Cap. 11

CHAPTER ELEVEN
Counterfactual Analysis of Inequality and

Social Mobility
Flavio Cunha, James Heckman, and Salvador Navarro
l. I NTRODUCTION
Most studies of income inequality and social mo bility are descriptive in

nature. Studies of inequality compare differences in the location in the over-
all distribution of income among groups at a point in time and over time
an<l che evolution of income distributions over time. Studies of mobility
measure movements of income within lifetimes or across generations. 1 These
exercises present factual summaries of income inequality and income
mobility.
For the purposes of policy analysis, and for imerpreting facts within a
scientific model, it is necessary to move beyond factual description to con-
struct counterfactuals. T hey can be used to determine what would happen
to mobility or inequality if diffcrcnt policies or interventions were tried than
the policies historically obscrved. T hey can also be used to decompose ob-
served inequalii:y and mobility into components dueto genuine uncertainty
("luck" as described by Jencks et al. 1972) and components of heterogene-
ity and individual differences that are predictable, at least by a cerra in age or
stage of the life cycle.
This chapter describes recent methodological advanccs that cnable ana-
lysts to construct counterfactual distributions and separare heterogeneity
(predictable variability across persons) from uncertainty. 2 In general, the
welfarc conscqucnces of predictable heterogcncity and unprcdictablc unccr-
tainty are not che same. Using the tools rcviewcd here, analysts can deter-
mine how much inequality and mobility is forccastablc at a given age an<l
how much is unforecastable lucl<.
290
Cunha, Heckman, and Navarro 291
These methods allow analysts to move bcyond aggregate summary mea-

sures of inequality that are based on the anonymüy postulare to determine
which groups in an initial distribution are affectcd by a policy change and
how they are affccted. The anonymity postulare treats two aggregatc distri-
butions as equally good if, after incomc is rcdistributed among persons, thc
overall distribution is the same. With our methods we can determine, forre-
forms that are contemplated but have never been implemented, which groups
in an initial position benefit or lose, how much they lose, how they would vote
in advance of a reform, and how they would vote after it is implemented, once
the ex ante uncertainty surrounding the outcomes of thc reform is resolved.
Thc methods we devclop are more powerful than randomization. Evi-
dence from randomized trials yields marginal distributions of outcomes sep-
aratcly for treatments and controls (Heckman 1992; Heckman, Smith, and
Clemcnts 1997). Our methods identify joint distributions of treatmen•r and
no-treatment outcomes. Thus we can identify how pcrsons in one quantile
of an initial no-treatment distribution will be shifted to quantiles of the treat-
ment distribution, something an experiment cannot do unless additional
assumptions are invoked (see Heckman, Smith, and Clements 1997; or
Heckman and Smith 1998). Our methods can also be used to construct the
joint distributions of outcomes across policy states, whether or not the poli-
cíes have been implemented. Panel data can sometimes be used to construct
these outcomes when policies are observed. Our analysis allows us to con-
struct these joint distributions even if none of the policies has been observed.
We can move beyond aggregate summary measures of policy outcomes
to gauge the effects of a policy on subgroups defined by unobserved poten-
tial outcomes within the overall population distribution. Thus, we can move
beyond traditional inequality and social mobility analysis to consider how a
policy shifts persons from a position in one potential outcome distribution
to another even though joint potential outcome distributions cannot be di-
rectly measured, but must be derived from marginal outcomc distributions
for program participants and nonparticipants. Conventional studies of in-
equality consider movements of persons among observed (measured) states
(see, e.g., Ravallion 2003 ).
The plan of the rest of the chapter is as follows . In section 2, we discuss
the conventional criteria used to evaluare social outcomes as a way of p lacing
our work in context. In section 3, we present a choice-theoretic framework
for constructing counterfactllals and we consider limitations of our approach.
292 Mechanisms of Mobility
Section 4 presents our method for constructing distributions of counterfactu-

als based on factor models, extending methods devcloped by Goldberger and
Joreskog (1975) and Joreskog (1977) to consider the construction of coun-
terfactuals. We summarize results on identification derived in a number of
previous papers. Section 5 shows how we can use information about choices
and subsequent realizations to infer how much agents know abour future
earnings when making their choices about college. This section reviews a
method for estimating "luck" and sepa rati ng it from predicta ble heterogene-
ity that is developed in Carneiro, Hansen, and Heckman (2003 ) and Cunha,
Heckman, and Navarro (2005). Section 6 reports the empirical results that
demonstrate the power of the merhod. Among other things, we find in our
data that roughly 80 percent of the variance in the returns to college are fore-
castable at the time students make their college decisions. We present an
analysis of counterfactuals that shows rhe effects of a tuition policy on in-
equality and mobility. With our methodology it is possible to presenta much
richer analysis of the inequality and mobility consequences of policies.
Section 7 concludes.
2. WELFARE ECONOMICS AND SOC I AL CHOICE
In order to place our work in context, we briefly review the welfare measures
used in the policy evaluation literature. The literaturc on welfare econornics
and social choice presents different criteria to asscss the desirability of alter-
native policies. The standard model of welfare cconomics postulates a social
welfare function V defined over the utilities u; under policy j of the N mem-
bers of society,
where V¡ is the society's welfare under policy j and u1 is the utility of person
i under policy j. One examplc is the Benthamite social welfare function
V¡ = L;:1 u( Anothcr possibility is the Rawlsian social welfare function
V¡= min{u{, ut .. . , u~}.

Standard criteria uscd to evaluare policies and compare income dist ri-
butions including those based on the preceding welfare criteria, as well as
conventional cost-benefit analysis, invoke the anonyrnity axiom (Cowell
2000). To define this concept, !et (Yf, Yt, ... , Yt) and (Yf, Yf, ... , Y~)
denote rhe observed income in a society with N agents under policy A and
policy B, respectively. The subscripts denote individua Is. Assume that under
policy B everything clse is the same as under policy A , except that the out-
comes for agents 1 and 2 under policy B are exchanged:
According to the anonymity axiom, any social welfare ordering over these
two policies or states of affairs should be indi fferent between policies A and
B, because overall inequality is the same.
Adopting the anonymity axiom is empirically convenient because its im-
plementation only requires information on the marginal distributions of out-
comes under diffcrent policics, and not the joint distributions of outcomes
across policy states. However, as noted by Cowcll (2000), the anonymity ax-
iom makes strong assumptions. The main problem is that individual out-
comes under alternative policies are cither assumcd to be indcpendent Ór any
such depenclence of outcomes across policy states is assumecl to be irrelevant
in assessing the merits of alternative policies. The initial position of persons
is assumed not to affect juclgments about final outcomes of a policy. H ow-
cvcr, if the joint distributions of policy outcomes can be recoverecl, we can
assess how the median voter woulcl evaluare a proposed reform, both ex post
and ex ante, and see what percentage of a population woulcl favor the reform
given thcir initial position-the desiderata of moclern positive political econ-
omy (scc Pcrsson and Tabellini 2000). If only the two marginal clistributions
(pre- and post-policy) are available, we cannot assess how the median voter,
who is intercsted in how a policy affects his or her movements from the base-
line to the final state, would evaluare that policy unless one assumes some-
thing about the depcndence of outcomes for persons across policies.
In any actual policy setting, it is likcly that persons, or groups of per-
sons, have at least partial knowlcclge about how they will fare under differ-
ent policy regimes. Thus, evcn if outcomes in alternative policy regimes are
not completely known, outcomes under the policy in place are known. The
outcomes in different regimes are likcly to be depcndent so that persons who
benefit under one policy are also likcly to benefit undcr another. However,
due to uncertainty, these outcomes are unlikely to be perfectly dependent.
Consequently, for a variety of actual social choice mechanisms, both the ini-
tial and final positions of each agent are relevant for evaluation of social
policy, but the exact dependence is unknown to the analyst. Below we show
how the methodology presented here can be applied to identify who gains
or loses from each policy at various deciles of initial or final distributions,

relaxing the anonymity axiom. We can do such analyscs for factual or coun-
terfactual distribucions. We also allow for uncertainty in thc cvaluation of
outcome statcs not yct cxperienced. Thus, we can distinguish between ex
ante and ex post cvaluations of a reform.
3. T H E E V A L u AT I o N o F so e I AL p H. o GR A M s: e H o I e Es
WITHIN POLICY STAT ES ANO COM PARI SONS ACROSS
POLICY STATES
Social programs such as job training and college tuition subsidies are central
features of the modern welfare state. Because different parties may gain or
lose from such programs, thcre is a demand for know ledge about che redis-
tributive effects of governmcnt policies. The central problem in the literature
on thc eval uation of social policics is the construction of counterfactuals. In
che tradition of the literaturc on income distribution, Bourguignon and
Ferreira (2003) call chis construction ex ante analysis, although we prefer the
term countcrfactual analysis, reserving "ex ante" and "ex post" to describe
resolution of the uncertainty about a proposed policy before ami after it is
implcmented . Counterfactuals can be constructed for bot h ex ante and ex
post evaluations.
In the simplest form of the evaluation problcm, thcre are two possible
outcomcs within cach policy regime. Lct S = O, and S = 1 denote nonreceipt
and receipt of education, respectively, within a policy regimc. In our cmpir-
ical analysis, S = O denotes a worker who is a high school graduare, and S =
1 denotes a workcr who is a college graduare. In an analysis of unions, work-
ers who are not members of a union are designated by S = O while thosc who
are members are denotcd S = l. S can denote many possible treatmcnts, and
our methodology applics to ali of them.
Associated with each leve! of education is a potencial outcome. Lct
(Y0 , Y1 ) denote potencial outcomes in state S = Oand S = 1, respectively within
a given policy regime. Each person has a (Y0 , Y1 ) pair. We assumc that
(Y0, Y1 ) have finite means and can be expressed in terms of conditioning
variables X in the following manner:
Y 0 = µ, 0 (X) + U0 (l a)
Y1 = µ, 1(X) + U1, (lb)
where E(Y0 1 X) = µ. 0 (X), E(Y1 1 X)= µ. 1 (X) and E(U0 1 X) = E(U 1 1 X)= O.
The gain for an individual who moves from the S = O to S = 1 within a pol-
icy regime is Á, where Á"" Y1 - Y0 •
If Y1 and Y0 could be observed for each individual at the same time, rhe
gain of going to school designated by S = 1 would be known for eacb per-
son. An evaluation problem within a policy regime arises because we do not
observe the pair (Y0 , Y1 ) for anybody. Tbis is a rnissing data problem: in cal-
culating the gains to attending college for a particular individual who
chooses to be a college graduate, we observe her college earnings (Y1 ), but
not her high school carnings ( Y0 ) . Tbe solution to this rnissing data problem
is to construct counterfactuals: how much a collegc graduate would earn if
sbe had cbosen to be a higb school graduare. To identify these counterfac-
tuals, different approaches in the literature of program evaluation make dif-
ferent assumptions about how the missing data are related to the available
data, and what data are available. The econometric approach featurcs the
use of choice data in constructing counterfactuals.
For simplicity, and in accordance with a well-established tradition in
econometrics, we write index I as a net utility
(2 )
whcrc C is the cost of participation in sector l. We write C = µ. c(Z) + Uc

whcrc tbe Z are obscrved (by the analyst) determinants of cost and Uc de-
notes unobserved determinants of C from the point of view of the analyst. In
reduced form (substituting out for Y1, Y0 and C), we may write
T = µ,1(X, Z) + U1
where
µ. 1(X, Z ) = µ. 1(X) - µ,0 (X ) - /Lc(Z)
and
We write
S = 1 if I 2: O; S = O otherwise. (3)
Thus, if the net utility of state 1 is positive, S = 1 is chosen. Other decision

rules may be used, but the model of ( Y1, Y0 , S) is sufficiently rich to serve our
purposes. 3
Overall income within the policy regime is Y = SY1 + (1 - S) Y0 • Tradi-

cional analyses of inequality compare the distribution of Y across policy re-
gimes that are observed. Analyscs of social mobility document the dynamics
of life cycle or intergenerational movements. Our approach delvcs more
deeply. We consider the consequences of choices (S = O or S = 1) within pol-
icy regimes ancl how alternativc policies cause people to change thcir S <lcci-
sions and relocate into d ifferent portions of thc ovcrall distribution. Undcr our
approach, we can estímate the proportion who switch from S = O to S = 1,
where they come from in both thc distribution of Y0 and of Y (in onc policy
rcgimc), and where they go to in the distribution of Y1 and of Y (in the othcr
policy regime). We can do a parallcl analysis for thosc who switch from S =
1 to S = O, reversing the roles of Y0 and Y1 • We can do this for countcrfac-
tuals as wcll as for factuals. We can also do counterfactual social mobility
analysis. Another major advantage of our approach is that we control for thc
cconometric consequences of endogeneity in thc choice of S and thereby
avoid self-selection biascs. In our empirical work, we control for the endo-
geneity of schooling.
Traditionally, the literature on program evaluation has focused on esti-
mating mean impacts of S and not distributions. The most commonly stud-
ied parameter in the litcrature is the average treatment effect:
ATE= l:(A IX)= F:(Y1 - Yo lX).
Another popular parametcr is the effect of treatment on the treated,
TT = E(A IX,S = 1) = E(Y1 - Y0 IX,S = 1).
The modern literature allows for the possibility that the gains to swicch-
ing from S = O to S = 1, Y1 - Y0 , are heterogenous across agen ts even con-
ditioning on X. Further, the agents act on this diffcrencc when choosing S.
In the analysis of chis model, two problems emerge.
The first is an interpretive problcm. If the gains (A) vary across agents,
there is no single number that summarizes the distribution of gains for ali
purposes of policy evaluation. For each specific policy question we want to
address, we must carefolly define che parameter of interese (see Heckman
and Vytlacil 2005, 2006a). In general, che average gain of those who are in
the program is not the relevant parameter of interese. Consider an example
from the economics of education: if we want to determine the gains of a pol-
icy that reduces tuition, we need to know (1 ) how many entrants into edu-
----
Cun.ha, Heckman., and Navarro 297
cation will be induced by the tuition policy, and (2) from where in the dis-
tribution of gains to schooling ( Y1 - Y0 ) the new entrants are coming. Given
(1) and (2), we can compute aggrcgate gains from thc tuition policy. Wc can
then check whether the return of the ma rginal cntrant is above or below that
of the typical person enrolled in the program . For other problems of distri-
butional analysis, it is of interest to determine where in an init ial distribu-
tion beneficiaries come from and where they end up in thc treatment out-
come distribution.
The second problem is an econometric one. Once we have defined the
paramctcr of interest, say the gain to the median voter, how can we estima te
it? If we wish to avoid special assurnptions like statistical independence be-
tween Y0 and Y 1 or p erfcct dependence, the solution is to recover the joint
distribution of (Y0 , Y1 ). Once we know this distribution, it is possible to cal-
culate the distribution of (Y1 - Y0 ) for any group of people we are inteicsted
in and obtain its median or any other quantile. We may compute severa!
measures of interest from this distribution.
The proportion of people taking schooling that benefit frorn it in terms
of gross returns ll(= Y1 - Y0 ) is Pr(ll > O IS= 1 ). This parameter is onc way
to measure how widely program gains are distributed among participants.
The proportion of the total population benefiting from participating in
schooling is Pr(ll > O I S = 1 ) · Pr(S = 1 ). lt is of interest to determine how
many people in society at large benefit (in the sense of Y1 - Y0 gains) from
participating in schooling.
The distribution of gains from schooling for agents who are at selected
base state values is Pr(ll :S a I S = 1, Y0 = y0 ). This measure interests
Rawlsian evaluators w ho seek to determine the impact of schooling on rc-
cipients in the lower tail of the base state distribution.
The increase in thc leve! of outcomes above a certain threshold, say the
poverty line y, due to schooling is Pr( Y 1 > y I S = 1) - Pr(Y0 > y I S = 1).
T his is a parameter that describes how the distribution of the outcomes for
the participants compares to the distribution of thc outcomes for thc same
agcnts if they had not participated in schooling.
Wc can also form measures for people affected by a specific policy. Let A
and B denote two policy states, saya high tuition and a low tuit ion policy, re-
spectively. Thc proportion of people who benefit from a policy t hat induces
them into schooling (e.g., a reduction in tuition) is Pr(ll > OISA= O, Sn = 1),
where the rneasure of benefit is a gross gain measure and SA and S8 are choice
298 Mechanisms of Mohility
indicators under policy A and B, respectively. We can also measure the pro-
portion of che total populacion chac benefits from che policy-induced move-
ment: Pr(ó. > O ISA = O, S8 = 1 ) · Pr(SA = O, S8 = 1 ). Our empirical analy-
sis reports these and other measures of impact that we can define and
estimare both within a policy and across policy reg imes.
In chis chapter, we report on recenr research chat solves che problem of
constructing counterfactuals by identifying che joint distribution of (Yt y¿)
and che potencial outcomes under policy A, condicional on S (or 1), using
a factor structure model. These models generalize che LISREL modcls of
Joreskog (1977) and che MIMIC model of Goldberger and Joreskog (1975)
to produce counterfactual d istribucions. Before we proceed to explain the
methodology, we discuss che types of policies we evaluare.
It is fruitful to distinguish between two kinds of policies: (1 ) those thac
affect potencial outcomes (Y¿, Y1) for outcomes and coses (CA) under policy
regime A through price and quality effects and (2) those that affect sectorial
choices (through C11 ), but do not affect potencial outcomes. Tuition and edu-
cacional access policies that do not produce general equilibrium effects fall
into che second category of policy. It is the second kind of policy that receives
the most attention in empirical work on che economics of education, either
when estimating gains to schooling under a policy regime ( Yt - Y¿) (see
4
e.g., Card 1999) or evaluating schooling pol icies (e.g., Kane 1994 ).
Consider two general policy environments denoted A and B. These poli-
cies might affect che coses of schooling including access to it. In che general
case, we could have (Yt Yt CA) and (Y8, Yf, CI1) for each person. There
might be general equilibrium policies or policies thac operare in che presence
of social interaccions that affect both coses and ouccomes. 5
A special case of chis policy produces two social states for ouccomes that
we wish to compare. However, in ch is special case, interventions have no cf-
fect on potencial outcomes and can be described as producing two choice
sets (Y0 , Y¡, CA) and (Y0, Y1 , C8 ) for each person. They affect coses and che
choice of outcomes, bue not che potencial outcomes as a full-fledged general
equilibrium or social interaction analysis would do. We focus most of our at-
tention on policies that keep potencial schooling outcomes unchanged but
that vary C in selecting who takes schooling.
This chapter analyzes two sets of councerfactuals: (1 ) (Y¿, Y1) within
policy regime A and (Y8, Yf) within policy regime B, and (2) aggregate in-
come across policy regimes (Y\ Y8 ) where yA = Y1S11 + Y~(l - S11 ) is che
observed income under regime A and Y8 = Yf sn + Y8(1 - sn) is the income
--
under regime B, where SA = 1 if a person chose S = 1 under regime A and S8

is defined in an analogous fashion. The tradition in the analysis of income in-
eq uality is to make comparisons across regimes, that is, to compare the dis-
tribution of yA = YfSA + Yi(l - SA) with the distribution of yn = YfS11 +
Yg(l - S/l). When both A and B are observed, such comparisons are straight-
forward if there are panel data on incomes of the same persons in both states.
With our methods, we can construct counterfactual distributions of ( Yf,
YJ) and (Yf, Y8) within each policy regime and can also construct compari-
sons across policy states based on Yf SA + Yi(1 - SA) and YfS13 + Yg(l - sn).
We can also compare movements from YÜ to Yf as well as other comparisons
whether or not A and B are observed. T his method allows us to obtain a much
richer understanding of the inequality and social mobility consequences
of policy change than are available from inequality measures based o¡i the
anonymity axiom, and allows us to go more deeply than panel data analyses
that compare movements from the distribution of YA to the distribution of Y/l.
We can use our analysis to generare counterfactual states never measured.
4. I DENTII'Y I NG COUNTERFAC T UA L D I STRIBUTIONS

US I NG F ACTOR MODELS
Identifying the joint distribution of potential outcomes is a difficult problem

because we do not observe both components of (Y0 , Y1 ) for anyone except
in special panel data situations (see Heckman and Smith 1998). Thus, one
cannot in general directly form the joint distri bution of potential outcomes
( Y0 , Y1 ). Heckman and Honoré (1990) show that, if we know that C = O far
every person, decision rule (2)-(3) applies, there are distinct variables in µ, 1 (X)
and µ,0 (X), X is independent of ( Ui, U0 ), and other mild regularity restrictions
are satisfied, then one can identify the joint distribution of (Y0 , Y1 ) given X. 6
In this case, the agents choose S solely in terms of the differences in outcomes.
This information buys identification. H owever, if C varies across people and
contains sorne variables unobserved by the analyst, this method breaks clown.
As shown by H eckman (1990) and H eckman and Smith (1998), under
the assumptions that (Z, X) a re statistically in dependent from (U0 , U1, U1),
µ, 1(X, Z) is a nontrivial function of Z given X, and ful! support on µ,0 (X),
µ,1 (X) and µ, 1(X, Z), and an assumption that the elements of the pairs
(µ, 0 (X), µ, 1(X , Z)) and (µ, 1 (X), µ, 1(X, Z)) can be varied independently of each
other, then one can identify the joint distributions of (U0, ~) and (U1, ~)
and also µ. 0 (X), µ. 1(X), and µ,(~; 2 l. 7 Thus, one can identify the joint distri-
burions of (Y0, l"") and (Y 1, l"") given X and Z where F = l/a- 1• One cannot
recover the conditional (on X, Z) joint distribution of (Yo, Y1 ) or ( Y0 , Y1, l"' )
without further assumptions.
We provide an intuitive motivation for why F(Y0 , l"') ami F(Y1 , J"·) are
identified in Appendix A, drawing on standard results in the semiparamet-
ric discrete choice literatu re. The thrust of this literature is that under the
stated conditions, we can identify the <listribution of J up to a factor of pro-
portionality, <.r¡. We can also identi fy
F(Y0 , l l l < O, X, Z) = F(Y0 1 D = O, X, Z) Pr(D = O IX, Z)
and
F(Y1, l l l 2: O, X, Z) = Pr(Y1 1 D = 1, X, Z) Pr(D = 1 1 X, Z).
By varying X, Z we can trace out the ful! distributions of F(Y0 , 1) and

F( Y¡, J) respectively. Once we estimare the distributions, we perform con-
ventional factor analysis on (Y0 , T') and (Y1, 1"") because, effectively, we ob-
serve these two distributions.
4.1 Factor Models

The factor structure approach clevelopecl by Aakvik, Heckman, an<l Vytlacil
(1999, 2005) presents a solurion to the problem of constructing counterfac-
tual distributions . Our presentation follows that of Carneiro, Hansen, and
Heckman (200 1, 2003) and we show the essential idea. Suppose that the un-
observables follow a one factor structure. Our methocls generalize to the
multifactor case, but for the sake of simplicity we focus on the one fac tor
case in our exposition although we estim a re models with multiple factors in
our ernpirical work reported bclow. 8
We assume that a l! of the depen<lence across (U0 , U1 , U1.) is generated
by a scalar factor 0 as in Aakvik, H eckman, and Vytlacil (1999, 2005),
Uo = ao0 + so
U1 = a 10 + "i
We assume that 0 is statistically indepen<lent of (s0 , s 1 , s 1.) a nd satisfies

E(O) = O, and E(0 2 ) = u~. Al! the s's are mutually independ ent with
E(s0 ) = E(si) = E (e 1,) = O, and Var(s 0 ) = 0
, Var(s 1 ) = u;,, anda-;
--
Cunha, Heckinan, and Navarro 301
Var(e ,. ) = u;,. e
(the terms are called uniquenesses) . Beca use the factor load-
ings may have different signs and magnitudes, the factor rnay affect outcomes
and choices in very different ways.
To show how one can recover the joint distribution of (Y0 , Y1 ) using fac-
tor rnodels, we break the argument in two parts. First, we show how to recover
the factor loadings, factor variance, and the variances of the uniquenesses.
This part is like traditional factor analysis except that a latent variable (e.g.,
J"· ) is only observed u p to scale so its scale muse be normalized. Then, we show
how to construct joiot distributions of counterfactuals.
4.2 Recovering the Factor Loadings

4.2.1 The Case When There is Information Only on Y0 for T < O and
Y1 for T > O but the Decision Rule Is (2)-(3 ) Under cooditions stated in
H eckman and Smith (1998) and Carneiro, Hansen, and Heckma n (2'0 03),
one can identify F(U0, U 1, ) and F(Ui, U 1, ). These conditions were discussed
in section 4.1. From these distributions one can identify the left-hand sides
of the following two equations:
Cov(Uo, U¡. ) = ª 0ª 1•0-i

Cov(Ui, U1.) = a 1a 1.a-~.
As previously noted, the scale of the unobscrvcd 1 is normalized, a stan-

dard condition for discrete choice modcls. A second normalization that we
need to imposc is that ui
= l. This is reguired because the factor is not ob-
served and we must set its scalc. That is, because a8 = kai for any constant
k * O, we need to set the scalc by, say, normaliziog the variance of 8. We
could alternatively normalize sorne a 0 or a 1 to one. Finally, if we set a 1, = 1
(something we can relax, as noted below and in the next section), then we
identify a 1 and a 0 from the known covariances above. Because
we can identify the covariance between Y 1 and Y0 even though we do not ob-
serve both Y0 and Y1 for anyone. We then use the variances Var(U1 ), Var(U0 )
and the normalization Var(U,. ) = 1 to recover the variances of the unique-
2 2 2
nesses (]""º' ue,, u e,,•
The fact that we needed to normalize both CT¡ = 1 and a 1, = l is a coo-
seg uence of our assumptioo that we have only one observation for Y1 or Y0
for each person. If we have access to more observations (say from panel
daca), we can relax che normalizations, say o-t = l. In chis case we can form,
for a panel of length T, the left-hand sides of che following equations:
Cov(Y 1 ,., l*)

' ) = a 1,,, t = 1, ... , T
e OV(y 1,,·, Y1 ,,
Cov(Yo,,·, l*}
C (y ) = a 0,,, t = 1, ... , T
ov o,,·, Y0,,
and recover o-¡, from, say, Cov(Y1 ,1, T*) = a 1,,d, given the normalization
o}. = J , The variances of the uniq uenesses follow as befare.
The crucial idea motivating chis identification strategy is rhat even
though we never observe ( Y0 , Y1 ) as a pair, both Y0 and Y-1 are linked to S
through che choice equation. From informacion on choice S we can recover
1•· from a standard identification argument in econometrics. Thus, we es-
sentially observe (Y0, J"') and (Y1, P). T he common low dimensional de-
r
pendence of Y0 and Y1 on secures identification of the joint distribution of
Y0, Y¡, 1•· . We next deve lop an alternative strategy based on the same idea
where in addition to a choice equation, we have a measurement equation ob-
served for ali observations whether or not Y1 or Y0 is observed. This plays
che role of r and in certain respects identification with a measurement is
more transparent and more tradicional.
4.2.2 Adding a Measurement r.quation One interesting extension arises

when we have a measurement for e that is observed irrespeccive of whether
S = 1 or S = O. This information is in addition ro che ourcomes Y0 or Y1 and
S. In educacional statistics, a test score is often used to proxy ability. Suppose
that the analyst has access to one ability test M for each person . Measured
ability Mis
M = 11-M(X) + UM.
We can estímate MM(X) by standard methods and we can form che residual
from chis equation. Assume that che residual has a factor structure
where E:M is mutually independent from {e0 , e1, e 1) and 0.9 We assume ªM =f. O.
We can, in addition to the covariances presented in Section 4 .2 .1, determine
the left-hand sides of
--
Cov(UM, Uo) = ªMªou~

Cov(UM, U¡) = aMa1ul
Cov(UM, u,.)= ª""ª1•<T~.
These are obcained, respeccively, from correlations of the residuals of UM
with the residuals from (selection corrected) Y0 :
Yo - J1,o(X) = Uo,
from correlations of UM with thc resid uals from (selection corrected ) Y1:
as wcll as che rcsiduals of U M with che residuals of [ * using discrete choice

analysis. Details are provided in Carneiro, H ansen, and Heckman (2003 ).
lntuitively, wc can construct thc residuals necdcd to construct cach d ')Vari-
ance from che bivariate distrib utions (condicional on X) of (M, Y0 ) , (M, Y1 ),
and (M, I ), correcting for selection into S = O and S = 1, respectively, che
first two joint distributions. If we impose che normalization cxM = 1, which
can be interpreted as requiring that higher ability signals a higher leve! of
factor 0, we can form che ratio
and identify cx0• In a similar fashion,
we rccovcr cx1 . Now, from
we can obtain CT~. Finally, wc can idcntify cx 1, bascd on information from
so we can obtain cx1, up to scale. Thus, with one measuremenc, one choice
equation and two outcomes we can identify <T~ ami cx 1, up to scale. We can
use che idencified variances Var(U0 ), Var(U1 ), Var(U1,) = 1, and Var(UM) to
recover che variance of the uniquenesses CT;0 , CT;,, <r;,., and CT;.,. Thus, having
access to a measurement (M ) and choice daca generated by decision rule
(2)- (3), aUows us to estímate thc covariances among the outcomes across the
two counterfactual states. The measurements can replace the choice cquation
provided that the analyst surmounts the sclcction problem that Y0 is ob-
scrvcd only if S = O ami Y 1 is observed only if S = 1.10
Remaining is the problem of identifying che distributions of thc unob-
servables. Tradicional factor analysis assumes normality. We present a more
general nonparamctric analysis.
4.3 Recovering the Distributions Nonparametrically

Given the identification of factor loadings, factor variances, and unique-
nesses, we show how to identify thc distribution of 0 and cr; cr~,, cr;,.
0
,
nonparametrically (the last variancc is obtained up to a normalization).

The method is based 011 a theorem by Kotlarski ( 1967). We state his
theorem.
Thcorcm 1 Suppose that we have two random variables T 1 and T2 that

satis/y:
T 1 = 0 + v,
T2 =0 + V2
with 0, Vi, v2 mutual/y statistically independent, E(0) < oo, E (v1 ) = E(v 2 ) = O,
that the conditions (or Fubini's theorem are satisfied for each random vari-
able, and the random variables possess nonvanishing characteristic func-
tions, then the densities fH(0), fv ,(v1 ), and fy,(v2 ) are identified.
Proof. See Kotlarski ( 1 967).■
Applied to the currcnt problem, we havc a choice equation, two out-

come equations, and a measurement equation. Assume that we normalizc
a1v1 = 1. As a consequcnce of chis assumption and the analysis of the prc-
ceding subsection, ali factor loadings, factor variance, and the variances of
the uniquenesses are known. The system is
I* = µ,.(X, Z) + CX¡,0 + E¡,

Yo = µo(X) + cxofJ + t:o
Y1 = µ 1(X) + cx 10 + e1
M = µM(X) + e+ eM.
This system can be rewritten as

!* - µ.1.(X, Z) e¡,
- - - - - =f) + -
Cl'¡ ,
Yo - JJ.,u(X) eo
---- = 8 + -
ªº ªu
Y 1 - µ 1(X ) e
- - - - = 8+ - 1
a¡ a1
Applying Kotlarski's theorem to any pair of equations, we conclude that we

can idcntify the densities of 8, ~ ' : , ~ , sM . Beca use we know a,., a0 , and a 1
we can identify the densities of 8, s 1. , s 0, e1, eM. 12 Thus, we can identify the
distri butions of ali of the error terms. Finally, to recover the joint distribu-
tion of (Y,, Y0 ) given X, denoted f (Y¡, Y0 IX), note that
F(Yi, Yo I X) = fF(Y 1, Y0 1 O, X)df(0),
where F(B) is the distribution of 0. From Kotlarski's theorem, F(0) is known.

Because of the factor structure, Y1, Y 0 and S are independent once we con-
dition on 0. So
F(Y1, Y0 1 0, X) = F(Y1 l 8, X)F(Y0 l 0, X).
But F( Y1 10, X) and F(Y0 l 0, X) are identified once we condition on the fac-
tors because
F(Y1 0, X, S
J = 1 ) = F(Y 1 0, X) J
F(Y0 1 O, X, S = O) = F(Y0 0, X).

J
Note further that if 0 were known to the analyst, this proccdure would
be matching on 0 and X (which is eguivalcnt, for identification, to matching
on the propensity score Pr(S = 1 X, Z, 0)). 11 Our method generalizes
J
matching by allowing che variables that would produce the condicional in-
dependence assumed in matching to be unobserved by the analyst.
Over the su pport of µ,1(X, Z), µ, 1 (X ) and µ,0 (X), we can evaluare poli-
cies that change Z for each X. We can evaluare new policies that can be ex-
pressed as sorne value of (X, Z) in the historical support. We can extrapolare
to new supports by making functional form assumptions, for example,
µ, 1 (X) = X{3i, µ, 0 (X) = X{3 0 and µ,1(X, Z) = (X, Z){3 1• See H eckman and Vyt-
lacil (2005, 20066) for further discussion of thc extrapolation issue.
Observe that without making additional assumptions our mcthod is
more powerful than randomization. Randomized assignments would only
produce identification of F(Y0 ) and F(Y1 ) and not F(Y0 , Yi) (Heckman 1992).
5. D I STINGU I SHING 13ETWEEN II ETEROGENEITY AND

UNCERTAINTY
In the literature on earnings dynamics (c.g., Lillard and W ill is 1978), it is

common to estímate an earnings equation of the sort
(4)
where Y;,1, X;, 1, S;, V;,, denote, respectively, earnings, obser vable characteris-
tics, educational attainment and unobservable characteristics of person i at
time t. Often the error tcrm v;, 1 is decomposed into two or more components.
For example,
(5)
The term </>; is a person-specific fixed effect. The error term e;,1 is generally
assumed to be serially correlated, say e;,, = pe;,,- i + T/;,, where T/;,, is an in-
dcpcndcntly and identically distributed innovation with mean zero. 1t is
widely accepted that components of X;,1, </>;, and e;,1 all contribute to mea-
sured incquality. However, thc literature is silent about the difference be-
tween hetcrogeneity and uncertainty, the un forecastable part of earnings-
what .Jencks et al. (1972) call "luck." On intuitive grounds, the predictable
components of V;,1 have a different effcct on welfare than the unpredictable
components, especially i f people are risk a verse and cannot fully insure
against the uncertainty. Is uncertainty </>¡? Is it e;/ Is it e/>;+ e;,,? Or T/;/ Sta-
tistical decompositions such as (4) and (5) tell us nothing abour which com-
ponents of (4) are unforecastable by agents.
T he methodology summarized in this chapter, and devcloped more fully
in Cunha, H eckman, and Navarro (2005), providcs a frarnework within
which it is possible to idcntify and separate components that are forecastable
from ones that are not. The essential idea of the rnethod can be illustrated in
the case of educational choice. In order to choose between high school and
college, say at age 17, agcnts forecast future earnings (and other returns) at
--
each schooling leve!. Using chis information from educacional choice at age
17, cogether with che realization of earnings that are observed at later ages,
it is possible to estímate an d test whic h part of fucure earnings are forecast
by the agent at age 17.
In this method, we use choice information to extract ex ante or forecas t
earnings to distinguish them from ex postor realized earnings. The difference
between forecast and realized earnings allows us to idencify the components
of uncertainty facing agents at the time they make their schooling deci-
sions. W ith this method, we can distinguish predictable heterogeneity from
uncertainty.
In order to make this point clearly, we formalize the argument by con-
sidering a version o f che Roy (195 1) economy with cwo sectors. As before, !et
S; denote di fferenc sectors: S; = Odenotes choice of the high school sector, and
S; = 1 denotes choice of che college secto r. Each person can choose •ro be
in either sector. Let the two potencial outcomes be represented by the pair
(Yo,;, Yi,;), only one of which is observed by the analyst, because it is assu med
chat only onc option can be chosen. As before, we denote by C; the cost of
choosing sector l. The cost C; reílects che coses associated with choosing che
collcge sector (e.g., tuition, and non-pecuniary coses of attending college ex-
pressed in monetary values), Y 1 ,; is che present value of earnings in the college
sector discounted over horizon T for person ichoosing ata fixed age set to zero:
ami Yo,; is the present value of earnings in t he high school sector for person
i at a fixed age set to zero:
T
~ Yo,;,,
Yo,;= .c.,
r=o(1 +r)''
where r is che one-period risk-free interese rate. Underlying Y1,; and Yo,; are
time series of potencial earnings in the two states: (Yo,;.o, . . ., Yo,;,T) for high
school and (y1 ,;,o, .•. , Yi,;:r) for college.
Let I; denote che information set of agent i at the time che schooling
choice must be made. T he decision rule governing sectorial choice is, in the
population,
S = { 1, if E(Y1,; - Y0,; - C;l'I;) ~ O

' O, otherwise.
Tn this economy, the <lecision rule is quite simple: one attends school if the
expected gains frorn schooling are greater than or equal to the expected
costs. To fix ideas, write
Yo.;,, = x ,,,/30,r + V o,i,t
= X;,,/31 ,r + Vt,i,r
Y l,i,r
e, = Z ;-r + v;,c•
Suppose there exists a vector of factors e= (0 1, 02, . .., 0iJ such that 0¡ and
0k are mutually indepcndcnt random variables for j, k = 1, ... , L, j * k. As-
sume we can decornpose the error term in ea rnings at age t in the following
manner:
➔
Vo,i,t = 0 ¡ct0,t + e O,i,I

➔
Vi,;,, = 0,a1,r + e1 ,;,,,
where now, a 0,, and a 1,t are vectors. We can also decompose the cost func-
tion C in similar fashion:
e= z.-v
1 t I + 0a¡•+
1 , l'>c-
,,
The parameters ª e, a nd a s,t for s = O, 1, and t = O, ... , Tare called the fac-
tor loadings. The choice equation can then be written as:
l¡= E
(
LT (X;',/31 , + 0,a,.1 + e1 ,,;,) - (X;,/30,
1
,' ' + 0,ao,' + so;,)
,.
,-o (1 + r)
- (Z;y + 0;a c + e;,c) II;).

S; =1 if T; ~ O; S; = O othcrwise.
If there is an element of the vecto r 0;, say 0;,2 (factor 2 ), that

has nonzero
loadings on future earnings, say at age 40, in either counterfactual state,
a 2,s,4 o -:/= O, for s = O or 1 and factor 0;,2 is a determinant of schooling choices,
then one can say that at the time of the schooling choice, the agent knew the
unobservable captured by the factor 2 that affects future earnings. If 0;,2 does
not enter the choice equation but explains future earnings, then 0;,2 is un-
certain (not predictable) at the age the decisions are made. By ass umption
e;,c is predictablc but the future e1 ,;, 1 and E-:o,;.1 are not predictablc.
The idea of our test is thus very simple: the components of future earn-
ings that are forecastable are captured by the factors that are known by the
agents when they make their educational choices. 14 The predictable factors
are estimated with a nonzero loading in the choice equation. The uncertainty
in the decision regarding college is captured by the factors that the agent
does 11ot act 011 whe11 making the decision of whether to attend college or
not. In this case, the loadings (coefficients on these factors) in the choice
equatio11 would be zero. Carneiro, Ha11sen, and Heckman (2003) provide
exact conditions for identifying the factor loaclings.15 Cunha, Heckman, and
Navarro (2005) clevelop this analysis further.
In the 11ext section, we estímate a model of schooling choice; show how
one can recover the d istribution of0, ªe and a5 ,r, s = O, l, t =O, ... , T; ancl
we put our analysis to use to estímate counterfactual clistributio11s for clif-
fere11t policies, to compute their consequences for mobility a11cl i11equality,
and to measure the contributions of " luck" to post-schooling earni11gs. We
answer how much of the post-schooling earnings is predictable at the age
schooling decisions are made.
6. EMPIRICAL RESULTS
6. 1 The Data, Equations, and Estimation

In our empirical analysis, we use a sample of white males from the NLSY data.
Following the precedi11g theoretical a11alysis, we co11sider only two schooli11g
choices: high school and college graduation. From now on we use e to denote
collcge and h to denote high school. We assume perfect credit markets for sim-
plicity a11d familiarity. By this we mean that restrictions on borrowing against
future earnings are assumecl 11ot to be important. See Cameron and Taber
(2004) and Carneiro and Heckman (2002) for evidencc supporti11g this as-
sumptio11. Carneiro, H ansen, and H eckman (2003) assume the absence of
credit markets and obtain empirical rcsults 011 the exte11t of u11certainty sim-
ilar to the ones presented here, so the issue of whether credit markets function
or 11ot does not affect the main conclusions of our analysis.
Appendix Table 11.1 (posted at the website for this book) presents the
descriptive statistics of the variables used in our empirical a11alysis. They
show that college graduares have higher prcse11t value of earnings tha11 high
school graduates. College graduares also have higher test seores and come
from better family backgrounds. They are more likely to live in a location
where a college is present, and where college tuition is lower.
TABLE 11.1
List of Covariatcs
Cost Test PV
Function System Earnings''
Variable Name ( Z) (XT) (X)
South at Age 14 Yes Yes Yes

Urban at Age 14 Yes Yes Yes
Parents Divorced Yes Yes No
Number of Siblings Yes Yes No
Mother's Education Yes Yes No
Father's Ed ucation Yes Yes No
Family lncome Age 17 Yes Yes No
Dummy ·1957 Yes No Yes
Dummy 1958 Yes No Yes
Dummy 1964 No No No
Age in 1980 No Yes No
Grade Completed 1980 No Yes No
Enrolled in 19 8 O No Yes No
Distance to Collegc Yes No No
Tuition ar age 17 Yes No No
* Present Value of F.arnings in rhousands of dollars.
To simplify the cmpirical analysis, we divide the lifetimcs of individuals

into two periods. The first pcriod covers ages 17 through 28 and the second
goes from 29 through 65. We impute missing wages and projcct earnings for
the ages not observed in the NLSY data using the procedure dcscribed in Ap-
pendix 13 of Carneiro, Hansen, and Heckman (2003). In Cunha, Heckman,
and Navarro (2005), wc consider alternative ways to creare foil life cycle
histories. Sorne type of combination of data sets is requircd bccause the
NLSY does not contain information on the full life cycle of carnings. We aug-
ment the NLSY data with data from the PSID to estímate the lifctime earn-
ings of the NLSY samplc members. For each schooling leve! s E (e, h), for
--
Cunha, I-Ieckman, and Navarro 311
each period t E {1, 2) we calculate the present value of earnings at age 17,
Ys,t· We assume that the error term for Ys,t is generated by a rwo factor model,
(6)
We omit the "i" subscripts to eliminare notational burden. This model is ali
that is required to fit the data. Additional factors, when entered, do not
con tribute to the fit of the modcl. In Table 11.1 we listthe elements of X used
in our empirical analysis. They are listed in the column "PV Earnings." Wc
normalizc a1,,1 ,2 = l.
For the measurement system of cognitive ability we use five componcnts
of the ASVAB test battery: arithmetic reasoning, word knowledge, para-
graph composirion, math knowledge, and coding speed. We link the first fac-
tor to this system of ability tests and exclude the other factor from it. Thus,
we adopt two normalizations. First, the loa<ling on the first factor oh the
arithmetic reasoning test is set to onc. Second, thc loading on the second fac-
tor is set to zero in al! test equations. Thus, the test seores are <levoted to
measuring ability. We include family background variables among the co-
variates X T in the ASVAB test equations. Ta ble 11.1 1ists rhe variables used
in XT- They are listed in the column "Test System." formally, let T¡ denote
the test score j:
(7)
The cost function C is given by:

(8)
where the Z are variables that affcct the costs of going to college and inclu<le
variables that do not affect outcomes Y s,t (such as local tuition and distance
to college). Table 11.1 shows thc ful! set of covariatcs used in Z under thc
column "Cost Function."
For the educational choice equation, we assume that agents know X, Z,
se, and sorne, but not necessarily ali, components of 0. Let the components
known to the agent be 0. The decision rule for attending college is based 011:
V = t: ( Yc 1+ -Ye
'-2 - Yh1 _ _
Y,,,_2 1 X,0- ) - E(CIZ,X,0,i;c:)
-
(9)
' l +r ' 1 + r
where future earnings are discounted at interest rate r = .03. Individuals go

to college if V> O. Wc test and do not reject the hypothesis that individua Is,
at the time they make their college decisions, know their cost functions,
the factors 0, and unobservables in cost er,. However, rhey do not know
e,,t, s E {e, hl, t E (1, 2} at the time they make their educacional choiccs, and
they may not know other components of 0. The factor loadings on the 0 not
in 0 are estimated to be zero. See Cunha, Heckman, anc.l Navarro (2005) for
further discussion of this test and for extensions of the mcthod.
We assume chat each factor k E [1, 2} is gencratcd by a mixture of h
normal distri butions:
J,
0k - L Pk,,<l>(fk IJ.Lk,¡, Tk,¡)
;- 1
where <f,(711 J.L;, T¡) is a normal density for T/ with mean J.L; and variance T¡, As
shown in Ferguson (1983 ), mixtures of normals with a large number of corn-
ponents approximate any distribution of 0k arbitrarily well. 16 Even though
the e,,t are nonparametrically identified, we assume in the empirical work re-
poned here that they are normally distributed. 17 We estimare the model us-
ing Markov Chain Monte Cario methods. In Appendix Tables 2a-2c, avail-
able at our website, we present estimated coefficients anc.l factor loadings for
the model.
6.2 Results
6.2 .1 How the Model Fits the Data To assess che validity of our esti-
mates, wc perform a variety of checks of fit of predictions against the data.
We first compare the proportions of people who choose each schooling leve!.
In che NLSY data, 55 percent choose high school and 45 percent choose col-
lege. The model predicts 56 percent and 44 percent, respectively. The model
replicares the observed proportions, and formal tests of equality of predicted
and actual proportions cannot be rejccted.
In Figure 11.1 we show the densities of the predicted and actual present
value of earnings for the overall sample of high school and college graduares.
The fit is good. Figures 11.2 and 11.3 show che same densities restricted to
the sample of those who choose high school (2) and college (3) . T hc fit is
good. When we also perform formal tests of equality of predicted a nd actual
distributions, we cannot reject che hypothesis of equality of the distributions
for each schooling choice using a chi-squared goodness of fit test ata 5 per-
cent significance leve! foral] three cases (Table 11.2). We conclude that a two
factor model is enough to fic the data. From this analysis, we conclude that
0.12
o 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000

Thousands of Dollars
- Fitted - - Actual
Figure 11.1 . Densities of Fitted and Actual Present Value of Earnings for Overall
Sample.
NOTE: Present value of carnings from age 17 to 65 discounted using an intcrcst ratc of
3%. Let (Y0 , Y1) denote potential outcomes in high school and collcge sectors, respectively.
Let S = O denote high school sector and S = 1 denote collegc sector. Define observed earnings
as Y = SY 1 + (1 - S)Y0 • Let f(y ) denote tbe dcnsity fuDction of observed earnings. Here we
plot the density functions f gcncratcd from the data (the dashed line) against that fitted by thc
model (the salid line). We use kernel density estimation to produce these functions.
earnings innovations s s,t relative to a two factor model are not in thc agents'
infor mation sets at the time they are making school ing dccisions. lf they
were, additional factors would be required to capture the foil covariancc bc-
tween educational choices and future earnings, but whcn we enter additional
factors, thcy do not improve the fit of the model to data and have zero esti-
mated factor loadings in the choice equation.
6.2.2 The Factors: Non-normality and Evidence on Selection In order

to fit the data, one must allow for non-normal factors, as eme can scc from thc
evidencc summarized in Figure 1 l .4. To genera te figure 11 .4, we compute
314 , Mechanisms of Mobility
0.-16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
o 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000
- Fitted - - Actual
Figure 11.2. Densities of Fitted and Actual Present Value of Earnings for People
Who Choose to Graduare from High School
No TE: Presenr value of earnings from age 17 to 65 discountcd using an interest rate of 3%.
Let Y0 denote porenrial ourcome in rhe high school sector. 1.et S = O denote choice of the high
school sector. Lct /(y I S = O) denote rhe densiry functioo of observed earnings condirioned on
agenrs who are high school graduares. Here we plot rhe density functions /(y IS = O) gener-
atcd from the data (the dashed line) againsr rhat predictcd by rhe model (rhc solid linc) We
use kernel densiry esrimation ro produce these funcrions.
the variance of the distribucion of factor 1, say u 0 ,. Because the factors have
mean zero, we can plot the estimated density of factor 1 against that of a
normal random variable with mean zero and variance u 0 ,. We proceed
in a similar fashion for factor 2 . N either factor is normally distributed.
A traditional assumption used in factor analysis (see, e.g., Joreskog 1977) is
violated. Our approach is more general and <loes not require normality.
Figure 11.5 plots the density of factor 1 conditional on educational
choices. The sol id line is the density of factor 1 for agents who are high school
graduares, while the dashed line is the density for agents who are college grad-
uares. Beca use factor 1 is associated with cognitive tests, we can interpret it
0.10
0 .09
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
o 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000
Thousan<ls of Dollars
- Fitted - - Actual
Figure 11.3. Densities of Fitted and Actual Present Value of Earnings for Peoplc
Who Choose to Graduare from Collegc
No TE: Present valuc of earnings from age 17 ro 65 discounted using an intcrcst rate of 3%.
Let Y1 denote potential outcome in the college sector. Let S = 1 denote choice of the college
sector. Lct ((y I S = 1) denote the density function of observed carnings condirioned on agents
who are college graduates. Here we plot the dcnsity functions ((y I S = 1) generated from the
data (the dashed line) against that predictcd by rhe model (thc sol id line) We use kernel den-
sity estimation to produce rhese functions.
TAllLE 11 .2
Goodness of Fit Test for Lifetimc Earnings
x 2 Statistic Critica/ Value''
Overall 48.9251 53.1419

High School 25.4820 26.0566
College 32.2506 33.2562
• 95 percent confidence, equiprobablc bins with approximatcly

23 people pcr bin.
316 M echanisms of Mobility
1.4
1.2
1.0
0 .8
0 .6
0.4
0.2
O.O ~ ~~ - - ~- - -- ~ - ~- -~""""'~;,,;;,:~~~!!i'¡,3=~ -
2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 O.O 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Factor
- Factor 1 - - Normal Version of Factor 1

- factor 2 - - Normal Vcrsion of Factor 2
Figure 11.4. Densities of Factors and Their Normal F.quivalents

No TE: Let ((0 ,) denote thc density probability function of factor 0 1. We assume that {(0 1 ) is a
m ixture of normals. Assume µ, 1 = E(0 1}, CT 1 = Var(O,l. Let </>(µ, ,, cr 1) denote the density of a
normal random variable with mean µ, 1 and variance <T 1, The solid curve is thc actual density
of factor 0 1, ((0 1), while the dashed curve is the density of a normal random variable with
mean and variancc of factor 01, <f>(µ,1, o- 1 ). Wc proceed similarly for factor 2, where the fitted
density is plotted in light grey and thc normal version is plotted in light grey dashes.
asan indcx of "ability." The agents who choose college have, on average,
higher ability. Factor 1 is purged of the effect of parental background and
leve! of education ar thc date of the ASVAB test. Figure 11.5 shows that se-
lection on ability is an important factor in cxplaining collegc attendance. A
simi lar analysis of factor 2 reveals that schooling dccisions are not vcry much
affected by it. However, factor 2 is important for predicting futurc earnings,
as we show bclow.
6.2.3 fatimating joint Distributions of Counterfactuals: Returns, Costs,

and Ability as Determinants of Schooling In estimating the distribution of
Cun.ha, Heckman., an.d Navarro 317
1.4
/1
I 1
I 1
1.2 I 1
I 1
1.0
0 .8
0.6
0.4
1
1
1 •
0.2 1
\
o.o +~~-¡,-~-=--=-...::-:...;-;:.-_
.... '
~ - -~----.--- -,.:,,._--'':....:-=-=.-~- --r- ---.--- --.--
2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 o.o 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Factor 1
- H igh School - - College
Figure 11.5. Densities of "Ability" (Factor 1) by Schooling Leve!

N OT F.: I.et ((01) denote che <lensity function of factor 0 1• We assmne tbat ((0¡) is a mixture of
norma Is. The soli<l line is che estimated dcnsity of factor 1 condiciona I on choosing the high
school sector, that is, ((0 1 1 Choice = High School). Thc dashc<l line plots the density of factor
1 conditional on choosing the collcge sector, that is, ((0 1 1 Choice = College).
earnings in countcrfactual schooling states wichin a policy regime (e.g., che

discributions of college earnings for people who actually choose to be high
school graduares), the usual approach is to assume that both distributions are
che same cxcept for an additivc constant-che cocfficient of a schooling
dummy in an earnings regression. More recently devcloped mechods partially
relax chis assumption by assuming preservation of ranks across potencial out-
come distributions, but do not freely specify thc two outcome distributions
(see H cckman, Smith , and Clements 1997; Vytlacil 2002; Chernozhukov
and Hanscn 2005). Our approach relaxes chis assumption by allowing for ar-
bitrary dependence across potencial outcome distribucions. Table 11.3 pres-
cnts the condicional distribution of ex post potential college earnings given
ex post potential high school earnings decile by decile. The table displays a
TABLEll.3
Ex Post Conditional Distribution (College Earnings Conditional on High School Earnings)
Pr(d; <Y, < d; +l id¡ < Yh < d¡ + 1)''·
High COLLEGE
School 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 0.6980 0.2534 0.0444 0.0032 0.0011 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
2 0.2270 0.4150 0.2470 0.0890 0.0180 0.0040 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
3 0.0450 0.2160 0.3420 0.2610 0.1070 0.0260 0.0030 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
4 0.0140 0.0950 0.2120 0.2930 0.2390 0.1090 0.0370 0.0010 0.0000 0.0000
5 0.0000 0.0300 0.1130 0.2190 0.2940 0.2170 0.1100 0.0170 0.0000 0.0000
6 0.0000 0.0040 0.0340 0.0980 0.2030 0.3080 0.2470 0.0990 0.0070 0.0000
7 0.0000 0.0000 0.0100 0.0340 0.1130 0.2390 0.3190 0.2350 0.0500 0.0000
8 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0030 0.0240 0.0910 0.2360 0.4010 0.2320 0.0130
9 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0010 0.0060 0.0470 0.2360 0.5400 0.1700
10 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0010 0.0110 0.1710 0.8170
* d; is the ith decile of che College Lifetime Earnings Disrriburion and d¡ is che ith decile of the High School Liferime Earnings Distriburion.
Cunha, J-ieckman, and Navarro 319
strong positive dependencc between the relative positions of individuals in

the two distributions. In particular, for ali high school deciles, more than 50
percent of the individua Is locatcd at any decile in the high school earnings dis-
tribution will be within one decile of their original position in the college
earnings distribution. However, the dependence is far from perfect. For
example, almost 10 percent of those who are at the sixth decilc of the high
school distribution would be in the eighth decile of the college distribution.
Observe that this comparison is not being made in terms of positions in the
overall distribution of earnings. We can determine where individuals are
located in the distribution of population potential high school eamings and
the distribution of potential college carnings although in the data we only
observe them in either one or the other state. The assumption of perfect de-
pendence across counterfactual distributions that is maintained in much of
the recent literature (e.g., Juhn, Murphy, and Pierce 1993 ) is, however, too
strong, at least in this application.
Figures 11.6 and 11. 7 present the marginal densities of predicted and
counterfactual earnings for college (Figure 1 l.6) and high school (figure
11.7). When we compare the densities of present value of earnings in the col-
lege sector for persons who choose college against the counterfactual densi-
ties of college earnings for high school graduares, the density of the present
value of earnings for college graduares is to the right of the counterfactual
density of the present value of earnings of high school graduares if they were
collegc graduares. Figure 11. 7 reveals that college graduares are more likely
to be successful in the high school sector than actual high school graduares.
The surprising feature of both figures is that the overlap of the distributions
is substantial. Many high school graduares have earnings as large as those of
college graduares.
Tables 11.4 and 1 l.5 provide further evidence against the hypothesis of
perfect dependence across counterfactual distributions. In Table 11.4, wc
report the fitted and countcrfactual present value of earnings for agents who
choose high school. Thc typical high school student would carn $703,780
over the life cycle. She would earn $1,021,970 if she had chosen to be a col-
lege graduate.18 This implies a return of 46 percent to a collegc education
over the wholc lifc cycle (i.e., a monetary gain of $318,190). In Table 11.5,
we note that the typical college graduare earns $1,122,690 (above the coun-
terfactual earnings of what a typical high school student would earn in col-
lege), and would make only $756,130 over her lifetime if she chose to be a
320 Mechanisms ol Mobility
0.10
0.09
o.os
0.07
0.06
o.os
0.04
0.03
\
\
0.02 \
\
........
0.01
0.00
o 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000
Thousan<ls of Dollars
- High School (Countcrfactual} - - College (Fitted}
Figure 11.6. Dcnsitics of Present Value of Earnings in the College Sector

No TE: Let Y1 denote present value of carnings (discounted at a 3% interese ratc} in che col-
lege sector. Let f(yi) denote its density function. The dashed line plots the fitted Y1 density
conditioned on choosing collcge, thar is /(y 1 1S = ]), while the solid line shows tbe estimated
countcrfactual density function of Y1 for those agents that are acrually high school graduares,
thar is, /(y 1 1S = 0).
high school graduate instead. The returns to college education for the typical
college graduare (which in the literature on program evaluation is referred
to as the effccr of Treatment on the Treated) is 50 percent above that of the
rcturn for a high school graduate. In monetary terms we would say that a
college graduate has a gain of going to college almost $500,000 highcr ovcr
her lifetime than does thc rypical high scbool graduare.
Figure 11.8 plots rhe density of returns to education for agents wbo
are high school graduares (rhe solid curve), and tbe density of rcrurns to
education for agents who are college graduares (tbe dasbed curve). Collcge
graduares have rcturns distribured somewhat " to tbe rigbt" of bigb school
graduares, so the difference is nor only a difference for the mean individual
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
•
0.02
0.00
o 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000
- High School (Fittcd) - - College (Counterfactual)
Figure 11.7. Densities of Present Valuc of Earnings in the High School Sector
No TE: Let Y0 denote present value of earnings (discounted ar a 3% intcrcst ratc) in the high
school sector. Lct f(y0 ) denote its density function. The solid linc plots thc fitted Y0 density
conditioncd on choosing college, that is f(y 0 1S = O), whilc thc dashed line shows rhe counter-
factual density function of Y0 for thosc agcnts that are actually college graduares, that is,
f(Yo IS= 1).
but is actually present over the entire distribution. An economic interpreta-

tion of Figure 11.8 is that agents who choose a college education are the ones
who tend to gain more from it.
With the methodology proposed here, we can also determine returns to
the marginal student. Table 11.6 reveals that the average individual who is
just indifferent betwecn a college education anda high school diploma earns
$743,400 as a high school graduare or $1,089,970 as a college graduare.
This implies a return of 48 percent. The returns to people at the marginare
above those of the typical high school graduare, but below those for the typ-
ical college graduare. Beca use persons at the marginare more likcly to be af-
fected by a policy that encourages college attendance, their rcturns are the
...,
TABLE 1 ·1 .4
Average Present Value of Earnings''· for High
School Graduares
Fitted ami Countcrfactual,
Whitc Males from NLSY79
High School College

(fitted) (cou11terfactuaf)
High School 703.780 1()21.970

SE 14.626 78.214
Random'·'· 726.590 1065.900
SE 20.513 43.054
i\VERAGE RETURNS''''* FOR HIGJ-1 SCIJOOL GRAVUATES
High Schoo/ vs..Some College
High School 0.4600

SE 0.1401
'Thousands of dollars. Discounred using a 3 pcrccnc inccrcst ratc.

••Ir defines che rcsult of taking a person ar randorn frorn che popularion
regardless of his schooling choice.
**'"Asa fracrion of rhc base scate, thar is (PV Earnings (Col) -
PV Earnings (HS))/PV Earnings (HS).
ones that should be uscd in order to compute the marginal bencfit of policies
that induce people into schooling.
A major question that emerges from our analysis is why, if high school
graduares have positive rcturns to attending college, don't all attcnd? Pcoplc
do not pick schooling levcls based only on monetary returns. Rccall that their
choice criterion [eq uation (9) j includes also the pecuniary and 11011-pccuniary
costs of actually attending college. Figure 11.9 shows the estima red dcnsity
of the monetary value of this cost both overall and by schooling leve!. Whilc
almost no high school graduare perceives a negative cost (i.e., a benefit) of at-
tending college; around one-third of college graduares actually perceive itas
a benefit. Table 11. 7 explores this point in more detail by presenting the
mean total cost of attending college (first rows) and the mean cost that is duc
to ability (i.e., factor 1 ), given in thc sccond rows. While in both cases the
cost of attending college is positive for both che average college graduare and
the average high school graduare, coses on average are smaller for collcge
Cunha, l-leckman, and Navarro 323
TABLEl'l.5
Average Present Value of Earnings'·
far College Graduates
Fittcd ami Countcrfactual,
White Males from NLSY79
High School
(counterfactual} College ((itted)
College 756.13 1,122.69

SE 40.57 2.5.89
Random'·* 726.59 1,065.90
SE 20.51 43.05
AVERAGE RETURNS :-H· F OR COI.J.EGE GRADUATES
High School vs. Some College
Collcgc O.SO
SE 0.08
* Thousands o f dollars. Discounted using a 3 percenr inreresr rare.

* * Tt defines rhe result of taking a person at random from rhc
popularion regardless of his schooling choice.
•* • As a fraction of rhc base srate, thar is (PV Earnings (Col) -
PV Earnings (HS))/PV Earnings (HS).
graduares. From Figure 11.5 we know that college graduates have higher
ability. Thc average contribution of ability to costs is positive for high school
graduares (a true cost). lt is ncgative for college graduares, so it is perceived
as a bcncfit. This is the answer to our puzzle: people do not only (or cvcn
mainly) makc their schooling decisions by looking at their monetary returns
in terms of carnings. Psychic costs play a very important role. Differences in
ability are one force behind this result. 1 ~-20
6.2.4 Mobility and Heterogeneity versus Uncertainty In Figures 11.10

through 11.12, we separare the effect of heterogeneity from uncertainty in
carnings. Thc information set of the agent is I = (X, Z, XT, se, 0) whcrc ®
contains sorne or ali of the factors. Focusing on Figure 11.1 O we start by as-
suming that the agents do not know their factors; conscqucntly, 0 = 0 . If
we let the agent learn about factor l,21 so that, 0 = (0i), thcn thc reduction
in thc forecast variance is basically ni!. This exercise shows that whilc factor
1 is important for forecasting educational choiccs, it does not do a very good
324 Mechanisms o( Mobility
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
I
I
I
I
0.5 I
I
I
/
- - - ~ - -~:=:::::::::~~-----.~
/
/
"
O.O ...b~=~=~~~-
1.0 0.5 O.O 0.5 1.0 1.5 2
Fraction of tbc Base State
- High School - - College
Figure 11 .8. Densities of Ex Post Returns to College by Schooling Leve! Chosen

No TE: Let Y0, Y1 denote the present value of earnings in che high school and college sectors,
respcctivcly. Define ex post returns to collcgc as the ratio R = ~ - Let f(r) denote thc dcnsity
function of the random variable R. The so lid line is the density of ex post rcturns to college for
high school graduares, that is, f(r IS = 0). The dashed line is the densiry of ex post returns to
college for college graduares, that is, f(r IS = 1 ).
job in forecasting earnings. Now, assume that the agent is given knowledge
of factor 2, but not factor 1, so that 0 = (0 2 }. Then the agent is ablc to sub-
stantially reduce thc forecast variance of earnings in high school. T hus, while
facror 2 <loes not greatly affect college choices, it greatly informs the agent
about his or her future earnings. When the agent is given knowlcdge of both
factors 1 and 2, that is, 0 = (01, 02 }, he can forecast earnings margi11ally bet-
ter. Factor 1 provides i11formatio11 011 ability, but almost none 011 future
earni11gs. Figure 11.11 reveals much the same story about college earni11gs.
These results suggest that selectio11 into college is not based primarily 011 ex-
pected eco11omic returns to educatio11. Cost factors play an important role.
Cunha, f-leckman, and Navarro 325
TAlll.E 11.6
Average Present Value of Earnings"· for
People Indifferent Between High School and College
Conditional on Education Leve!,
White Males from NLSY79
High School College

Average 743.400 1089.970
SE 24.152 33.255
AVERAGE RETURNS ,, * FOR l'EOl'LE I NDIFFERENT

llETWEEN IIIGII SCIIOOL ANJJ COLLEGE
High School vs. Sume College

Average 0.4800
SE 0.08.53
•
•'J'housands of dollars. Discounted using a 3 percent interest rate.
**Asa fraction of the base srate, rhar is (PV Earnings (Col) -
PV Earnings (HS))/PV F.arnings (1-1S).
Table 11 .8 presents the variance of poten tia! earn ings in each state and re-
tu rns under different information sets available to the agent. We conduct th is
exercise for the forecast of period 1, period 2, and lifetime earn ings. We report
baseline variances and covariances without condition ing and the remaining
uncertainty state as a fraction of thc bascline no information statc when dif-
ferent components are givcn to thc agcnts. Note that knowlcdgc of factor 2 is
fundamentally important in reducing forccast variance for pcriod 2 earnings.
This discussion sheds light on the issue of distinguishing predictable het-
erogcncity from unccrtainty. We have demonstrated that there is a large
dispcrsion in thc distribution of the present value of earnings. Th.is dispcr-
sion is largely dueto heterogeneity, which is forecastable by the agents at the
time they are making their schooling choices. Recall that by our tests agents
know 01 and 02 • The remaining dispersion is dueto luck, or uncertainty or
unforecastable factors as of age 17. Its contribution is smaller.
lt is interesting to note that knowledge of the factors enables agents to
make better forecasts. Figure 11.12 presents an exercise for returns to col-
lege (Y1 - Y0 ) similar to that presented in Figures 11.10 and 11.11 regard-
ing information sets available to the agent. Knowledge of factor 2 also
greatly improves the forecastability of returns, 80 percent of the variability
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
o.os
500 o 500 1,000 1,500

- Overall - - High School - College
Figure 11.9. Density of Monetary Valuc of Psychic Cost Both Overall and by
Schooling Leve!
No Té: In this figure we plot the monetary value of psychic costs. Lct C denote the
monetary value of psychic costs. The monetary value of psychic costs is givcn by:
C = Zy + 0 1a c 1 + 02ac: 2 + ec. The contribution of ability to the cosrs of attending
college, in monetary valuc, is 0,ac,-
in returns is forecastable at age 17. The levels are cvcn more predictable
(94 percent for high school; 97 percent for collegc). Most variability across
people is duc to heterogeneity and not unccrtainty.
6.2.5 Ex Ante versus Ex Post Once thc distinction between heterogenc-

ity and uncertainty is madc, we can talk about the distinction between ex ante
and ex post dccision making. From our analysis, wc conclude that, at the time
agents pick their schooling, the e's in their earnings equations are unknown
to them. These are the components that correspond to "luck" as defined by
Jencks et al. (1972). It is clcar that decision making would be different, at
least for sorne individuals, if the agent knew these chance components when
choosing schooling levels because decision rule (2)- (3) would now be
TABLE 11.7
Mean Monetary Yalue of Total Cost
of Attending College
High School College Overa//
488.24 232.56 375.27
MEAN MONETARY VALUE OF COST OF

ATTENOJNG COI.LEGE DUE TO ABILITY
T-1igh School College

40.97 - 51.27 o.o
l.er C denote rhe monerary value of psychic cost.s. Thcn

C is given by:
•
Thc conrribution of ability to the costs of attending college
in rnonetary value is 8 1ac; 1• Recall rhat, on average, thc ability
is different berwecn thosc who attcnd collegc and those who
attend high school.
Yc2 Yh2
V = Yc,1 + --' - - Y, 1 - - -'--C>O
1 +r '· 1 +r
S = 1 if V> O; S = O otherwise,
where no expectation is taken to cale u late V beca use al I terms on the right-
hand side of the top equation are known with certainty by the agent.
In our empirical model, if individua Is could pick their schooling leve! us-
ing rheir ex post information (i.e., after learning their luck componenrs in
earnings), 13.81 percent of high school graduares would rarher be college
graduares and 17.15 percent of college graduares would have sropped their
schooling at the high school level.
6.2.6 Analyzing a Cohort Specific Cross-Subsidized Tuition Policy:

Constructing Joint Distributions of Counterfactuals A cross Policy Regimes
Asan cxample of the power of our method to evaluare rhc conscquences of
policy on income inequality, we analyze a cross-subsidized tuition policy in-
dexcd by family income leve!. We construct joint distributions of outcomes
within policy regimes (treatment ami no treatment or schooling and no
schooling) and joint distributions of choices (Y = SY1 + (1 - S) Y0) across
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
O.O
o 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000
Figure ·1·1.10. Density of Agent's Forecast of the Present Value of H igh School
Earnings Undcr Diffcrent Information Sets: I = {X, Z, Xy, ec, 0)
No TE: Let Y0 denote the agent's forccast of present earnings in the high school sector. Thesc
are formed over the whole population, not just the subpopulation who go to high school. Wc
assume that agcnts know ali coefficients. Lct I = {X, Z, XT, Be, 0 ) denote che agent's infor-
mation set. Lec f(y0 1 I) denote che densiry of che agcnt's forccast of prcsent value of earnings
in high school, conditioned on the information set I. Then:
,,. Plot of f(y 0 1 I) under no information, i.e., 0 = 0.
''" Plot of f(y0 1 I) when only factor 1 is in che information set, i.e., 0 = {0¡}.
*'·'· Plot of f(y 0 1 I ) when only factor 2 is in che information set, i.e., 0 = (02).
*'"'' ''· Plot of f(y0 1 'I) when both facto rs are in thc informatio n set, i.e., 0 = (01, 02 ) .
policy regimes. The policy analyzed is as follows. A prospective student

whose family income at age 17 is below the mean is allowed to attcnd col-
lege free of charge. The policy is self-financing within each schooling cohort.
To pay for this policy, persons attending college with fam ily income above
the mean pay a tuition charge equal to the amount required to cover the
costs of the students from lower income families as well as their own.
Total tuition raised covers the cost K of educating each srudent. Thus, if
there are Np poor students and NR rich students, total costs are (N 1, + NR )K.
----
TABLE ll. 8
Agent's Forecast Variance of Present Valuc of Earnings
Undcr Different Information Sets: I = (X, Z, XT, ec, 0}
(as a fraction of the variancc when no information is availablc)
Var(Ycl Var(Y1,) Var(Yc - Y¡,) Cov( Y0 Y 1,)
For ti me pcriod 1: ,.
Variance when 0 = 0 7,167.20 5,090.46 3,073.94 4,.591.86
Pcrcentage of variance
remaining after
controlling for the
indicatcd factor:
0 = {e¡) 97.50% 98.34% 99.43% 97.33%
0 = {82] 18 ..50% 32.83% 89 ..52% 2.67%
0 = {81, 02) 16.01 % 31.17% 88.94% 0.00%
For time perio<l 2: ,. ,.

Variance when 0 = 0 49,690.64 167,786.87 41,137.80 88,169.8.5
Percentage of variancc
rcmaining after
controlling for thc
indicate<l factor:
0 = {8¡} 97.1 8% 97 ..54% 98.2.5% 97.28%
0 = (82} 7.39% 4.73% 16.5.5% 2.72%
0 = {81, 82) 4.57% 2.27% 14.80% 0.00%
For lifctime:'''""
Variance when 0 = 0 .56,857.84 172,877.33 44,211.74 92,761.72
Percentagc of variance
remaining after
controlling for the
indicated factor:
0 = {8,l 97.22% 97.57% 98.33% 97.28%
0 = {82} 8.79% 5.56% 21.62% 2 .72%
0 = {81, 82) 6.01 % 3.13% 19.95% 0.00%
We use an intcresr rate of 3 perccnt ro calculare the present value of carnings. fn ali cases, thc informarían
ser of rhe agcnr is I = [X, Z, X-1, er., 0) and wc change rhe contents of 0.
* Variance of rhe unprc<licrable componcnt of earnings bctween ages 17 and 28 as predicred at agc 17.
'* Variance of thc unpredicrable component of earnings berween ages 29 and 65 as predictc<l at age 17.
... Variancc of rhe unpredictable component of earnings betwcen ages 17 and 65 as predicred ar age 17.
So we would say rhar rbe variance of rhe unpre<licrahle componenr of period 1 collcgc carnings when using
factor 1 in rhe prediction is 97.5 percent of rhe variance wbcn no informarion is available (i.e., 0.975*7167.2).
330 Mechanisrns of Mohility
0.40
/\
/\
1 \
0.35 1
¡
0.30
,f
0.25 1
f
/
0.20
0.15
0.10
o.os
0.00
o 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000
Figure 11.11. Density of Agent's f orecast of the Present Value of Collegc Earn-
ings under Different Information Sets: I = (X, Z, XT, Ec, 0)
No TE : Lct Y1 denote the agcnt's forecast of prcscnt earnings in che collegc sector. Thesc are
formed over the whole population, not just che subpopulation who go to college. We assume
that agents know ali coefficients. Lct T = (X, Z, XT, ec, 0) denote che agent's information
set. Let f(y 1 [ T} denote the density of the agent's forecast of prcscnt value of earnings in col-
legc, conditioned on the informarion set T. Thcn:
* Plot of /(y1 [ T) under no information, i.e., 0 = 0.
''* Plot of f(y 1 [ T) when only factor 1 is in the information set, i.e., 0 = {0¡}.
""" Plot of /(y 1 [ T) when only factor 2 is in the information set, i.e., 0 = (112 ).
,,,,.,* Plot of f(y 1 [ T) when both factors are in the information set, i.e., 0 = (01, 02 ).
In thc proposed policy, the poor pay nothing. So each rich person is
charged a tuition T = K(l +~).To determine T, notice that Nr = N 1,(T);
Nn = NR(T). We iterate to find the unique self-financing T. Notice that
N,,(O), the number of poor people who attend college when tuition is zero,
is the same for all values of T (N,,( T) = N 1,(0) for all T). N 1< is sensitive ro
rhe tuition leve! charged.
Figure 11.1 3 shows that the marginal <listributions of income in borh
the pre-policy state and the post-policy state are essentially identical. Under
-
Cunha, T-feckman, and Navarro 331
0.35
500 o 500 1,000 1,500

Gains in Thousands of Dollars
Figure 11 .12. Densities of Agent's Forecast Gains in Prcscnt Value of Earnings

(Y1 - Y0 ) Under Different Information Sets: I = {X, Z, Xy, se, 0)
No TE: Lct Yi,Yo denote the agent's forccast of present value of carnings in the high school
and college scctors, respectively. We define the difference in present value of earnings as /i =
Y, - Y0 • We assume thar agents know ali coefficients. Lcr I = (X, Z, Xr, f:r,, 0), f(/i I I ) de-
note the agent's information set and the density of tbc agent's forecast of gains in present
value of earnings in cboosing college, conditioned on the information set I, rcspcctively.
These are defincd ovcr the whole population. Tben:
' Plor of f(/i I I ) under no information, i.e., 0 = 0.
" Plor of f(!i I I ) when only factor 1 is in the information set, i.e., 0 = {0i} .
' " Plot of f(/i I I) wheo only fa ctor 2 is in the information set, i.e., 0 = {02 }.
""Plot of f(/i I I) whcn both facrors are in thc information ser, i.e., 0 = {IJ,, 02).
ano nymity we would judgc these two situations as equally good using
Lorenz m easures or sccond order stochastic dominance. We movc beyond
anonymity and analyzc the effect that thc policy has on what Ficlds (2003)
calls "positional" mobility.
Panel 1 of Table 11.9 p resents this analysis by describing how the 9.2
percent of the p eoplc who a re affected by the policy move bctween deciles of
the distribution of income. These stacistics describe movemcnts from one
332 M echanisms o( Mobi/ity
o 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000

- Prepolicy (A) - - Postpolicy (B)
Figure 11.13. Densities of Prcsent Value of Lifetime Earnings Befare and After
lmplementing Cross Subsi<ly Policy
N o TE: Let YA, Y" denote thc observed present va lue of earnings pre- and post-policy, respec-
tivcly. Define f(yA), g(y8 ) as thc marginal densities of present value of earnings pre- and post-
policy. In this figure we plot f(y''), g(y11 ).
income distribution in the initial rcgime to another income distribution as-

sociated with thc new regime. The policy affects more peoplc at thc top
dcciles than at the lower dcciles. Around half of the people affected who start
at the first decile remain at the first dccilc. People in the middle deciles are
sprcad both up and clown, and a large proportion of people in thc uppcr
deciles is moved into a lower position (only 16 percent of those starting on the
top dccile remain there after the policy is implemented). Moving beyond the
anonymity postulate (which instructs us to examine only marginal distribu-
tions), we learn much more about the effects of the policy on different groups.
Thus far, we have focused on constructing and interpreting the joint dis-
tribution of outcomes across the two policy regimes. If outcomes under both
regimes are observed, these comparisons can be made using panel data. No
,
TABLE 11.9
Mobility of People Affected by Cross-subsidizing Tuition
OVERALL : FRACTION OF TOTAL POPU LATION \VHO SWITCH SCHOOLING LEVELS: 0.0932
Fraction Deci/es
PROBAB I LIT Y OF .\10VING TO A DlFFERENT DECILE OF TH E LlFETIME EARNINGS DISTRIBUTION
by Deci/e of
of Orígin Origín 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.0728 1 0.5565 0.2011 0.1220 0.0634 0.0283 0.0074 0.0012 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.0867 2 0.2079 0.1712 0.1715 0.1690 0.1585 0.0870 0.0322 0.0025 0.0002 0.0000
0.0955 3 0.1148 0.1489 0.0935 0.1137 0.1573 0.1888 0.1387 0.0409 0.0034 0.0000
0.0998 4 0.0619 0.1557 0.0910 0.0534 0.0764 0.1615 0.2084 0.1557 0.0360 0.0000
0.1032 5 0.0296 0.1495 0.1387 0.0630 0.0304 0.0571 0.1411 0.2456 0.1396 0.0055
0.1050 6 0.0066 0.0959 0.1726 0.1471 0.0520 0.0142 0.0415 0.1671 0.2605 0.0425
0.1084 7 0.0006 0.0336 0.1411 0.1956 0.1269 0.0420 0.0082 0.0348 0.2346 0.1827
0.1089 8 0.0000 0.0046 0.0519 0.1765 0.2211 0.1495 0.0388 0.0034 0.0513 0.3029
0.1101 9 0.0000 0.0000 0.0055 0.0421 0.1570 0.2733 0.2302 0.0447 0.0014 0.2459
0.1069 10 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0002 0.0041 0.0517 0.2082 0.3242 0.2490 0.1626
HIGH SCHOOL: FRACTI ON OF TOTAL POPULATION \VHO SWITCH FROM H!GH SCHOOL TO COLLEGE DUETO THE POLJCY: 0.0450
0.1012 1 0.3954 0.2557 0.1775 0.0936 0.0417 0.0110 0.0018 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.1279 2 0.0382 0.1220 0.2176 0.2325 0.2200 0.1210 0.0448 0.0035 0.0003 0.0000
0.1369 3 0.0023 0.0188 0.0692 0.1536 0.2244 0.2701 0.1984 0.0584 0.0049 0.0000
0.1367 4 0.0000 0.0016 0.0088 0.0368 0.1116 0.2417 0.3123 0.2332 0.0540 0.0000
0.1285 5 0.0000 0.0000 0.0007 0.0052 0.0277 0.0903 .. 0.2324 0.4047 0.2300
0.5004
0.0090
0.0816
0.1122 6 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0004 0.0024 0.0151 0.0792 0.3209
0.1017 7 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0009 0.0101 0.0761 0.5133 0.3997
TABLE 11.9
(continued)
OVERALL: FRACTION OF TOTAL POPULATION WHO SWITCH SCHOOLING LEVE LS: 0.0932
Fraction Deci/es
PROBABILITY OF MOVING TO A DIFFERENT DECILE OF THE LIFETIME EARNINGS D!STRIBUTION
by Decile of
of Origin Origin 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.0797 8 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0067 0.1440 0.8493
0.0557 9 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0032 0.9968
0.0173 10 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1.0000
COLLEGE: FRACTION OF TOTAL POPULATJON WHO SWITCH FROM COLLEGE TO HIGH SCHOOL DUETO THE POLICY: 0.0473
0.0459 1 0.8941 0.0866 0.0055 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.0475 2 0.6423 0.2972 0.0534 0.0062 0.0009 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.0560 3 0.3763 0.4510 0.1501 0.0211 0.0015 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.0647 4 0.1860 0.4648 0.2559 0.0868 0.0059 0.0007 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.0791 5 0.0753 0.3801 0.3518 0.1522 0.0347 0.0059 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.0982 6 0.0138 0.2001 0.3602 0.3064 0.1059 0.0133 0.0004 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.1148 7 0.0011 0.0618 0.2598 0.3603 0.2337 0.0766 0.0066 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.1366 8 0.0000 0.0071 0.0807 0.2744 0.3436 0.2323 0.0603 0.0015 0.0000 0.0000
0.1618 9 0.0000 0.0000 0.0073 0.0559 0.2084 0.3628 0.3056 0.0593 0.0008 0.0000
0.1920 10 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0002 0.0044 0.0561 0.2260 0.3519 0.2702 0.0911
:- o TE: Cross-subsidy consiscs in making cuirion Ofor people wich family income below average and making rhe budgec balance by raising cuicion for college
students wich family income above che average. For example, we read fcom che first panel row 1, column 1 chat 7.28 percent of che people who switch schooling
levels come from che lowest decile. Out of chose, 55 percent are scill in che first decile afrer rhe policy while 2.83 percenc jump to che fifrh decile. Panel 2 has che same
incerprecation bue ic only looks at people who switch from high school co co!lege while panel 3 looks at individuals who swirch from college to high school.
TABLE 11.10
Mobility of People Affected
by Cross-subsidizing Tuition,
Fraction of the Total Population
Who Switch Schooling Levels: 0.0932
FRACTION OF HIGH SCHOOL

GRADUATES :
Recome
College
PREPOLICY Cl!OI Ci,; Do Not Switch Graduates
High School 0.9197 0.0803
FRACTION O F COLLEGE
GRADUATES:
Become High •
School
Do Not Switch Graduates
College 0.8923 0.1077
No TE: Cross-subsidy consisrs in making tuition zcro for pcople with

farnily incorne below average and making che budget balance by raising
ruirion far college studcnts with family income above the average.
use of counterfactuals is necessary. However, our rnethods will apply if either

or both policy regimes are unobserved bue are proposed. Taking advantage
of che fact that we can identify not only joint distributions of earnings over
policy regimes but also over counterfactual states within regimes we can
learn a great deal more about the effects of this policy, whether or not pol-
icy regimes are observed.22
Table 11.10 and panels 2 and 3 of Table 11.9 revea! that not only
is 9.2 percent of the populacion affected by che policy, but that actually
about half of them moved from high school into college (4.5 percent of the
population) and half moved from college into high school (4.7 percent of the
population). This translates into saying that, of those affected by che policy,
92 percent of che high school graduares stay in high school in the post-
policy regime while only 89 percent of college graduares stay put. Thus, the
policy is slightly biased agai nst college attendance. We can form che joint
distributions of lifetirne earnings by inicial schooling level. Figure 11.14
summarizes sorne of the evidence presented in Table 11.10. Figure 11.14 and
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
O.OS
0.00
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Dccilc
O Overall O High School to College ■ Collcgc to High School
Figure 11 ..14. Fraction of People Who Switch Schooling Levels When Tuition Is
Cross-subsidized, By Decile of Origin from che Lifetimc Earnings Distribution
No TE: Cross subsidy consists in rnaking tuition zero for peo ple with family income below
the average and making the budget balance by raising tuition for college students with family
incorne above thc average.
the evidence in panels 2 and 3 ofTable 11.9 show that thc policy affects very
few high school graduares at the top cnd of the income distribution (only 1.7
perccnt of those affected come from the renth percentile) and a lot of college
grad uates in thc same situation (19 percent of college graduares
affected come from thc top decile). We can also see that the policy tcnds to
move high school graduatcs up in the income distribution and movcs college
graduares clown. As another examplc of the generality of our method and
the new insight into incomc mobility induced by policy that it provides, wc
can determine where people come from and where they end up at in thc
counterfactual distributions of earnings. Table 11.11 shows wherc in the
pre-policy distribution of high school earnings persons induced to go to col-
lege come from and where in the post-policy distribution of college earnings
rhey go to. Mosr people stay in their decilc or move to closely adjacent oncs.
Given that sorne people bencfit from rhe policy while others lose, it is not
clear whether society as a whole values this policy positively. An advantagc
of our method is that it allows us to calculare the effect rhat the policy has
~
TABLE 11.11
Mobility of People Affected by Cross-subsidizing Tuition Across Counrerfactual Distributions,
High School: Fraction of Total Population who from High School ro College After the Policy: 0.0450
Fraction. by
Decile of
Origin. in the
PROBABILITY OF MOVING TO A OIFFERENT DE C ILE
Prepolicy Deciles
OF THE POSTPOLICY COLLEGE LIFETIME EARNINGS DISTRIBUTION
High School of
Distribution Origin 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.0667 1 0.8266 0.1227 0.0140 0.0020 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.0811 2 0.4044 0.4110 0.1490 0.0296 0.0055 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.0908 3 0.1488 0.3544 0.3059 0.1419 0.0445 0.0039 0.0005 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.0998 4 0.0401 0.2343 0.3096 0.2490 0.1234 0.0379 0.0053 0.0004 0.0000 0.0000
0.1047 5 0.0089 0.0713 0.2081 0.3053 0.2348 0.1282 0.0365 0.0068 0.0000 0.0000
0.1058 6 0.0004 0.0202 0.0950 0.2155 0.2761 0.2416 0.1273 0.0239 0.0000 0.0000
0.1062 7 0.0000 0.0033 0.0243 0.0896 0.1888 0.3026 0.2662 0.1155 0.0096 0.0000
0.1116 8 0.0000 0.0004 0.0016 0.0159 0.0630 0.1690 0.3220 0.3228 0.1024 0.0028
0.1138 9 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0016 0.0043 0.0293 0.1227 0.3271 0.4568 0.0582
0.1173 10 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0027 0.0333 0.2626 0.7014
•
TABLE 11.11
(continued)
Fraction by
Decile of
Origin in the
Prepolicy Deciles PROBABILJTY OF MOVJNG TO A DlfFERENT DECJLE
High School of OF THE POSTPOLICY COLLEGE LlFETIME EARNINGS DISTRIBUTJON
Distribution Orígin 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
COLLEGE : FRACT JON OF TOTAL POPULATlON WHO SWITCH FROM COLLEGE TO HIGH SCHOOL DUETO THE POLICY: 0.0473
0.1095 1 0.5473 0.2945 0.1135 0.0316 0.0062 0.0012 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.1056 2 0.1076 0.3257 0.2937 0.1789 0.0716 0.0204 0.0016 0.0004 0.0000 0.0000
0.1035 3 0.0180 0.1473 0.2776 0.2657 0.1833 0.0857 0.0200 0.0024 0.0000 0.0000
0.1013 4 0.0004 0.0355 0.1535 0.2349 0.2866 0.1890 0.0847 0.0150 0.0004 0.0000
0.1012 5 0.0000 0.0050 0.0467 0.1503 0.2654 0.2705 0.1903 0.0668 0.0050 0.0000
0.0979 6 0.0000 0.0000 0.0091 0.0513 0.1678 0.2683 0.2972 0.1786 0.0276 0.0000
0.0977 7 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0087 0.0463 0.1609 0.3071 0.3387 0.1362 0.0022
0.0953 8 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0004 0.0044 0.0430 0.1560 0.4020 0.3617 0.0324
0.0964 9 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0009 0.0127 0.1337 0.5355 0.3173
0.0882 10 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0034 0.0915 0.9051
:.; o TE: Cross-subsidy consists in making tuition O for peo ple with family income below average and making che budget balance by raising tuition for college
studenrs wirh family income above rhe average. For example, we read from the first panel row 1, column 1 rhar 6.67 percenr of che people who switch from high school
to college come from che lowest decile of che prepolicy high school distribution. Out of those, 82.66 percenr are still in che /irse decile of che postpolicy college earnings
disrribution after che policy is implemented while 1.40 percenr " jump" to che rhird decile. Panel 2 has the same inrerprerarion bue ir only looks at people who switch
from college to high school.
--
TAll l.F.1'1.12
Voting Outcome of Proposing Cross-subsidizing'· Tuition,
Fraction of the Total Population
Who Switch Schooling Levels: 0.0932
Average prepolicy lifcrimc earnings ,_,_ 920.55
Average postpolicy lifetime earnings'·'' 905.96
fraction of the population who votes
Yes 0.0716
No 0.6152
ln<liffercnt 0.3132
• Cross-subsidy consisrs in making mition zero for people with family in-
come helow average and making rhe budgct balance by raising tuition for col-
lege srudents wirh family income above the average.
.. In thousands of dollars. •
on welfare. An individual's relativc utility is not only given by earnings but

also by the monetary valuc of psychic costs. We can predict how people would
vote if the policy analyzed in this section were proposed. Table 11.12 shows
the result of such an exercisc. Thc policy lowers the mean earnings for people
affected by it. Most people not indifferent ro rhe policy would vore against it.
Finally, because we are able to distinguish heterogencity from uncer-
tainty, we can also simulate the effects of the policy in thc case in which
people decide using their ex post in formation (i.e., after their luck compo-
nents are realized). The outcomes for this case are vcry similar to the ones
we just presented (although fewer peoplc are affectcd by the policy). For the
sake of brevity we do not report them in this chapter.23 This finding rein-
forces our earlier conclusion. Uncertainty is nota major factor in explaining
college choices. This suggests that the large estimated role for psychic costs
cannot be dueto expectational crrors about uncertain components of future
income. The role of luck, long emphasized in the literature on education and
earnings, appears to be small.
7 . SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
This chaptcr summarizes and applies a new body of research on counterfac-

tual analyses of income inequality and mobility. We construct counterfactu-
als within policy regimcs and counterfactuals across policy regimes. Using
340 Mechanisms of Mohility
the metho<ls presented here, it is possible to understand the sources of in-

equality, an<l the inequality and mobility consequences of social policies,
much more deeply than is possible using traditional measures based on the
anonymity axiom.
We show how to construct <listributions of counterfactuals within pol-
icy regimes using factor modcls. With rhese samc tools, we show how to sep-
arare variability into two components: (1) those that are predictable by a cer-
ra in age (hetcrogeneity} and (2) those that are not (luck).
We apply these methods to analyze the returns to college education. We
find that by age 17, when college decisions are made, prospective students
can forecast roughly 80 percent of the lifetime variance in their returns to
schooling. H cterogeneity and not uncertainty drives thc variance in earnings
borh cross-sectionally an<l over time. Given the relarively small role for un-
certainty, it is unlikcly rhat expectational errors about future earnings play
a major role in explaining college choices.
We also find that counterfactual outcomes both within and across policy
regimes are highly correlated. However there is a lot of slippage in ranks
across potential outcomes within one policy regime and the outcomcs cho-
sen across policy regimes. Ran ks are by no means identical across these coun-
terfactual distributions. One justification for the use of the anonymity pos-
tulare in the analysis of data on income distributions is that outcomes are
independent across policies. That justification is strongly rejected in our data,
as is the polar assumption that ranks are perfectly dependent across policies.
We show how our methods can revea! where in initial and final distri-
butions persons induced to change their education by a tuition subsidy pol-
icy will come from and where they end up. Such analyses can be made both
in terms of initial and final outcome distributions and in distributions of po-
tential outcomes associated with each educational choice. We present a
much richer analysis of rhe inequality and mobility consequences of policies
than are available from analyses based on panel data or data from social
cxperiments.
This chapter has ignored the analysis of general equilibrium effects op-
erating through factor markets even though such effects are empirically im-
portant for large scale programs. Substantial changes in educational enroll-
ments will affect the wagcs ofcollegc and high school students. The ncxt step
in our research program is to graft thc mcthods in this paper to the genera l
equilibrium framework of Heckman, Lochncr, and Taber (1998a, 19986,
1998c, 1999) to provi<le a more comprehensive analysis of the effects of

policies on inequality.
APPEN DIX A. A MOTIVA'l'ION FOR TIIE NON PARAMETRIC

1 D EN'I' 1FICATI ON OP THE JOINT DI ST R 113 UTION OF
OUTCOMES AN D TH E BINAR Y C HOICE EQUATION
The following intuition motivares the conditions under which F( Y0 , !"' 1 X, Z)

is identified. A formal proof is givcn in Carneiro, Hansen, and Heckman
(2003). A parallel argument hol<ls for F( Y1 , P IX, Z). First, under the con-
ditions given in Cosslett (1983), Manski (1 988), and Matzkin (1992), we can
identify µ,f:; Zl from the choice probability Pr(S = 1 1 X, Z) = Pr(µ.1(X, Z)
+ U 1 2: O I X, Z). We can also identify the distribution of ~- Secon<l, from
this information and the distribution of outcomes for those for w hom
F(Y0 1 S = O, X, Z) = Pr(Y0 :s Yo 1 µ.1(X, Z) + U 1 :s O, X, Z), we can form
F(Y0 IS = O, X, Z)Pr(S = OIX, Z) = Pr(Y0 ,s Yo, l* :s OIX, Z).
The left-hand side of this equation is known (we observe Y0 when S = O and
we know the probability that S = O given X, Z). The right-hand side can be
written as
U¡
Pr ( Yo :5 Yo, - <
IT1
We know µ,(~; Z) and can vary it for each fixed X. In particular, if µ.1(X, Z)
gets small (µ, 1(X, Z) ➔ - oo), we can recover the marginal distribution Y
from which we can recover µ,0 (X).
Using equation (la), we can express this probability as
Pr ( U0 :;;
U1 -µ, 1(X, Z) 1 )
Yo - µ,0(X), - ,s - - - - X, Z .
CTJ IT¡
Note that the X and Z can be varied and y 0 is a number. Thus, we can trace
out the joint distribution of (U0, ~) - We can thus recover the joint distribu-
tion of
.• ( µ,¡{X, Z) + U 1 )
(Yo, T-··) = µ,0 (X) + Uo, u¡ •
Notice the three key ingredients: (1 ) the independence of (U0, U 1) and (X, Z),
(2) the assumption that we can set µ,(:; 21 to be very small (so we get the
marginal discribucion of Y0 and hcnce µ,0 (X)), and (3) che ass umpcion that
,,.,e~; Zl can be varied independently of µ,0 (X) . T his enables us to trace out the
joint distribution of (U0, *).
Another way to see how identificacion works is to note that from
Cossletc (1983), Manski (1988 ), Maczkin (1992), and ingredients (1 ) and (2)
we ca n express
F(Yo I S= O, X, Z) Pr(S = O I X, Z)
as a funccion of µ,0 (X) and , .,r~·, 21 . T his is callee! indcx sufficicncy in thc dis-
crete choice litcracurc. Varying che µ,0(X) and ,,.,(:;:; Zl traces out che distribu-
tion of ( U0, -/f:).
Notes
This research was supported by NIH R01 -HD043411. Cunha acknowledges
support from CAPES grant 1.430/99-8. We thank Gary Fields for helpful comments
on the first draft of this paper. Cunha is affiliated witb the Department of Econom-
ics, University of Chicago. Heckman is affiliated with that department as well as
witb tbe American Bar Foundation and University College London. Navarro is
affiliated with the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
l. See Fields (2003) for a comparison of inequality and mobiliry
meas u res.
2. We draw on resulrs reported in Heckman (1992); H eckman, Smith, and
Clements (1997); Aakvik, Heckman, and Yytlacil (1999, 2005); Carneiro, 1-Iansen,
and 1-Ieckman (2003 ); and Cunba, H cckman, and Navarro (2005).
3. See 1-Ieckman (2001 ) fo r a survey of this literature. These models for coun-
terfactuals and potential outcomes are ca lled Roy (1951) or gcneralized Roy mod-
els and have an ancient lineagc in econometrics. The decision maker may be a par-
ent, and rhe ourcomes may be for a child.
4. H eckman, Lochner, and Taber (1998a, 1.9986, 1999) develop general equi-
librium policy analysis computing distributional consequences of alternative poli-
cies. See also Rourguignon and Silva (2003).
5. Thus a large scale expansion of the educational system may depress the
returns to schooling.
6. Exclusion restrictions in µ, 1 (X) and µ, 0 (X) are not strictly required if rhe
gradients of µ,, (X) and µ,0 (X) differ. Exclusions give simple sufficient conditions.
7. Ful! support means rhat the supporr of µ, 1 (X) marches (or contains) rhe sup-
porr of U1; tbe support of µ, 0 (X) matcbes (or contains) the support of U0 and the
support of µ,1(X, Z ) marches (or contains) the support of U 1• (See 1-Ieckman and
Honoré 1990, for details.) The supporr of a random varia ble is rhe set of values
where it has a positive probability density.
--
8. See Carneiro, Hansen, and Heckman (2003) for a discussion of the model
with multiple factors.
9. For simplicity, we assume that this is a continuous measurement. Discrete
measurements can also be usecl. See Carneiro, H ansen, ancl Heckman (2003).
10. We cannot dispense with the information from the choice equation in se-
curing iclentification unless we have data on measurements to form F(Y0, M) ancl
F(Yi, M). This information might be obtainecl if we have limit sets Z,, and Z 1 such
that Pr(S = 1 ! X, Z) = 1 for z E Z,, and Pr(S = O ! X, Z) = O for z E Z 1• Then M
can take the place of 1, and we can do factor analysis if we have two or more mea-
surement variables. See Carneiro, Hansen, and Heclunan (2001).
11. Again, for the sake of simplicity, we assume that Mis continuous but our
methods work for discrete measurements. See Carneiro, Hansen, ami Heckman
(2003) .
12. Recall that U1 is only known up to scale O'¡.
13. Carneiro, Hansen, and Heckman (2003) cliscuss the relationship between
factor and matching models. For a discussion of factor models and control fuhc-
tions, see Heckman ancl Navarro (2004).
14. This is relatcd to Flavin's (1981) test of the permanent income hypothesis
and her measuremeot of unforecastable income innovations. See Cunha, H eckman,
and Navarro (2005).
15. Tdentification depends on the length of the panel, rhe number of measure-
ment equations and the variation in Z and X.
16. In the € 1 norm.
17. Models where the t:,,, are a!lowed to be mixtures do not change the conclu-
sions of this chapter. However, they increase the complexity of the simulation analy-
sis. For this reason, we use the simple normal framework to estímate the unique-
nesses. We stress, however, that it is nota requiremcnt, justa matter of convenience.
18. These numbers may appear to be large but are a consequence of using a
3 percent discount rate.
19. Furthermore, we know that this result is not scnsitive to the specification
of the credit market. Carneiro, Hansen, and Heckman (2003) obtain a similar con-
c!usion in a model whcre people are not allowed to borrow or lencl. In our model,
on the other hand, there are no constraints to borrowing or lending. Cuhna,
Heckman, and Navarro (2005) present additional evidence on this issue.
20. "Psychic costs" can stand in for expcctational crrors and attitudes to-
wards risk. We do not distinguish among these explanations in chis chapter. The
estimated costs are too large to be due to tuition alone. As noted below, given that
returns are strongly forecastable, an important role for expectational errors seems
unlikely. See the discussion in Cu.nha, Heckman, and Navarro (2005 ).
21. As opposed to the econometrician who .never gets to observe either 0 1 or 02 •
22. It is implausible that we would have panel data o.n policy regimes where
under one regime a person goes to school ami w1der another he does not.
23. They are availablc on request from the authors.
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CHAPTER ELEVEN

Counterfactual Analysis of Inequality and

Most studies of income inequality and social mo bility are descriptive in

These methods allow analysts to move bcyond aggregate summary mea-

Section 4 presents our method for constructing distributions of counterfactu-

2. WELFARE ECONOMICS AND SOC I AL CHOICE

V¡= min{u{, ut .. . , u~}.

or loses from each policy at various deciles of initial or final distributions,

whcrc C is the cost of participation in sector l. We write C = µ. c(Z) + Uc

Thus, if the net utility of state 1 is positive, S = 1 is chosen. Other decision

Overall income within the policy regime is Y = SY1 + (1 - S) Y0 • Tradi-

ATE= l:(A IX)= F:(Y1 - Yo lX).

Another popular parametcr is the effect of treatment on the treated,

TT = E(A IX,S = 1) = E(Y1 - Y0 IX,S = 1).

under regime B, where SA = 1 if a person chose S = 1 under regime A and S8

4. I DENTII'Y I NG COUNTERFAC T UA L D I STRIBUTIONS

Identifying the joint distribution of potential outcomes is a difficult problem

F(Y0 , l l l < O, X, Z) = F(Y0 1 D = O, X, Z) Pr(D = O IX, Z)

F(Y1, l l l 2: O, X, Z) = Pr(Y1 1 D = 1, X, Z) Pr(D = 1 1 X, Z).

By varying X, Z we can trace out the ful! distributions of F(Y0 , 1) and

4.1 Factor Models

We assume that 0 is statistically indepen<lent of (s0 , s 1 , s 1.) a nd satisfies

4.2 Recovering the Factor Loadings

Cov(Uo, U¡. ) = ª 0ª 1•0-i

As previously noted, the scale of the unobscrvcd 1 is normalized, a stan-

Cov(Y 1 ,., l*)

4.2.2 Adding a Measurement r.quation One interesting extension arises

Cov(UM, Uo) = ªMªou~

as wcll as che rcsiduals of U M with che residuals of [ * using discrete choice

and identify cx0• In a similar fashion,

we rccovcr cx1 . Now, from

we can obtain CT~. Finally, wc can idcntify cx 1, bascd on information from

4.3 Recovering the Distributions Nonparametrically

nonparametrically (the last variancc is obtained up to a normalization).

Thcorcm 1 Suppose that we have two random variables T 1 and T2 that

Applied to the currcnt problem, we havc a choice equation, two out-

I* = µ,.(X, Z) + CX¡,0 + E¡,

This system can be rewritten as

Applying Kotlarski's theorem to any pair of equations, we conclude that we

F(Yi, Yo I X) = fF(Y 1, Y0 1 O, X)df(0),

where F(B) is the distribution of 0. From Kotlarski's theorem, F(0) is known.

F(Y1, Y0 1 0, X) = F(Y1 l 8, X)F(Y0 l 0, X).

F(Y0 1 O, X, S = O) = F(Y0 0, X).

5. D I STINGU I SHING 13ETWEEN II ETEROGENEITY AND

In the literature on earnings dynamics (c.g., Lillard and W ill is 1978), it is

S = { 1, if E(Y1,; - Y0,; - C;l'I;) ~ O

Yo.;,, = x ,,,/30,r + V o,i,t

Vo,i,t = 0 ¡ct0,t + e O,i,I

Vi,;,, = 0,a1,r + e1 ,;,,,

- (Z;y + 0;a c + e;,c) II;).

If there is an element of the vecto r 0;, say 0;,2 (factor 2 ), that

6. 1 The Data, Equations, and Estimation

South at Age 14 Yes Yes Yes

* Present Value of F.arnings in rhousands of dollars.

To simplify the cmpirical analysis, we divide the lifetimcs of individuals

The cost function C is given by:

where future earnings are discounted at interest rate r = .03. Individuals go

o 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000

6.2.2 The Factors: Non-normality and Evidence on Selection In order

x 2 Statistic Critica/ Value''

Overall 48.9251 53.1419

• 95 percent confidence, equiprobablc bins with approximatcly

- Factor 1 - - Normal Version of Factor 1