Post-Hire Human Resource Management Practices and Person-Organization Fit

Post-hire Human Resource Management Practices and Person-organization Fit: A Study
of Blue-collar Employees
Author(s): Chad W. Autry and Anthony R. Wheeler
Source: Journal of Managerial Issues , Spring 2005, Vol. 17, No. 1 (Spring 2005), pp. 58-
75
Published by: Pittsburg State University
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40604475
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JOURNAL OF MANAGERIAL ISSUES
Vol. XVII Number 1 Spring 2005: 58-75
Post-hire Human Resource Management Practices and

Person-organization Fit: A Study of Blue-collar
Employees
Chad W. Autry
Assistant Professor of Marketing
Bradley University
Anthony R. Wheeler
Assistant Professor of Management
California State University, Sacramento
Over the past two decades, organi- 1996). Schneider (1987) outlined the
zational research has increasingly fo- basis of supplementary fit through his
cused on employee perceptions of fit attraction-selection-attntion (ASA)
with the work environment, and how framework. Schneider et al. suggest
organizations actively alter percep- that individuals assess fit "based upon
tions of fit via human resource man- an implicit estimate of the congru-
agement (HRM) practices, such as so- ence of their own personal character-
cialization. Organizational scholars istics and the attributes of potential
commonly define Person-Organiza-work organizations" (1995: 749).
tion Fit (POF) as the degree of con- This view of fit has been useful for un-
gruence or compatibility between an derstanding the attraction phase of
individual and the organization recruiting (Cable and Judge, 1996)
(Chatman, 1989; Kristof, 1996). and the interviewing process during
Moreover, POF is often conceptual- selection (Cable and Judge, 1997).
ized as either supplementary or com- Most of the research examining
plementary. Supplementary fit, thePOF, its antecedents, and its conse-
more common conceptualization, de- quences has done so during the early
scribes an individual's perceptions of phases of the employment cycle (re-
fit as a match of individual character- cruiting and selection). However, re-
cent research has begun to assess
istics with the current characteristics
of the organization, while comple- POF post-hiring during the initial

phases of actual employment when
mentary fit addresses the fulfillment
of needs that are yet unfulfilled organizational socialization and
within the organization (Kristof, training are taking place. Socializa-
JOURNAL OF MANAGERIAL ISSUES Vol. XVII Number 1 Spring 2005
(58)

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A Study of Blue-collar Employees 59
socialization
tion refers to the processes by is which
delivered create
individuals are integrated
stronginto an ex-
perceptions of fit between em
ployees, resulting
isting organizational culture (Jones, in an increas
1986; Cable and Parsons, 2001),
overall and
perception of POF.
While Cable and tac-
organizations often implement Parsons' (2001)
work provides the critical
tics to facilitate this integration (Van foundation
Maanen and Schein, 1979). If an the
to understanding or- relationship be-
ganization successfully tween socializes a
post-hire HRM practices and
new employee, so thatPOF, the individual
we believe that viewing supple-
and the organization comemental POF
toaspossess
a multidimensional
construct could
more similar values, goals, or beliefs, enhance their find-
the new employee may exhibit ings. Our conceptualization of POF
greater organizational commitment might also allow for an examination
(Cable and Parsons, 2001). Increased of the differential influence of social-
organizational commitment often ization and training on POF. Judge
leads to reduced voluntary turnover and Ferris called for "research map-
(Meyer et ai, 2002). Thus, by concen- ping the construct of fitto articulate
trating on POF during the early more precisely the nature of the fit
stages of employment, organizations construct" (1992: 61). By conceptu-
can maximize the effectiveness of re- alizing supplementary POF as a mul-
cruiting and selection systems. tidimensional construct, we may
Several studies have examined the
come to better understand the spe-
cific antecedents and consequences
concepts of POF and post-hire organ-
izational HRM practices indepen-
of POF (for a summary of antece-
dently. However, little research has dents and consequences of POF, see
directly addressed the influence of Kristof, 1996). Based on these corre-
these post-hire activities on percep- lates of POF, we view supplementary
tions of POF (Cable and Parsons, POF as having two distinct dimen-
2001). Research performed by Cable sions: a cognitive dimension and an
and Parsons (2001) currently repre- affective dimension.
sents the strongest contribution in Our objective is to extend the sup-
this area. Cable and Parsons (2001) plementary POF literature by exam-
examined the POF/socialization re- ining the relationship between POF
lationship, focusing on the fit-related and formal socialization and training,
outcomes of socialization delivery using this conceptualization. Specifi-
within the first two years of employ- cally, the goal of this research is to
ment. Within the socialization time- build on and extend the findings of
frame of employment, they discov- Cable and Parsons (2001) by consid-
ered that aspects of formal ering a multidimensional operation-
socialization related differentially to alization of supplementary POF. Our
perceptions of POF. They suggestresearch examines the lasting influ-
that content and social tactics of for- ence of formal organizational social-
mal socialization sufficiently foster ization and training practices on cog-
POF of employees because these tac-nitive and affective dimensions of
tics are associated with strong in-POF.
group expectations of behavior. That The remainder of this article is de-
is, the content of socialization and the voted to the specifics of the research
social environment in which formal study. First, we review the relevant lit-

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60 Autry and Wheeler
erature related to PO-Fit and Sociali-

also possess feelings or emotions re-
zation, and propose hypotheses that
garding an external entity, and thus
could extend the current literature. can possess feelings or emotions
Then, the research method is re- about an organization's culture
vealed, hypothesis testing is con- (Schein, 1992). Importantly, individ-
ducted, and results of testing are pre- uals may base behavioral choices on
sented. Finally, managerial direct attitudinal experiences within
implications are offered, and poten- an organization. In terms of percep-
tial avenues for future research are tions of (supplementary) fit, we can
discussed. assert that POF should have cognitive
and affective dimensions.
THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS Supplementary POF has been

found to be associated with numer-
AND HYPOTHESES
ous attitudes and behaviors (Kristof,
POF as a Multidimensional 1996). Among these relationships,
Construct POF has been found to positively re-
late to job satisfaction, organizational
POF takes an interactionist view of
commitment, and job involvement
the organization (Chatman, 1989).(Saks and Ashforth, 1997) and been
Similar to Schneider's (1987) ASA found to negatively relate to stress
framework, Chatman describes POF and intent to turnover (Vancouver
as "the congruence between the and Schmitt, 1991). If we view POF as
norms and values of organizations having cognitive and affective dimen-
and of persons" (1989: 339). Because sions, we can explain the relationship
POF focuses on values, it is important between POF and these aforemen-
to note the relationship between val- tioned attitudes and actions through
ues, attitudes, and behaviors. Values the lens of cognition and affect. Job
act as a guide or overarching frame- satisfaction is found to possess both
work for conducting behavior in any cognitive and affective components
given setting (Chatman, 1991). As (Meyer et al, 2002), as is organiza-
tional commitment (Bachrach and
such, values drive attitudes, decisions,
and ultimate actions (Rokeach, Jex, 2000) . The relationship between
1973). Moreover, attitudes have been job satisfaction and intent to turnover
shown to have cognitive and affective has been found to be moderated by
affect (Shaw, 1999), and organiza-
components (Lutz, 1991), and indi-
viduals can base their attitudes on or tional turnover has been found to
develop them from affective infor- have specific cognitive antecedents

mation, cognitive information, or be-(Fuller et al, 1996). By reconceptual-
havioral information (Zanna and izing perceptions of POF in these di-
Rempel, 1988). That is, through con- mensions, we can attempt to examine
tact with an external entity, like an or- the role that each dimension has
ganization, an individual can acquire within these relationships.
knowledge about that entity. The in-
dividual can think about the facets of
Formal Organizational Socialization
the organization, and thus can think
and Training and POF
about an organization's culture and
also think about what is expected ofHuman resource management
his or her behavior. An individual can practices deliver POF to employees at

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every stage of the employment life-

feelings about the organizational cul-
cycle (Bretz and Judge,ture "born"Ferris
1994; during socialization
et and
al, 1999) via value-laden informa- training become more enduring.
tion. Organizational socialization re- Schneider et al (1998) suggest that
fers to a collection of processes early socialization has an enduring effect
in the employment relationship on perceptions of fit after the initial
whereby organizations attempt to phases of employment. Thus, while
transmit to new employees the values, Cable and Parsons (2001) examine
expected role behaviors, and social the influence of different organiza-
knowledge the firm feels they will tional socialization tactics upon entry
need to succeed (Bauer et al, 1998; to an organization, we examine the
Louis, 1980). Socialization is a dy- lasting influence of formal socializa-
namic process. Via tools such as for- tion and training tactics beyond the
mal training and orientation, at- initial period of employment. Our
tempts are made to create and study assesses the influence of formal
reinforce a "strong" organizational socialization and training tactics on
culture, whereby firms seek to instill organizational incumbents.
certain values and expectations of be- Unfortunately, socialization and
training tactics may have effects be-
haviors, such as a tradition of product
innovation (Chatman, 1991; Klein yond what managers intend. Funda-
and Weaver, 2000; Wanous et al, mentally, socialization results in al-
1984). tered employee beliefs and feelings
Understanding the influence of or- about not only what behaviors are ap-
ganizational culture on employees is propriate but also beliefs and feelings
very important for an examination ofabout whether the employee is adapt-
ing to those standards. In other
the influence of socialization on cog-
nitive and affective POF. Because words, the employee assesses (and of-
POF focuses on the values of the in- ten reassesses) his or her "fit" with
dividual and the organization, re- the organization throughout the first
searchers commonly view POF as a months
few until such beliefs even-
tually stabilize (Louis, 1980; Louis,
representation of how well employees
feel they fit with the organizational
1990; Jones, 1983; Cable and Parsons,
culture (Chatman and Jehn, 1994). 2001). While much work has been
O'Reilly, Chatman, and Caldwell done with entering employees (e.g.,
(1991) and Cable and Judge (1996) Klein and Weaver, 2000; Swap et al,
conceptualize POF as "person-cul- 2001), relatively little research has
ture" fit, which implies that expecta- been done looking at the lasting ef-
tions of norms, roles, and behaviors fects of socialization processes with
are agreed upon. We should, there- more tenured employees. Further-
fore, expect that the longer an em- more, little or no research exists that
ployee spends in any given culture, examines the role of formal training
the more likely that employee is to on perceptions of POF.
have strong thoughts or feelings For more tenured employees, sta-
about the organization and its culture ble beliefs regarding POF are poten-
(Schneider et al, 1995). tially important. We categorize these
In the case of the current research, beliefs as falling into three broad cat-
this implies that after spending time egories: (1) beliefs about how well
on the job, individual thoughts and they fit with the company policies,

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procedures, and are

philosophy,
sequential and fixed are (2)
predic-be-
liefs regarding tors offit
their POF during
with socialization
their andim-
mediate supervisor, and
social tactics that are serial (3) belief
and inves-
about how well they titure (i.e., fit
access toin with th
organizational
norms established by their
role models) co-work
also predict POF; how-
ers. This conceptualization is simila
ever, they reported null findings for
to that offered by Kristof
the context (1996),
of socialization. They hy-and
is also consistent with drivers of or-
pothesized that a collective and for-
ganizational socialization offered by mal socialization process would pre-
Schein (1992). Moreover, research- dict POF, and they posited that their
ers have used a similar conceptuali- null findings could be due, in part, to
zation to understand differences in
socialization effects. During initial so-
the perception of POF among diverse
cialization, collective and formal tac-
groups of employees (Lovelace andtics might only appeal to those indi-
Rosen, 1996). viduals who do fit; thus the
However, as previously discussed,
individuals who do not fit do not re-
POF has never been operationalized
spond to these tactics (see also Ash-
as having both cognitive and affective
forth and Saks, 1996).
dimensions. While Cable et al (2000)
We suggest that formal socializa-
and Cable and Parsons (2001) found tion tactics (orientation and formal
that organizations actively influence
training) will affect affective and cog-
how employees perceive POF during nitive fit with the organization differ-
the anticipatory stage of socialization
entially. Orientation programs are
through the first two years of employ-
generally designed to acquaint the
ment, we know very little about the
new employee with their new sur-
continuity of POF through the entire
roundings, and serve as a "first im-
employment contract. Schneider et
pression" of the employer. Most so-
al (1998) found evidence that in-
cialization researchers agree that the
cumbents continue to assess percep-
process of socialization occurs in var-
tions of fit well into their employment
term. However, we do not know ious stages (Bauer et al, 1998). Dur-
ing early or anticipatory periods of so-
whether this continuing assessment
of fit is something incumbents simul-cialization, employees emotionally
taneously "think about" and "feel."prepare themselves for initial employ-
ment (Louis, 1980). Furthermore,
By conceptualizing POF as a multidi-
mensional construct, we examine upon entry to the organization, em-
both the cognitive and affective com- ployees begin an accommodation
ponents of an employee's enduringphase of socialization where they de-
assessment of fit. velop relationships and acquire a feel
Within the context of the current for how the organization operates
research, we consider two formal so- (Bauer et al, 1998). As such, orienta-
cialization mechanisms that may be tion represents an opportunity to de-
important predictors of long-termvelop initial feelings about the work-
place. As employees' formal
POF: orientation and formal training.
These formal socialization mecha- orientation increases in duration, it
nisms are identical to those discussed should leave a more enduring affec-
by Cable and Parsons (2001 ) . As these tive impact. Thus, we offer the follow-
authors found, content practices that ing hypothesis:

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METHOD
Hypothesis 1: As the duration of formal orienta-
tion increases, long-term workers ' perceptions of
Sample
affective POF with co-workers, supervisors, and
firm procedures will increase.
The warehousing industry, which is
Formal training programs, on
notable for its high rates the
of employee
other hand, are designed to
turnover and pass (e.g.,
absenteeism
along job-specific information
symptoms of a lackthat is for blue-
of POF)
important for success inworkers,
collar the was work-
chosen as the re-
place (i.e., knowledge,search
skills,context.and/or
Since the purpose of
abilities). Formal training
the currentgenerally
study is to examine indi-
takes place toward thevidual-level
end of formalphenom-
psychological
orientation, continuesenafor a period
- cognitive of POF - in
and affective
time, and is characterized byrather
the workplace, high than work-
amounts of information transfer
place-related effects, it was deter-
from trainers to new employees
mined that multiple individuals from
(Campbell and Kuncel, 2001). More-
a few strategic business units would
over, Awoniyi, Griego, and Morganbe sufficient for the sampling frame.
(2002) found that perceptions of Warehouse
fit operations employees
(e.g., hourly warehouse workers) par-
predicted transfer of training content
to the workplace. As employees ticipated
enter in the research. The sample
frame was drawn randomly from the
this later stage of the formal sociali-
zation process, sometimes termed labor forces of seven private and/or
"adaptation" (Louis, 1980), they third-party warehouses located in the
move from a first impression and feel- states of Pennsylvania, Georgia,
ing-out mode into an organizational Oklahoma, and Texas. Seventy-three
identity-acceptance mode (Bauer et percent of the sample was male, 60
al, 1998). During this phase, a for- percent held a high school degree or
mally socialized and trained em- less (30 percent had some college
and 10 percent had a college degree) ,
ployee will begin to understand and
and 62 percent had two or more years
more firmly subscribe to the organi-
of job tenure. In terms of age, 18 per-
zation's culture. Moreover, as em-
cent of the sample was younger than
ployees work in complex work envi-
25 years old, 44 percent fell between
ronments that require cognitive the ages of 25 and 40 years, and 31
resources, fit becomes a stronger pre-
percent was older than 40 years of
dictor of performance (Awoniyi et al, age.
2002). Thus, formal training repre-
sents a more cognitive employee ex-Data Collection Procedure
perience, and as employees are ex-
posed to increasing amounts of Firms were contacted to solicit par-
training, they should come to possess ticipation through key contacts (usu-
better cognitive fit with the organi- ally a human resources manager)
zation. Thus, we offer the following known by the authors. Seven of
hypothesis. eleven firms contacted by the authors
Hypothesis 2: As the duration of formal training
consented to participate. Supplemen-
increases, long-term workers ' perceptions of cog- tary POF assessments were made with
nitive POF with co-workers, supervisors, and firm a questionnaire completed by em-
procedures will increase. ployees in hourly-paid labor. Employ-
JOURNAL OF MANAGERIAL ISSUES Vol. XVII Number 1 Spring

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ees completed one ber of control variables. Control vari-

questionnaire in
private room during ables included a work
demographic break
measures
Surveys returned such as byage, gender,
employees and education, wi
less than six months tenure on the and also job-related variables such as
job were removed from considerationindustry experience and job tenure.
as they were considered to be in theSupplementary POF. Respondents
formative stages of their fit assess-
were asked to compare their initial
ments. expectations related to their supervi-
In order to enhance participation,
sor, co-workers, and firm policy to the
a lottery drawing for a single $50 that they have experienced
realities
prize was offered. Lottery ticketssince
wereassuming their current position.
given only to participants who re- above, supplementary POF
As noted
turned a confidential survey to constructs
the were measured on both
lock-box maintained by the re- cognitive and affective levels, as sug-
searcher. In order to assure employ- gested and measured by Autry and
ees that responses would be held in Daugherty (2003). Cognitive ques-
confidence, a number of steps were tions asked the employee to rate the
taken. Employees were directed to supervisor, co-workers, or policies us-
complete the questionnaire in private ing multiple items. The items were
rooms away from all managerial staff formatted as seven-point Likert-type
and were separated from other work- scales, with 1 = "much worse than I
ers. Employees were also instructed expected" and 7 = "much better
that only the research team would than I expected." The affective con-
ever have access to the responses, and struct was measured using multiple
that only summary data would be semantic differential scales contain-
made public. Completed question- ing positive and negative affect varia-
naires were placed in the lock-box bles, and anchored as "not at all"
and were removed from the facility as and "extremely," with seven possible
soon as possible after the data collec- spaces between the anchors. Affective
tion session. responses were coded as numbers
A total of 726 questionnaires wereone through seven, based on the
given to employees for completion.space marked by the respondent. Our
Of that number, 684 were returned conceptualization of supplementary
for a response rate of 94.2%. After an POF significantly differs from some
initial analysis of the responses, it was existing measures of POF (i.e., Chat-
determined that 17 had excessive man, 1991) in that we ask respon-
missing values or were left entirely dents to assess expectations; however,
blank. Thus, a total of 667 responses our conceptualization of supplemen-
(91.87%) were determined to be us- tary POF is consistent with emerging
able in the current research. After re- techniques used by other researchers
moving the workers who were ineli-who have more broadly defined the
gible for consideration due to shortconstruct (e.g., Lovelace and Rosen,
job tenure, a sample of 469 (64.60%) 1996; Autry and Daugherty, 2003) . As
remained. organizational culture describes the
Instrumentation and Measurement
expected behaviors of individuals in
a particular organization (Schein,
The survey asked a number of ques- 1992), we opera tionalized supple-
tions related to POF, as well as a num-
mentary POF as the degree to which

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an employee thought sions that washecoded

or according
she to the
shared expectations with method prescribed by Jones (1986).
co-workers,
supervisors, and the organization. In general, most managers
Six made an
variables were used in the empirical estimation
analysis, re-of the duration
flecting each of the POF of thedimensions
processes; when this was vol-
developed in the theoretical unteered, theframe-
durations were re-
work. These were abbreviated as SCF, corded, and when it was not, specific
SAF, CCF, CAF, FCF, and FAF. Fur- time durations were asked for by the
ther, we posited that individuals interviewer. These estimates were re-
could also assess how they felt about corded and averaged to calculate the
these dimensions of fit. All items
mean training time for a facility.
loaded on their predicted factors,
Though it would have been prefera-
ble to measure the socialization ele-
and each construct displayed internal
consistency (e.g., scale alpha of ments using continuous variable
greater than 0.7; Nunnally, 1967). A scales, this was impossible due to la-
correlation matrix of the various POF bor agreements, and thus these vari-
scales is found in Table 1. ables were then coded based on the
managerial responses. Orientation
Formal Socialization and Training was coded as "1" or "2" along the
Mechanisms natural break in the response data
(e.g., at the mean response), with
Formal socialization mechanisms, "1 " representing less than four hours
which included orientation and for-
of orientation, and "2" representing
mal training, were assessed via greater
in- than or equal to four hours.
Formal training was coded as "1,"
depth interviews with managers of
the facilities. As we collected the data "2," or "3," along two natural
in a blue-collar setting, we felt that in-breaks, with " 1 " representing no for-
terviews would provide more reliable mal training/ on-the job training, "2"
and more descriptive information. representing less than eight hours of
Managers were asked open-ended formal training, and "3" represent-
ing eight hours or more of formal
questions related to the duration and
content of their orientation and training.
training programs. For the purposes
of the interviews, orientationAnalysis
pro-
grams were conceptualized as gen-
A principle
eral, non-job specific educational ex- components analysis
periences that introduced the with
newVarimax rotation was performed
on each of the six POF scales (e.g.,
employee to the firm (e.g., a sequen-
tial and fixed collective orientation cognitive fit with co-workers, supervi-
program that differed in length),
sor, and firm and affective fit with co-
workers, supervisor, and firm). Be-
while training programs were concep-
cause we tested whether the items
tualized as job-specific learning ses-
loaded on six theoretical dimensions,
sions related to completion of tasks
a six-factor solution was forced. Items
falling within the job description
were allowed to remain on their fac-
(e.g., also sequential and fixed pro-
tor if the corresponding loading was
grams) . Interviews were recorded and
transcribed, and the duration of greater
ap- than 0.3, while less than 0.2
for any other factor. As previously
plicable orientation and training ses-

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noted, all POF items loaded on the ration of formal orientation sessions
appropriate factors. Identical results would be positively associated with af-
were noted when a second check fective perceptions of POF. As shown
in Tables
analysis was run with free loading of 1 and 2, this relationship
items on an unknown number of fac- was supported for two of the three af-
tors, with one exception. In this case,
fective fit variables. Supervisor-Affec-
a single SAF item loaded alone. tive Fit [F (11,458) = 4.00; r2 = .05]
Discriminant validity for the POF and Firm-Affective Fit [F (11,458) =
8.51; r2 = .05) each differed based on
constructs was assessed in two stages.
First, the procedure advocated by time spent in orientation. However,
Gaski and Nevin (1985) was imple- the third affective fit measure, Co-
mented, whereby a correlation be- worker-Affective Fit [F (11,458); r2 =
tween two scales that is lower than the .02] had non-significant results. In
reliability of each of those scaleseach of the three cases, cognitive per-
serves as evidence of discriminant va-
ceptions of fit did not differ signifi-
lidity. Second, Anderson and Gerb- cantly by orientation time.
ing's (1987) method was utilized to Hypothesis 2 suggested that the du-
determine that the confidence inter- ration of formal training would be
val (+/- 2 standard errors) for eachpositively associated with cognitive
pairwise comparison did not include perceptions of POF. The analyses de-
the value of one. The scale for each picted in Tables 1 and 2 give support
POF construct passed both empirical to this relationship in two of the three
tests of discriminant validity; there-
cases tested. Supervisor-Cognitive Fit
fore, we did not consider discrimi- [F (11,458) - 3.74; r2 = .06] and
nant validity to be an issue of concern Firm-Cognitive Fit [F (12,457) =
for the study. 3.98; r2 = .06) each differed accord-
To test the research hypotheses, a ing to the duration of formal train-
multiple analysis of covariance ing. Again, however, the co-worker fit
(MANCOVA) was initially conducted. variable (Co-worker-Cognitive Fit)
Formal socialization and training fac- was non-significant [F (14,455) =
tors were entered as main effects, 0.21; r2 = .01]. Taken as a whole, this
while the control variables were en- may indicate that co-workers play a
tered as covariates. Strong overall ef- lesser role in the cognitive and affec-
fects were found for the formal social- tive fit assessments of employees than
ization - POF relationship [F do the supervisor (s) and/or the pol-
(11,458) - 2.69, p < .05)]. Thus, fol- icies and procedures of the firm. In
low-up examinations were conductedeach of the three cases, affective per-
by means of a separate analysis of co- ceptions of fit did not differ signifi-
variance (ANCOVA) for each individ- cantly by time spent in formal train-
ual dependent POF variable. The re-ing.
sults of these analyses are included in In addition to the significant main
Table 2. effects that were discovered, an inter-
esting covariate relationship was re-
RESULTS vealed. For two of the three affective
fit measures (Supervisor-Affective Fit
The ANCOVA results indicate[F par-
(11,458) = 4.00] and Co-worker-
Affective Fit [F (11,458) = 5.01]), a
tial support for both research hypoth-
significant
eses. Hypothesis 1 suggested that du- job tenure effect was

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formal
found. It is noteworthy thatorientation
these session
re- influences
sults were discovered the
for the fit
affective person-
between the employee
andrelationships,
to-person affective fit the supervisor, as well as the af-
fective fit between
but not for the person-to-firm the employee and
affec-
theApplying
tive fit relationship. firm. We also find that
the the dura-
Bonferroni comparison tion procedure,
of formal training it influences the
was discovered that this effect mani- cognitive fit between the employee
fested as an increase in affective fit and the supervisor, and between the
with the other people in the organi- employee and the firm. This suggests
zation as time passes. This may indi- that if a firm invests more in the for-
cate that affective fit is more volatile
mal socialization process (e.g., they
than cognitive fit over time (e.g.,allow for longer periods of adaptation
emotions about the supervisor andto the existing organizational cul-
co-workers are subject to change as ture), employees may feel better
the employee comes to know theseabout their match with the supervisor
persons more). Given the positive di-and policy elements of the organiza-
rection of the change, this may alsotion, and believe that they belong
imply that workers grow more emo-there in the long term. Furthermore,
tionally comfortable with their asso-our finding that tenure was positively
ciates over longer periods of time. related to affective fit between the
employee and the co-worker and the
DISCUSSION employee and the supervisor sup-
ports Schneider et aVs (1998) ho-
The present field study contributes mogeneity of personality hypothesis.
to the extant literature in several Specifically, the longer an employee
ways. First, we assessed supplemen- works at an organization with the
tary POF for a large and diverse same sam- co-workers and supervisor the
ple of blue-collar workers. We know more that employee will feel that he/
of few POF studies that examine fit she fits with that organization. Inte-
with this type of sample; most fit grating
as- these findings, we suggest
sessments have been made usingthat organizations that make greater
white-collar/managerial employees. time investments in the socialization
Second, we replicated the findingsand of training processes will increase
Cable and Parsons (2001), who first both cognitive and affective fit be-
examined the influence of socializa- tween the employee and the supervi-
tion on perceptions of supplementary sor and firm. Moreover, the longer an
POF. However, our replication util- employee stays on the job (a benefit
izes a different conceptualization of of POF) , the more he/she feels com-
POF that sheds further light on their patible with the firm. These findings
findings. The dissection of POF into suggest that organizations can influ-
cognitive and affective components ence perceptions of affective and cog-
represents our third contributionnitiveto fit with the firm (e.g., the firm's
the literature. We examined the last- espoused culture) and the supervisor;
ing influence of POF on formal ori- moreover, the benefits of this fit
entation and training by viewing POF could lead to increased tenure.
as a multidimensional construct. Our results further validate the
findings of Cable and Parsons (2001).
Our results reveal that, controlling
for job tenure, the duration of the Because we conceptualized supple-
JOURNAL OF MANAGERIAL ISSUES Vol. XVII Number 1 Spring

122.187.167.85 on Sun, 11 Sep 2022 12:04:59 UTC
mentary POF asand social (serial andboth

having investiture).cogni-
tive and affective components,
This resulted from our dependence w
could partially account on data from the seven firms we
for sam-
Cable and
Parsons' non-significant pled, who utilized these formal
results ofso-the
relationship between cialization tactics.
the Hence,social
we coded con-
text of socialization and POF. Our for the presence/absence of sociali-
findings reveal that the context ofzation
fit and training and for the du-
ration of the context and content tac-
does indeed matter, but the relation-
ship between socialization and tics
sup-of both HRM practices. While we
plementary POF is complex. Forfocused
em- on two important findings of
ployees in the later stages of the Cable and Parsons study (the con-
socialization, the duration of sociali- text and content) , we did not explore
zation appears to predict fit between all of their findings.
the supervisor and the firm's policies. We also share a limitation with Ca-
There already exists a large body of ble and Parsons (2001). We measure
management research that stresses the supplementary POF of our em-
the importance of this crucial and ployee sample, but did not match
unique relationship between employ- these perceptions with the percep-
ees and supervisors (for reviews of tion that co-workers or supervisors
Leader-Member Exchange, see might have about the focal employee.
Graen and Uhl-Bien, 1995). Some It is possible that employees might re-
even argue that the fit between em- port positive perceptions of POF,
ployee and supervisor is the only re- while others might perceive misfit
lationship that matters. As for affect, within the same relationship. We
tenure, or simply staying at an organ- should be aware that 360-degree per-
ization, seems to account for feelings ceptions of fit might indicate the
of affective fit. Thus, our findings also strength of consensus of the existing
support the work of Chatman (1991) cultures. However, we feel that the
and Schneider et al (1998) who argue very nature of supplementary fit (e.g.,
that employees take on the identity of that it is unique to the individual) al-
the organization in which they work. lays this concern, as does Cable et aVs
(2000) finding of consensus among
Limitations and Strengths POF perception. As perceptions of
supplementary POF relate to intent
We note some weaknesses in the to turnover, job satisfaction, and or-
present field study. First, we didganizational
not commitment (all indi-
examine all of the tactics of sociali- vidual-level constructs), we believe
zation that Cable and Parsons (2001) that it is more important to study the
explored. While they analyzed both individual perceptions of fit rather
sides of three tactics - context (col- than a consensus of fit. We question
lective and formal vs. individualized whether any measures of supplemen-
and informal), content (sequential tary POF can ever be truly objective.
and fixed vs. variable and random), A final limitation we note in this
and social (serial and investiture vs.field study is that we did not measure
disjunctive and divestiture) - we ex- supplementary POF with the same
amined only the positive side of theirtools used in several prior studies
result - context (collective and for-(e.g., via the Organizational Culture
mal), content (sequential and fixed),Profile (OCP); Chatman, 1991; Cable

122.187.167.85 on Sun, 11 Sep 2022 12:04:59 UTC
noteconceptual-
and Parsons, 2001). We that we examined blue-collar
employees
ize perceptions of POF in terms withof extended tenure.
cognition and affect. Since
With sothe OCP
many factors adding to per-
ceptions of POF, we were able to
does not allow for cognitive/affective
dimensions of fit, we felt it out
parse would not
the variance associated with
be an appropriate measure
formalto use in and training that
socialization
our field study. Thus, might
we were obli-place years prior.
have taken
gated to use multi-itemOther
scales
facets,
as such
ouras pay, vocation,
and job
measuring device. We also skills have
assessed fitbeen known to ac-
count for
in terms of met expectations andperceptions
feel- of fit (see Kris-
tof (1996) for a review of Person-Vo-
ings of fit. While this operationaliza-
tion of POF differs from other studies cation fit and Person-Job fit) . Also, we
of fit, we believe that expectations di- provide an interesting new avenue for
rectly relate to culture. If an individ-future POF research. The conceptu-
ual does not subscribe to an organi- alization of POF as being both cog-
zation's culture, then he or she may nitive and affective allows for greater
not subscribe to the expected behav- possibilities of understanding the
iors of individuals in that culture. Ca- construct of POF, as called for by
ble and Parsons (2001) note several Judge and Ferris (1992). We have
of the theoretical issues in using posited that perceptions of POF can
many of the current supplemental be thought of as a generalized work
POF scales: measures of this type attitude, similar to the way organiza-
might not actually represent individ- tional scholars conceptualize con-
ual beliefs of fit, but rather, they structs such as job satisfaction and or-
might measure socially endorsed be- ganizational commitment. This
liefs of fit. Furthermore, the employ- conceptualization allows us to exam-
ees may have responded to our meas- ine the influence of not only sociali-
ures in a socially accepted or zation on supplemental POF but also
self-interested manner (e.g., yea-say-the influence of training on supple-
ing) to reflect their commitment to mental POF. We have discovered that
the endorsed organizational culture affect is an important byproduct of
or to protect them from the possibil-socialization, while cognition is im-
ity of retribution. Future research inportant to training. Although it was
this area should attempt to develop anot a main focus of our field study, to
culture-profiling tool that captures our knowledge, this study is the first
both cognitive and affective elementsto examine the differential effects
related to matching employee valuesthat formal orientation and formal
with organizational cultures. training have on POF. Future re-
Although we note these limitations, search should explore this relation-
we offer several strengths of this studyship.
that mitigate some of these concerns.
First, our use of a large and diverseManagerial Implications
sample of blue-collar employees al-
lows us to generalize our results to a The findings of the present re-
larger population of workers. Al- search contain several practical im-
though we account for a relativelyplications for organizations to con-
small, yet significant, amount of vari- sider. Primarily, our results suggest
ance, we believe it is important tothat organizations should match the

122.187.167.85 on Sun, 11 Sep 2022 12:04:59 UTC
nature of the job

On to the
the other hand,post-hire
for skill-driven
HRM practice, to maximize
jobs such as manufacturing the andben-
ware-
efits of POF. That house
is, positions,
for amanagers
systematic and
seeking to fostercomprehensive teamwork training andprogramco-
will
operation as vitalresult components
in greater fit with the oforgani-
the
job, a systematic zation. and We comprehensive
suggest that providing em-
socialization process ployeesthat
with thekeenly
knowledge, skills,
con-
siders job requirements should
and abilities (KSAs) needed to excel be
considered a primary tool.
on the job through Buckley,
training programs
Fedor, Veres, Wiese, and Carraher such as instructional systems design
(1998) developed a socialization pro- modules (ISD) may increase fit. In-
gram to establish employee expecta- structional systems design training
tions regarding the work environ- modules specifically to address the
ment. The expectation lowering KSAs needed to perform the job
procedure (ELP) is designed to foster (Dipboye, 1996). Bretz and Judge
social normative behaviors among (1994) found that prospective em-
employees (Buckley et al, 1998), ployees ascribe greater POF to organ-
which should increase perceptions of izations that provide systematic and
POF with fellow employees. While structured HRM practices. ISD train-
ELPs require resources to implement ing modules should foster such per-
and maintain, ELPs have been shown ceptions, and the costs associated
to reduce voluntary turnover in blue- with the investment of resources in an
collar industries (Buckley et ai, employee's well-being, as seen with
1998). Human resource management ELPs, should be offset by gains in per-
researchers and practitioners have in- formance. Organizations must
creasingly stressed the utility of HRM choose the best combination of so-
in meeting the strategic goals of the cialization and training programs to
organization (Becker and Huselid, fit the strategic goals of the organi-
1999). Organizations that invest in zation. This choice will differentially
"best" HRM practices often increase influence employee perceptions of
firm productivity and profitability POF.
(Becker and Huselid, 1999). Moreo- This research has attempted to
ver, as the manufacturing industry is demonstrate the lasting influence of
often highly unionized, unions could post-hire HRM practices on employee
act as a key facilitator of perceptions perceptions of POF. The resources an
of POF among employees. While no organization invests in the socializa-
research has examined the influence tion process can lead to many positive
outcomes. Extended exposure to a
of union activity on perceptions of
POF, it is plausible to assume that
formalized socialization program may
strong union cohesion should in- yield improved employee perceptions
crease employee perceptions of per-
of a sense of belonging, and the ben-
ceived POF among employees. efits thereof.

122.187.167.85 on Sun, 11 Sep 2022 12:04:59 UTC
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