses.
compressive on strainThe history, but a similar
simulation effectpro-
of the tensile could be
obtained by modifying the stiffness matrix accordingly. In Example
cesses of the sample resulted in a graph in the form of an exactly closed hysteresis loop, D, the stiffness matrix
was modified to easily account for
which confirms that the method is correct and accurate. compressive stresses. The simulation of the tensile
processes E
Examples ofand
the sample
F deal with resulted in a graph
the analysis in the form
of statically of an exactly systems.
indeterminate closed hysteresis
In these loop,
which confirms that the method is correct and accurate.
cases, the calculation algorithms shown in Figures 5 and 6 were fully utilized. In Example
E, a system Examples
of three E and F deal
parallel with the
connected barsanalysis
that wereof statically
tensioned indeterminate
with a forcesystems.
that causes In these
cases, the calculation algorithms shown in Figures 5 and 6 were
plastic deformation was analyzed. After relief, the system did not return to its original fully utilized. In Example E,
a system of three parallel connected bars that were tensioned with a force that causes plastic
position and non-zero strains and stresses remained in the system. Example F was related
deformation was analyzed. After relief, the system did not return to its original position
to a double-span reinforced concrete beam. The stiffness matrices created in this case re-
and non-zero strains and stresses remained in the system. Example F was related to a
ferred to the complete reinforced concrete beam cross-sections that take into account the
double-span reinforced concrete beam. The stiffness matrices created in this case referred
concrete matrix and reinforcing bars (in earlier examples the matrices described material
to the complete reinforced concrete beam cross-sections that take into account the concrete
stiffness). This is another confirmation of the versatility and adaptability of the developed
matrix and reinforcing bars (in earlier examples the matrices described material stiffness).
method. In this case, the finite difference method was used to create the mathematical
This is another confirmation of the versatility and adaptability of the developed method.
model of the task, but stiffness matrices can be used along with other numerical methods
In this case, the finite difference method was used to create the mathematical model of
such as the finite element method. Simulation of the beam behavior under stress causing
the task, but stiffness matrices can be used along with other numerical methods such as
high plasticization of outermost sections and then during relief was carried out. After the
the finite element method. Simulation of the beam behavior under stress causing high
load relief, non-zeroofdisplacements
plasticization outermost sections and internal
and then forces
during remained
relief wasin the beam.
carried out.The exam-
After the load
ple inrelief,
question was previously solved for another article. Result
non-zero displacements and internal forces remained in the beam. The example comparison confirmed
the correct functioning
in question of the stiffness
was previously solved matrix and calculation
for another algorithm.
article. Result Duringconfirmed
comparison the sim- the
ulation, highfunctioning
correct compatibility of theof the obtained
stiffness matrix M(κ)
andfunction
calculation with the assumed
algorithm. Duringonethe was ob-
simulation,
tainedhigh
(seecompatibility
Figure 26), which is another confirmation of the proper operation
of the obtained M(κ) function with the assumed one was obtained (see of the algo-
rithm.Figure 26), which is another confirmation of the proper operation of the algorithm.
An important
An importantadvantage
advantageof theofdeveloped
the developed matrix description
matrix of material
description properties
of material properties
is theisdependence of the stiffness function on two variables,
the dependence of the stiffness function on two variables, stress σ and strainstress σ and strain ε. The ε. The
difference between
difference this approach
between this approach and theandclassical approach
the classical is shown
approach in Figure
is shown 27. In27.
in Figure theIn the
classical approach
classical (Figure
approach 27a), the
(Figure 27a),stiffness function
the stiffness depends
function on one
depends onvariable, and itand
one variable, canit can
be represented graphically as a line on a plane graph. Method
be represented graphically as a line on a plane graph. Method presented in this paperpresented in this paper
refersrefers
to a description of theofstiffness,
to a description the graphical
the stiffness, interpretation
the graphical interpretationof which is theissurface
of which the surface
(Figure 27b). This way it is much easier to analyze the loading
(Figure 27b). This way it is much easier to analyze the loading and unloading and unloading processes
processes
and take
andthetakeearlier deformation
the earlier deformation history of theofmaterial
history into account.
the material into account.

(a) (b)
FigureFigure
27. Description of material
27. Description stiffness:
of material (a) classic—stiffness
stiffness: is aisfunction
(a) classic—stiffness a functionofofone
onevariable;
variable; (b) matrix—
(b) matrix—stiffness is a function of two variables.
stiffness is a function of two variables.

The matrix description

The matrix of materials
description ensures
of materials manymany
ensures more more
possibilities than those
possibilities pre- pre-
than those
sented in thisinpaper.
sented In particular,
this paper. it is possible
In particular, to introduce
it is possible moremore
to introduce variables on which
variables the the
on which
described parameters
described will depend.
parameters This isThis
will depend. explained in Figure
is explained 28. 28.
in Figure
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 23 of 25
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 23 of 25

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure 28.
28. Matrix
Matrixdescription
descriptionofof
material parameters
material based
parameters on the
based on number of variables:
the number (a) two
of variables: (a) two
variables—used in the examples in this paper; (b) three variables; (c) four variables.
variables—used in the examples in this paper; (b) three variables; (c) four variables.

Figure
Figure 28a28a shows
showsaasituation
situationwhere whereaamaterial
materialparameter
parameterdepends
dependsonontwo two variables.
variables.
This corresponds to stiffness matrices E(σ, ε)
This corresponds to stiffness matrices E(σ, ε) included in this paper. Figure 28bshows
included in this paper. Figure 28b shows
the
the case
case ofof aa parameter
parameter that that depends
dependson onthree
threevariables.
variables.This Thisthird
thirdvariable
variablemay maybe,be,for
for
example, the distortion rate ε, .which will enable time-dependent analysis. Figure 28c de-
example, the distortion rate ε, which will enable time-dependent analysis. Figure 28c
velops
develops thethe
concept
concept withwith adding
adding another
another variable.
variable. For practical
For practical reasons,
reasons, thethecases
casesshown
shown
in Figure 28b,c can be prepared by using matrix structures
in Figure 28b,c can be prepared by using matrix structures with more than two dimensions.with more than two dimen-
sions.
The The
use ofuse
suchofmultidimensional
such multidimensional matricesmatrices
would would require
require appropriate
appropriate modification
modification of the
of the calculation algorithm discussed
calculation algorithm discussed in this paper. in this paper.
The
The developed
developed method method of of describing
describingmaterialmaterialproperties
propertiesisisalternative
alternativetotoclassical
classical
constitutive models of constitutive materials. It has both
constitutive models of constitutive materials. It has both advantages (described advantages (described above)
above) and
and limitations related to classical models. These
limitations related to classical models. These limitations include: limitations include:
• Time-consuming calibration of the stiffness matrix that requires supervision by
• Time-consuming calibration of the stiffness matrix that requires supervision by experi-
experienced and dedicated researchers,
enced and dedicated researchers,
• Application limitation to nonlinear issues (using this method in linear prob-
• Application limitation to nonlinear issues (using this method in linear problems is
lems is possible but inefficient),
possible but inefficient),
• The need to adapt the incremental method parameters of given problem solu-
• The need to adapt the incremental method parameters of given problem solution to
tion to the distribution of characteristic points in vectors X and Y.
the distribution of characteristic points in vectors X and Y.
Areas of further planned research and activities to improve the method include,
among Areas of further
others, planned
the algorithm research and
development for activities
automatedtocalibration
improve the of the method
stiffnessinclude,
ma-
among others, the algorithm development for automated calibration
trix. This will enable a quick creation of accurate stiffness matrices based on basic data, of the stiffness matrix.
This will enabletest
e.g., laboratory a quick
results. creation of accurate stiffness matrices based on basic data, e.g.,
laboratory test results.
Potential areas of application of the method include the analysis of structures made
Potential areas
of hyper-elastic of application
materials and structuresof the connected
method include theground.
with the analysisTheof structures made of
ground behaves
hyper-elastic materials and structures connected with the ground.
in a non-linear and complex way, which is difficult to describe using mathematical ex- The ground behaves in a
non-linearso
pressions, and complex
writing down way, its which is difficult
properties to describe
in the form using mathematical
of a stiffness matrix shouldexpressions,
give good
so writing
results. Duedown
to theits properties
possibility ofin the form
direct of a stiffness
referencing matrixmatrix
the stiffness should withgive thegood results.
results of
Due to the possibility of direct referencing the stiffness matrix
material laboratory tests, it is possible to apply the method when analyzing structures with the results of material
laboratory
made of new tests, it is possible
materials to apply
or for which nothe method
verified when analyzing
analytical constitutive structures
modelsmade exist. of new
materials or for which no verified analytical constitutive models exist.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
The concept of matrix description of material properties presented in this paper is an
Theapproach
original concept to of the
matrix description
creation of nonlinearof material properties
constitutive models. presented in this paper
The distinguishing fea-is
an original approach to the creation of nonlinear constitutive
ture of this concept is the exclusive use of numerical description (in the form of one or models. The distinguishing
feature
more of this concept
matrices) and taking is theinto exclusive
account use of numericalofdescription
the dependence the stiffness(inparameter
the form on of one
at
or more matrices) and taking into account the dependence
least two variables. The developed method offers the accurate description of the material of the stiffness parameter
on at leastattwo
behavior, variables.
the cost The developed
of its workload. method offers
The computational the accurate
examples presenteddescription of the
in the paper,
incorporating the developed numerical algorithm, confirmed the effectiveness and accu-in
material behavior, at the cost of its workload. The computational examples presented
the paper,
racy of the incorporating the developed
method. It is primarily developednumerical
for thealgorithm,
descriptionconfirmed
and analysis theof effectiveness
nonlinear
and accuracy of the method. It is primarily developed for the description and analysis
materials. In particular, it is suitable for the description of materials where effective ana-
of nonlinear
lytical materials.
constitutive models In have
particular,
not beenit isdeveloped.
suitable for Thetheproposed
description of materials
approach where
offers great
effective analytical constitutive models have not been developed.
adaptability for describing different types of materials as well as for the analysis of a va-
The proposed approach
offers great adaptability for describing different types of materials as well as for the analysis
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 24 of 25

of a variety of structural analysis issues. Stiffness matrices can be used in conjunction with
numerical structural analysis methods such as the finite difference method or the finite
element method.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data sharing is not applicable for this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

References
1. Dudziak, S. Numerically Efficient Three-Dimensional Model for Non-Linear Finite Element Analysis of Reinforced Concrete
Structures. Materials 2021, 14, 1578. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
2. Yapar, O.; Basu, P.K.; Nordendale, N. Accurate finite element modeling of pretensioned prestressed concrete beams. Eng. Struct.
2015, 101, 163–178. [CrossRef]
3. Lou, T.; Lopes, S.M.R.; Lopes, A.V. Nonlinear and time-dependent analysis of continuous unbonded prestressed concrete beams.
Comput. Struct. 2013, 119, 166–176. [CrossRef]
4. Chiorean, C.G.; Buru, S.M. Practical nonlinear inelastic analysis method of composite steel-concrete beams with partial composite
action. Eng. Struct. 2017, 134, 74–106. [CrossRef]
5. Liang, Q.Q.; Fragomeni, S. Nonlinear analysis of circular concrete-filled steel tubular short columns under eccentric loading. J.
Constr. Steel Res. 2010, 66, 159–169. [CrossRef]
6. Richard, B.; Ragueneau, F.; Adelaïde, L.; Cremona, C. A multi-fiber approach for modeling corroded reinforced concrete structures.
Eur. J. Mech. A Solids 2011, 30, 950–961. [CrossRef]
7. Pandit, D.; Srinivasan, S.M. Numerical analysis of large elasto-plastic deflection of constant curvature beam under follower load.
Int. J. Non-Linear Mech. 2016, 84, 46–55. [CrossRef]
8. Zhang, L.; Zhao, M.; Shi, C.; Zhao, H. Nonlinear analysis of a geocell mattress on an elastic-plastic foundation. Comput. Geotech.
2012, 42, 204–211. [CrossRef]
9. Davids, W.G. In-plane load-deflection behavior and buckling of pressurized fabric arches. J. Struct. Eng. 2009, 135, 1320–1329.
[CrossRef]
10. Patel, B.N.; Pandit, D.; Srinivasan, S.M. Moment-curvature based elasto-plastic model for large deflection of micro-beams under
combined loading. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 2017, 134, 158–173. [CrossRef]
11. Hawileh, R.A.; Rahman, A.; Tabatabai, H. Nonlinear finite element analysis and modeling of a precast hybrid beam-column
connection subjected to cyclic loads. Appl. Math. Model. 2010, 34, 2562–2583. [CrossRef]
12. Mathern, A.; Yang, J. A Practical Finite Element Modeling Strategy to Capture Cracking and Crushing Behavior of Reinforced
Concrete Structures. Materials 2021, 14, 506. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
13. Hu, L.; Li, S.; Zhu, J.; Yang, X. Mathematical Model of Constitutive Relation and Failure Criteria of Plastic Concrete under True
Triaxial Compressive Stress. Materials 2021, 14, 102. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. Józefiak, K.; Michalczyk, R. Prediction of Structural Performance of Vinyl Ester Polymer Concrete Using FEM Elasto-Plastic
Model. Materials 2020, 13, 4034. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
15. Bacinskas, D.; Rumsys, D.; Sokolov, A.; Kaklauskas, G. Deformation Analysis of Reinforced Beams Made of Lightweight
Aggregate Concrete. Materials 2020, 13, 20. [CrossRef]
16. Hammoud, R.; Boukhili, R.; Yahia, A. Unified Formulation for a Triaxial Elastoplastic Constitutive Law for Concrete. Materials
2013, 6, 4226–4248. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
17. Ali, A.; Hosseini, M.; Sahari, B.B. A review and comparison on some rubber elasticity models. J. Sci. Ind. Res. (India) 2010, 69,
495–500.
18. Horgan, C.O. The remarkable Gent constitutive model for hyperelastic materials. Int. J. Non-Linear Mech. 2015, 68, 9–16. [CrossRef]
19. Rickaby, S.R.; Scott, N.H. A comparison of limited-stretch models of rubber elasticity. Int. J. Non-Linear Mech. 2015, 68, 71–86.
[CrossRef]
20. Ali, A.; Hosseini, M.; Sahari, B.B. A Review of Constitutive Models for Rubber-Like Materials. Am. J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 2010, 3,
232–239. [CrossRef]
21. Liu, M.; Hoo Fatt, M.S. A constitutive equation for filled rubber under cyclic loading. Int. J. Non-Linear Mech. 2011, 46, 446–456.
[CrossRef]
22. Beda, T. Modeling hyperelastic behavior of rubber: A novel invariant-based and a review of constitutive models. J. Polym. Sci.
Part B Polym. Phys. 2007, 45, 1713–1732. [CrossRef]
23. Khajehsaeid, H.; Arghavani, J.; Naghdabadi, R. A hyperelastic constitutive model for rubber-like materials. Eur. J. Mech. A Solids
2013, 38, 144–151. [CrossRef]
Materials 2021, 14, 5837 25 of 25

24. Nguessong Nkenfack, A.; Beda, T.; Feng, Z.Q.; Peyraut, F. HIA: A Hybrid Integral Approach to model incompressible isotropic
hyperelastic materials—Part 1: Theory. Int. J. Non-Linear Mech. 2016, 84, 1–11. [CrossRef]
25. Zanelli, L.; Montanaro, A.; Carniel, E.L.; Pavan, P.G.; Natali, A.N. The study of equivalent material parameters in a hyperelastic
model. Int. J. Non-Linear Mech. 2017, 89, 142–150. [CrossRef]
26. Said, A.-A.; Carlos, D.; Manuel F., V. Mechanical Assessment and Hyperelastic Modeling of Polyurethanes for the Early Stages of
Vascular Graft Design. Materials 2020, 13, 4973. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
27. Han, Y.; Duan, J.; Wang, S. Benchmark Problems of Hyper-Elasticity Analysis in Evaluation of FEM. Materials 2020, 13, 885.
[CrossRef]
28. Ratajczak, M.; Ptak, M.; Chybowski, L.; Gawdzińska, K.; B˛edziński, R. Material and Structural Modeling Aspects of Brain Tissue
Deformation under Dynamic Loads. Materials 2019, 12, 271. [CrossRef]
29. Safshekan, F.; Tafazzoli-Shadpour, M.; Abdouss, M.; Shadmehr, M.B. Mechanical Characterization and Constitutive Modeling of
Human Trachea: Age and Gender Dependency. Materials 2016, 9, 456. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
30. Sokołowski, D.; Kamiński, M. Hysteretic Behavior of Random Particulate Composites by the Stochastic Finite Element Method.
Materials 2019, 12, 2909. [CrossRef]
31. Wang, Z.; Srinivasa, A.R.; Rajagopal, K.R.; Reddy, J.N. Simulation of inextensible elasto-plastic beams based on an implicit rate
type model. Int. J. Non-Linear Mech. 2018, 99, 165–172. [CrossRef]
32. Sussman, T.; Bathe, K.J. A model of incompressible isotropic hyperelastic material behavior using spline interpolations of
tension-compression test data. Commun. Numer. Methods Eng. 2009, 25, 53–63. [CrossRef]
33. Latorre, M.; Montáns, F.J. Extension of the Sussman-Bathe spline-based hyperelastic model to incompressible transversely
isotropic materials. Comput. Struct. 2013, 122, 13–26. [CrossRef]
34. Latorre, M.; De Rosa, E.; Montáns, F.J. Understanding the need of the compression branch to characterize hyperelastic materials.
Int. J. Non-Linear Mech. 2017, 89, 14–24. [CrossRef]
35. European Union. Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures—Part 1-1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings; The Polish Committee
for Standardization: Warsaw, Poland, 2008.
36. Janiak, T.; Niespodziana, A.; Grabowski, A. Analiza sztywności zginanych przekrojów żelbetowych z wykorzystaniem nielin-
iowych zależności konstytutywnych—Algorytm numeryczny. Mater. Bud. 2013, 12, 71–72, +99.
37. Janiak, T. Metoda Numerycznej Nieliniowej Analizy Belek Żelbetowych. J. Civ. Eng. Environ. Archit. 2017, 34, 571–582. [CrossRef]