NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCINCE AND TECHNNOLOGY

SAN ISIDRO CAMPUS

SAN ISIDRO, NUEVA ECIJA
FIRST SEMESTER A.Y 2021-2022
CIVIL TECHNOLOGY 2 ( IEIA 19 )
B.S IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION
( BSIE III-A )
CIVIL TECHNOLOGY 2

Civil Technology -is the field of drafting, cartography, traffic technology and the analysis of
construction materials to support construction, engineering, and architecture for roads, bridges and
other public structures.

Civil Technology focuses on concepts and principles in the built environment and on the
technological process.  It embraces practical skills and the application of scientific principles.

ORIGIN OF MASONRY:

Prehistoric Architecture Masonry

 Brick, Building; Concrete; Housing; Mortar; Stone; Structural analysis.

Introduction
Masonry is the oldest building
material that still finds wide use
in today’s building industries.
The
most important characteristic of
masonry construction is its
simplicity. Laying pieces of
stone,
bricks, or blocks on top of each
other, either with or without
cohesion via mortar, is a simple,
though
adequate, technique that has
been successfully used ever
since remote ages. Naturally,
innumerable
variations of masonry materials,
techniques, and applications
occurred during the course of
time.
The influence factors were
mainly the local culture and
wealth, the knowledge of
materials and tools,
the availability of material, and
architectural reasons.
The primitive savage endeavors
of mankind to secure protection
against the elements and from
attack included seeking shelter
in rock caves, learning how to
build tents of bark, skins, turfs,
or
brushwood and huts of wattle
and daub. Some of such types
crystallized into houses of
stone, clay, or
timber. The evolution of
mankind is thus linked to the
history of building materials
Introduction
Masonry is the oldest building
material that still finds wide use
in today’s building industries.
The
most important characteristic of
masonry construction is its
simplicity. Laying pieces of
stone,
bricks, or blocks on top of each
other, either with or without
cohesion via mortar, is a simple,
though
adequate, technique that has
been successfully used ever
since remote ages. Naturally,
innumerable
variations of masonry materials,
techniques, and applications
occurred during the course of
time.
The influence factors were
mainly the local culture and
wealth, the knowledge of
materials and tools,
the availability of material, and
architectural reasons
Introduction :
Masonry is the oldest building material that still finds wide use in today’s building
industries. The most important characteristic of masonry construction is its simplicity.
Laying pieces of stone, bricks, or blocks on top of each other, either with or without
cohesion via mortar, is a simple, though adequate, technique that has been successfully
used ever since remote ages. Naturally, innumerable variations of masonry materials,
techniques, and applications occurred during the course of time. The influence factors
were mainly the local culture and wealth, the knowledge of materials and tools, the
availability of material, and architectural reasons.

The primitive savage endeavors of mankind to secure protection against the elements and
from attack included seeking shelter in rock caves, learning how to build tents of bark,
skins, turfs, or brushwood and huts of wattle and daub. Some of such types crystallized
into houses of stone, clay, or timber. The evolution of mankind is thus linked to the
history of building materials.
The first masonry material to be used was probably stone. In the ancient Near East,
evolution of housing was from huts, to apsidal houses, and finally to rectangular houses.
The earliest examples of the first permanent houses can be found near Lake Hullen, Israel
(c. 9000–8000 BC), where dry-stone huts, circular and semisubterranean, were found.
Several other legacies survived until present as testimonies of ancient and medieval
cultures.
The first assault to the use of structural masonry happened at the middle of the nineteenth
century, when cast-iron beams and columns started to be produced. By the end of the
century, skyscraper constructions methods had eliminated the necessity of massive
ground-level piers of masonry. Nevertheless, the collapse of masonry as a structural
material started in the beginning of the twentieth century, with the introduction of
German, French, and British regulations for design of reinforced concrete structures.
Concrete was used in constructions of walls as early as the fourthcentury BC around
Rome. But, only in 1854, a system for reinforced concrete was patented in Britain by
W.B. Wilkinson. By the beginning of the twentieth century, it was clear that reinforced
concrete was a durable, strong, moldable, and inexpensive material, and masonry was
practically forgotten as a structural material in several developed countries. In Europe,
the building solutions using unreinforced structural masonry represent about 15 % to
more than 50 % of the new housing construction, taking as reference countries with low
seismicity (e.g., Germany, Netherlands, or Norway) but also countries with high
seismicity (e.g., Italy). A usual solution is the adoption of masonry units with large
thickness in the building envelope to fulfil thermal requirements. It is stressed that an
integrated and complete building technology is needed, including units with different
shapes and solutions for floors. Reinforced masonry was developed in different countries
as a response to the lower performance of unreinforced masonry buildings under large
horizontal loading, but no unified solution was found. Diverse solutions with different
levels of success coexist, together with recent innovative solutions.

Description:
Masonry is a heterogeneous material that consists of units and joints. Units are such as
bricks, blocks, ashlars, adobes, irregular stones, and others. Mortar can be clay, bitumen,
chalk, lime-cement-based mortar, glue, or others.
Modern masonry can also exhibit significant variations, not only of materials but also of
building technology.
Different kinds of stone masonry: (a) rubble masonry; (b) ashlar masonry; (c) coursed
ashlar masonry.

Different arrangements for brick masonry: (a) English (or cross) bond; (b) Flemish bond;
(c) stretcher bond.

Masonry is a building material with many variations and different levels of success in modern
construction worldwide. Masonry is also widely available in the built heritage, as most of the
pre-twentieth-century buildings are made of masonry. Masonry consists of units laid with a
certain bond, usually including mortar in the joints. Masonry can be typically unreinforced or
reinforced and an understanding of this composite material requires the characterization of its
components.

The original idea of masonry was nothing more than placing stones in an orderly fashion
normally by laying them in rows. As time continued, with improved quality and type of materials
available, this orderly lying of stone has progressed into laying them with the use of masonry
cements that bonds them together. Part two of this manual covers basic tools and equipment,
properties, and mixing of mortar. Concrete masonry will include the characteristics of concrete
blocks, construction procedures, and rubble stone masonry.

Masonry originally meant the art of building a structure from stone. Today, masonry means to
build a structure from any building materials, such as, concrete blocks, stones, bricks, clay tile
products, gypsum blocks, and sometimes glass blocks, that consist of units held together with
mortar; The characteristics of masonry work are determined by the properties of the masonry
units and mortar, and the methods of bonding, reinforcing, anchoring, tying, and joining the units
into a structure.

Typical Basic Mason's Tools:

Masonry is the proper assemblage of masonry units bonded together with mortar. At the
construction site numerous construction tools can be seen, each having specific purpose. We use
these tools in the construction process to complete the particular work.

Masonry work requires tools for various purposes, i.e. for handling of mortar, for the dressing of
stone, for cutting of bricks to get required shape etc. As it goes with traditions in existence since
the days of the Ancient Indian and Egypt, masonry deals with some common elements as
crushed stones from the earth and simple metal tools.   

Common Masonry Tools used in

Masonry Construction
1. Trowel

The basic masonry trowel is made up of stainless steel with a plastic/ wooden handle. The ends
of trowel may be bull nosed or pointed. This is used to lift and spread mortar in joints during
masonry construction. There are different kinds and sizes of trowels used in masonry work.
2. Corner Trowel

It is one of the common modifications of the basic trowel. It is used for shaping corners of the
wall. They are two types of Corner Trowel.

B. Outside Corner Trowel

There are different designs of outside corner trowel but the one shown at left side with shorter
flanges is the most common. These outside corner trowel can have a sharp 90-degree angle or a
bull nose (rounded) edge.
3. Setting Out Square or Mason Square

It is used to set out right angles at the corner of masonry wall. This is very important and basic
tool used in masonry work. This tool has “L” shape. It is made of flat steel having each arm
about 0.5 m long.

4. Plumb rule or Bob

This basic masonry tool is used to check the verticality of walls. It consists of a string tied to a
weight at bottom called bob and straight wood board with uniform edges called plumb rule. On
its center a groove is provided in which plumb bob is placed. When the rule is placed vertically
with the wall, the plumb bob must be in the groove line indicating the perfect vertical wall. If the
plumb ball does not fall on the groove line, the wall will not be vertical.
5. Spirit Level

It is used to check the horizontality and verticality of the surfaces. Spirit level is made of hard
plastic or wood with bubble tube in the middle. The bubble tube is partially filled with alcohol in
such a way that, an air bubble is formed in it. The spirit level is placed on surface of masonry
wall and bubble is checked. The surface is called leveled when the bubble in the tube settles at
middle of tube.

6. Line and Pins

It is used to maintain the alignment of the work-in-progress. Line and pins consist of a string
whose ends are connected with two solid metal rods with pin points. It is used to level line and
the alignment of brick course while brick laying in brick masonry work.

7. Water Level

It is used to transfer and check level. It is a simple tool to measure the level at two different
points. It is a tool that works on the principle that water always seeks its own level. It consists of
flexible tube with liquid, and the liquid at both ends will be at the same level whether you’re
holding them together or spreading them a hundred feet apart.

8. Boring Rods

They are It is used for levelling from two fixed points in surveying. It consists of an upright pole
having a horizontal board at its top, forming a ‘T ‘shaped rod. Boning rods are made in set of
three rods, and many consist of three ‘T’ shaped rods, each of equal shape and size, or two rods
identical to each other and a third one consisting of longer rod with a movable or detachable ‘T’
piece. The third one is called traveler or traveling rod.
9. Spades

They are used to mix mortar and also used to place cement, mortar, concrete in head pan. Spade
is also used to dig the soil for foundation trenches etc. It consists of metal plate at the end of long
wooden handle.
10. Mortar Pan
Mortar pan is commonly used in construction sites and is made of iron or plastic. It is a vessel
made of rigid plastic or steel used to hold or carry sand, cement, mortar and concrete. It is also
used to mix mortar and to lift mortar on working site. To use a mortar pan, fill it with a quantity
of material i.e. sand, cement, mortar etc. that you are comfortable with carrying.
11. Jointer

A jointer in masonry construction is a tool in the form of a striking iron or a striking tool used to
finish the horizontal or the vertical mortar joints. A jointer or brick jointer is a hand tool designed
to imprint grooves into recently filled mortar joints at the stage when they are starting to set.
Using a brick jointer helps to improve and visual impact and the lifespan of the mortar. Jointer is
used to refer to any tool which can shape the mortar between bricks.

Masonry Tools for Stone Masonry

1. Bevel

It is employed to set out angles. It comprises of two slotted blades of steel and fixed with each
other with thumb screw. It is a tool consisting of two rules or arms joined together and opening
to any angle.

2. Pick Axe
It is employed for rough dressing of stones and to split the stones in the quarry. It has a long head
pointed at both ends.
3. Crow Bar

It is employed for dressing the surface of stones. This consists of an iron edge with a
number of teeth from 3 mm to 9 mm.
4. Chisel

They are used with mallets and with hammers. A chisel is used for normal splitting, roughing out
and shaping the stone. Chisels are available in different sizes with bladed, flat, tapered and other
shaped chipping points. Blade of chisel is made from iron or metal and the handle is made from
wood.
5. Handled Chisel

It is used to dress soft stones. A chisel is a tool with a characteristically shaped cutting edge of
blade on its end, for carving or cutting stone by hand. Its handle is made from wood or plastic.

6. Drafting Chisel
It is a chisel especially used for cutting a border or line at the edge of a stone. They come in
different types of size. Grooves are made with the drafting chisel at the all four edges of stone.
And, these stones are used in plinths and at corners in building.
7. Tooth Chisel

Tooth chisel is also used for fine dressing. It is a hand-held tool of metal consisting of a long
shaft, with a toothed cutting edge at one end. It is again usually hit with a mallet or metal
hammer. The number of teeth on this cutting edge varies, generally between three and five, but a
variation with two teeth also exists. The tooth chisel is normally used between roughing-out and
finishing, to clear away the rough marks left by the point chisel and prepare the surface for finer
work.

8. Boaster

Tooth chisel is also used for fine dressing. It is a hand-held tool of metal consisting of a long
shaft, with a toothed cutting edge at one end. It is again usually hit with a mallet or metal
hammer. The number of teeth on this cutting edge varies, generally between three and five, but a
variation with two teeth also exists. The tooth chisel is normally used between roughing-out and
finishing, to clear away the rough marks left by the point chisel and prepare the surface for finer
work.

9. Spalling Hammer
It is a stone mason’s tool. It is a heavy hammer used for cutting, shaping and rough dressing of
stones. It has a beveled striking face. It is a large hammer usually with a flat face and straight
peen for rough dressing and breaking of stone.

10.Mash Hammer

A mash hammer is also known as a stone mason’s hammer. It is used to hit and drive chisel for
rough dressing of stone. It is double-sided with two striking faces, most often used in stone
masonry work. It should only be used to strike stones, but can also be used for such tasks as
chipping away mortar in stone masonry. This hammer consists of a wooden handle to which is
attached a heavy head, usually made of metal.
11. Mallet ( Wooden Hammer )

It is a basic tool used for shaping of stone. It is a wooden hammer used for driving wooden
headed chisels. It usually has a large head.
12. Dummy ( Iron Hammer )

It is used for carving of stones. It has also large round shape head which is made of iron. Its
handle is made up of wood.

13. Scabbling Hammer

Scabbling also called scappling is the process of reducing stone while dressing of stone. In
scabbling dressing, only irregular angels are taken off with a scabbling hammer. Hence scabbling
hammer is a tool used to break small projections of stones or removing irregular bushings from
the face of stone. It has a large head made of iron and wooden handle.

14. Waller’s Hammer

It is used for removing spalls in stone masonry work. It also consists of iron head and wooden
handle.
15. Club Hammer

It is used to strike arrow -headed chisels. It is also useful for light demolition work, driving
masonry nails, and for use with a steel chisel when cutting stone. Its weight drives the chisel
more deeply into the material being cut than any lighter hammers. It also consists of iron head
and wooden handle like other stone masonry tools.
16. Pitching Tools

Pitching tool is a hand driven tool comprising of a long edge with a thick point. The ‘working-
edge’ of the pitching tool has a broad flat face that is generally ground to an angle just slightly-
off the perpendicular. It is mainly used to make stones of required size. If the carving block of
the stone has flat-sawn faces, then this tool can be used to remove a great deal of waste material
at the initial stages of carving.

17. Gauge
It is employed to dress stones for spring, course, cornice, coping etc. It is made of metal.

18. Punch

It is employed to dress the hard stones roughly. It is one-piece rod-shaped tool made from metal
designed to be struck by hammer. It’s one end is pointed and other is round shape.
19. Point

It is employed for roughly dressing the hard and tough stones. Point is also used for roughing out
areas and knocking off high spots in stones.  Point tool is used after any initial work with the
pitching tool. Both point and punch are used to rough-out the form but the latter tapers to a small
cutting edge of stone whereas the former tapers to a single point of the stone.
20. Claw Tool

It is employed for dressing the surface of stones. This consists of an edge with a number of teeth
from 3 mm to 9 mm. Claw tool is used after the coarse carving with the point tool. The claw tool,
with its row of pointed teeth, acts like a rake to even out the surface irregularities left by the
point. While using this tool, care should be taken to ensure all of the chisel’s teeth are in contact
with the stone, in order to prevent breakage.

21. Nicker ( Broad Tool )

The mason’s nicker (Broad tool) is made from high quality steel. The blade is thicker and
beveled on both sides to create a cutting blade. It is held at right angles to the stone and hit with a
hammer to split the stone.

22. Jumper

It is a long drilling tool consisting of an iron bar with a chisel-edged steel tip at one or both ends,
operated by striking it against the rock, turning it a little with each blow. They are used to bore
holes for blasting purposes in a quarry by quarry workers and masons.
23. Wedge and Feathers

It is an oldest yet, one of the best tools to split the stone. It is a three-piece set tool. Each set of
tool consists of a metal wedge (also called plug), and two shims (also called feathers). The
feathers are tapered and curved at the top and wide at the bottom. When the two feathers are
arranged on either side of the wedge, the combined width of the set is the same at both ends.
They are employed for cutting the stones after they have been bored with a jumper.

24. Gad

Gad is a small, steel, wedge-shaped tool used for splitting of the stone.
25. Drag
It is employed to level a stone surface. It consists of blades set at alternating angles, between 15
and 30 degrees, over the length of a block of wood. The blades are toothed to provide even
removal of surface material. Some drags can be fitted with specially shaped blades to follow
convex surfaces.
26. Hand Saw

It is used to cut soft stones. It is a saw with wide cross-cut toothed steel blade and wooden/plastic
handle at one end. I It is used by one hand.
27. Circular Saw

A circular saw is either hand held or affixed to a substrate. It runs on electricity and is provided
with a toothed or abrasive blade/disc which has the ability to cut different materials including
wood, stone, brick, metals, plastic by using a rotary motion that spins around an arbor.

28. Cross- Cut Saw

It is used to cut hard stones. It is designed specifically for rough cutting. It has a comparatively
thick blade, with large, beveled teeth. Traditional 2-man crosscut saws (felling saws) have a
handle on each end and are meant to be used by two people to cut stones.
29. Frame Saw

This is used to cut large blocks of stones. It consists of a comparatively narrow and flexible blade
held under tension within a (generally wooden) rectangular frame called sash or gate. The blade
is held perpendicular to the plane of the frame, so that the stone passes through the center of the
frame.

Masonry Tools for Brick Masonry

1. Brick Hammer

It is used for rough cutting of bricks in different shapes and sizes. One end of the hammer is
square and another end is sharp-edged. It has one flat traditional face and a short or long chisel
shaped blade. It is also used to push the bricks if they come out from the course line.
2. Lump Hammer and Bolster

Lump hammer is used for light demolition work or to break masonry. In order to cut brick
accurately, a steel chisel with a very wide blade called bolster is employed.

3. Double – End Comb Hammer

It is used to remove surplus material after cutting of bricks by bolster, for greater accuracy. The
Hammer has two groove components for double sided use. Comb of hammer is a made from iron
or similar metal whereas handle is made up of plastic or wood.
4. Straight Edge
5.

Straight edge act as extensors to mason’s level. They are used when levels are shorter than the
area that needs to be measured or assessed. The middle section of the top of the straight edge
should be horizontally parallel to the bottom section. It is used for checking the straightness of
brickwork.
6. Brickwork Gauge Rod

It is similar to straighten edges on which levels of different courses of bricks including sills
and lintels are marked. It may be as long as the height of the ceiling. It is used to confirm that
courses are maintained at correct levels.
7. Bricklaying Trowel

It is a flat triangular trowel used in bricklaying for cutting brick and spreading mortar or cement.
The trowel is also used to tap bricks down on to the bed and can be used for random cutting of
soft bricks. They come in various shapes and sizes depending on the task.

 Proper tools are essential aspect of all constructions, big or small. Though there are a number of
tools, most of the masonry tools are the upgraded version of the same old basic tools. Equipping
the construction site with the adequate construction tools is essential to achieve good quality
timely results. For every construction activity, there is always an optimal combination of tools,
equipment and labour. According to ‘IS 1661: 1972’ (Code of Practice for Application of
Cement and Cement-Lime Plaster Finishes), all tools shall be cleaned by scraping and washing at
the end of each day’s work, or after use with different materials. Metal tools shall be cleaned and
greased after each operation. The tools shall be examined and thoroughly cleaned before
plastering is commenced. Cleanliness is particularly important with cement plasters, where
contamination with set material may seriously affect the performance as well as reduce the
effective life of the tools.
DESIRABLE PROPERTIES:
Good mortar is necessary for good workmanship and good masonry service because it must bond
the masonry units into a strong well-knit structure.

BOND CONSIDERATIONS:
The mortar that bonds concrete blocks, bricks, or clay tiles together will be the weakest part of
the masonry unless you mix and apply it properly. When masonry leaks are encountered, they
are usually through the mortar joints. The strength of masonry and its resistance to rain
penetration depends largely on the strength of the bond between the masonry unit and the mortar.
Various factors affect bond strength including the type and quantity of mortar, its workability or
plasticity, its water retentivity, the surface texture of the mortar bed, and the quality of
workmanship in laying the units. You can correct irregular brick dimensions and shape with a
good mortar joint.

PLASTICITY:
Mortar must be flexible enough to work with a trowel. You can obtain good plasticity or
workability by- ● Using mortar having good water retentivity.
● Using the proper grade of sand and thoroughly mixing.
● Using less cementitious materials. Mortar properties depend largely upon the type of sand the
mortar contains. Clean, sharp sand produces excellent mortar; too much sand causes mortar to
segregate, drop off the trowel, and weather poorly.

WATER RETENTIVITY:
Mortar property resists rapid water loss to highly absorbent masonry units. Mortar must have
water to develop the bond. If it does not contain enough water, the mortar will have poor
plasticity and workability and the bond will be weak and spotty. Sometimes you must wet the
brick to control water absorption before applying mortar, but never wet concrete masonry units.

STRENGTH AND DURABILITY:

The type of service that the masonry must give determines the mortar's strength and durability
requirements.

TYPES OF MORTAR:
The following mortar types are proportioned on a volume basis:

1. Type M mortar consist of one part portland cement, 1/4 part hydrated lime or lime putty
and, 3 parts sand or 1 part portland cement, 1 part type II masonry cement, and 6 parts
sand.
2. Type M mortar is suitable for general use but is recommended specifically for below-
grade masonry that contacts earth, such as foun-dations, retaining walls, and walks.
 Type S mortar consist of one part portland cement, 1/2 part hydrated lime or lime putty,
and 4 1/2 parts sand, or 1/2 part portland cement, 1 part type II masonry cement, and 4
1/2 parts sand. Type S mortar is also suitable for general use, but is recommended where
high resistance to lateral forces is required. Type N mortar consist of one part portland
cement, 1 part hydrated lime or lime putty, and 6 parts sand, or 1 part type II masonry
cement and 3 parts sand.
3. Type N mortar is suitable for general use in above- grade exposed masonry where high
compressive and/or lateral strengths are not required.
4. Type O mortar consist of one part portland cement, 2 parts hydrated lime or lime putty,
and 9 parts sand, or 1 part type I or type II masonry cement and 3 parts sand. Type O
mortar is recommended for load-bearing, solid-unit walls when the compressive stresses
do not exceed 100 psi, and the masonry is not subject to freezing and thawing in the
presence of a lot of moisture.

STORING MORTAR MATERIALS:

Store all mortar materials, except sand and slaked quicklime, in a dry place. Sand and
lime should be covered to prevent excessive losses or gains of surface moisture.

MACHINE MIXING:
Mix large quantities of mortar in a drum-type mixer, like a concrete mixer. Mix a minimum of 3
minutes. Place all dry ingredients in the mixer first, mix them for 1 minute before adding the
water.

HAND MIXING:
Mix all ingredients thoroughly to obtain a uniform mixture. Mix all dry materials together first
before adding water. Keep a steel drum of water close to the mortar box to use as the water
supply. Use a second drum of water to store shovels and hoes when not in use.

WATER QUALITY:
Mixing water for mortar must meet the same requirements as mixing water for concrete. Do not
use water containing large amounts of dissolved salts, because the salts will cause efflorescence
and weaken the mortar.

BUILDING DESIGNS:

Structural masonry is a construction system in which the walls of the building perform a
structural function, using masonry units arranged in a way that is self-supporting and load-
bearing.
 Foundation - A masonry foundation is a structural foundation made from
masonry. Bricks or dressed stone were often used to create this type of
foundation. Concrete masonry units (CMUs) are a common choice of building material
for a new masonry foundation or a retrofitted foundation. The purpose of a masonry
foundation is to support the weight of a structure while distributing the weight across
subsurface strata, and to act as an anchor to keep the structure in place.
Masonry foundations are established in the form of perimeter or pier foundations. A
perimeter foundation follows the footprint of the structure, with the weight being
transferred evenly across the entire perimeter. Pier foundations consist of a series of
masonry piers scattered across the footprint to support the weight, which is typically
transferred by posts. Perimeter foundations are generally preferred in new construction.

One common issue is settling and ground movement. 

Ground movement caused by earthquakes, landslides, and other events can also be a problem,
as can frost heave, which occurs in cold climates. Water intrusion is also an issue, especially
when a house is built into a hillside, in which case water runoff will tend to erode the foundation.
The depth of a foundation varies, depending on the size of the structure. High rises need very
specialized foundations which penetrate deep into the ground to anchor and support the structure.
Homes need much smaller foundations, and have less stringent design requirements. It is also
much easier to retrofit the foundation of a home, with the home simply being jacked up while the
foundation is replaced. While the foundation is being retrofitted, it is usually possible for people
to continue using the structure, although they may need to exercise caution to avoid disturbing
the jacks used to hold the house up.

Constructing single-family homes, skyscrapers, or superstructures, choosing the proper

foundation is essential. The foundation of any building serves two main purposes — distribute
the weight from load-bearing walls to the soil or bedrock beneath and keep groundwater or soil
moisture out.

The topography, geology, and pedology (the study of soil) on your construction site in addition
to the size of your building and other factors, like the type of construction, will determine the
type of foundation that is appropriate for your building.

Types of Foundations in Construction Projects:

Given the land beneath our feet can be comprised of many different types of soils, stones,
sediments, and more, geotechnical engineers must be cognizant of how these variables within the
earth impact construction and structural integrity.

There are two main categories of foundations in construction: Deep and shallow. Let’s cover
them at a high level:
 1. Deep Foundations

Deep foundations are required when building on sand and other soft soil that will not be able to
absorb the load of the building. Instead, a foundation must be established deep underground or
even underwater, where contact with stronger layers of the earth can be established.

Bridges, piers, and dams, for example, must lay foundations underwater, while still retaining
structural integrity. This is where deep foundations become essential to the construction of large
structures.

2. Shallow Foundations

Typically, a shallow foundation is one that is wider than it is deep. Shallow foundations can also
be called spread or open footings.

For obvious reasons, shallow foundations are the more economical of the two types. They don’t
require much in the way of digging or boring into the earth and for that reason, they are the most
common.

Shallow foundations are useful when the building isn’t exceedingly heavy and the soil can bear a
significant amount of weight at a shallow depth.

Examples of Shallow Foundations

There are four examples of shallow foundations that we’ll cover mat, individual footing,
combined footing and stem wall. Each has a unique structure and various use cases.

1. Mat Foundation

A mat foundation takes full advantage of the surface area where the building will be erected,
essentially using the basement as the entire load-bearing foundation. Mat foundations are often
used when the soil is loose, weak, and requires the weight to be distributed evenly.

Mat foundations are also used when a basement is feasible and the pillars or columns are spaced
close together. It is often referred to as a raft foundation because the basement foundation is
submerged in the soil like the hull of a raft in water.
2. Individual Footing

One of the most common types of shallow foundation is the individual footing — it might even
be what comes to mind when you think of a foundation.

Individual or isolated spread footings are typically square, rectangular, or even a geometric
frustum block of concrete that carries the load of a single column or pillar. The width of
individual footings depends on the weight that will be carried and the bearable capacity of the
soil.

3. Combined Footing

A combined footing is very similar to an individual footing, except one base shares the weight of
two pillars or columns that are close enough together to warrant a shared foundation point.

4. Stem Wall Foundation

A wall, strip, or continuous footing is a foundation that runs the entire length of a load-bearing
wall. The strip footing is usually two or three times the width of the wall in question and is
usually built with reinforced concrete.

These foundations are typical when the building’s weight is distributed on load-bearing walls
instead of columns, pillars, or beams. Strip foundations are commonly used to build masonry
walls, but can also be used effectively when building on gravel or tightly packed sand.

Examples of Deep Foundations

Deep foundations are more commonly used for larger structures, but can be used for homes built
on steep cliffs, over water, on the beach, or other unique locations. Deep foundations are built
exactly where they sound — deep into the earth. The main examples, pile and caisson also have
some sub-types, which we’ll also cover.

1. Pile Foundation

The most common among the deep foundation category is the pile foundation. There are two
types of pile foundations: end-bearing and friction piles. Both consist of boring large, sturdy
columns deep into the ground.

End-Bearing Piles

End-bearing piles are driven as deep into the ground as necessary for the end to make contact
with the rock layer within the earth. This allows the load to be passed through the piling and into
the rock, creating a safe distribution of weight.

Friction Piles

Friction piles take a different approach to the contending layer of soft soil. Instead of boring
down to the layer of rock, the principle behind friction piles is an exchange of forces with the
soil surrounding the column, taking full advantage of the surface area of the column.

The amount of weight a friction pile can sustain is directly proportional to its length. Every pile
has a zone of influence and must be spaced consistently to ensure even distribution and
absorption of weight. Piles can be made out of wood, concrete, or H-shaped steel.

Piles can either be prefabricated and driven into the ground or cast in situ (cast in place on the
job site).

2. Caisson Foundations

A Caisson foundation is most often used in the construction of a bridge, pier, or other structure
over water. But it can also be used to support freeway overpasses, hillside homes, and more.
Caissons can be prefabricated, floated to the drilling site, and placed in a dredged pit. Caissons
can also be built on-site with a mesh grid of rebar filled with concrete.

To build a caisson foundation the loose land is dug with an auger until bedrock is reached. While
digging, a hollow steel casing can be implanted to prevent the sand or soil from caving in on the
progress. The reinforcing mesh rebar is then centered within the casing and concrete is poured
starting at the bottom and filling up the casing, forcing the remaining groundwater out the top.
Once the concrete has adequately filled, the casing can be removed.

There are a few variations of the caisson, here are the main types:

 Open caissons: a box without a bottom sunken into the ground and stabilized with
weights for ballast and a muck tube to remove excess groundwater. The pressurized
chamber allows work to be done inside.
 Pneumatic caissons: When maintenance work needs to be done deep underground or
underwater, these caissons are built to enable workers down the shaft.
 Monolithic caissons: Large single column caissons made of reinforced concrete.
 Sump caissons: Caissons with the ability to pump water from below. Often used by
offshore oil drillers to recirculate contaminated water.
 Box caissons: A hollow concrete box with bottom and sides is submerged and
subsequently filled with concrete. In its hollow state, the box is less dense than water and
is at risk of floating out of position, but once filled it is more permanent.

Structural foundations are the backbone of every new building, which is why it’s critical to make
sure that they are done right. Two of the most effective methods for creating wall foundations are
poured concrete walls and cinder blocks — more professionally known as Concrete Masonry
Units (CMUs). These materials are easy to install and can increase structural lifespan.

CMU block foundations often use large (8-in or 10-in wide and 16-in long), hollow concrete
blocks. sizes can vary depending on the building's weight load. To optimize strength and
stability, workers install the blocks in a running bond pattern and may insert steel reinforcing
bars in the core of the blocks. Mortar secures the blocks together, which rest on concrete
footings.

The Pros of Cinder Block (CMU) Foundation

 There are no forms (like those required for poured concrete foundations) to configure and
secure the blocks.
 CMU blocks may be reinforced with steel rebar and filled with mortar to create strong
foundations.
  Correctly built and designed, the compressive strength of CMU block walls provide good
support for the vertical loads on foundation walls.

The Cons of Cinder Block (CMU) Foundation

 Concrete masonry units are heavy to handle. 8-in blocks weigh 36lbs, 10-in blocks weigh
42lbs.
 A CMU block wall often requires installing an air and moisture barrier, which adds
another trade and more labor to the foundation project.
 Improperly reinforced CMU blocks produce weak foundations.
 Water and weather wear down the mortar used to join the CMU blocks together - this can
cause leaks.
 CMU block foundations may bow and buckle if the water in the soil around a structure
builds up, resulting in costly repairs.
 CMU block foundations have good load-bearing strength; however, the foundation will
lose its lateral strength if not fully grouted with rebar.

Traditional Poured Concrete Wall Foundations

Traditional poured concrete foundations involve constructing and properly securing large, heavy,
wooden walls. In one continuous pour, workers pour concrete into wooden forms to harden
(cures) on site. Rebar, installed in the footing, limits weak points and joints.

The Pros of Poured Concrete Wall Foundations

 They take less time to construct than CMU block foundations.

 The strength, density, and joint-free construction of poured concrete foundations
minimizes water issues.
 Poured concrete walls have better lateral strength than CMU block foundations, which
improves their resistance to pressure from water and soil.
 A poured wall doesn't have joints like a block wall, so it is easier to waterproof.

The Cons of Poured Concrete Wall Foundations

  If spalling (when the concrete surface peels, crumbles, or flakes off) occurs during
curing, the poured concrete foundation can lose its strength.
 Poured concrete foundations cost more than CMU block foundations.
 Contractors may find it difficult, time-consuming, and costly to truck in wet concrete to
the job site.
 Water leakage issues in poured concrete foundations
 Poured concrete can crack and leak if not prepared correctly.

 Poured concrete walls may leak moisture through non-structural cracks in the wall (where
the wall and floor meet, at the top of the foundation wall or through the porous concrete).
 Leaks can happen if the foundation drops, settles, or sinks due to the soil below the
foundation collapsing.
 Dry spots in the concrete wall may occur by improper grading or poorly planned outdoor
construction.
Plastering Concrete Masonry 

Portland cement plaster is a versatile, durable facing material that can be applied to either
exterior or interior surfaces of a structure.
Portland cement plaster and portland cement stucco are the same material. The term "stucco" is
widely used to describe material applied to exterior surfaces. Traditional portland cement stucco
should not be confused with the Exterior Insulation Finish Systems (EIFS) which are sometimes
called "synthetic stuccos."
Concrete masonry provides an excellent base for direct application of portland cement plaster.
Plaster is applied to concrete masonry surfaces in two or three coats, consisting of basecoat(s)
and a finish coat. Prior to application of the basecoat, uniformly pre-moisten concrete masonry
surfaces to aid in curing of the plaster.

Procedure of Plastering Work

1. Preparation of Surface for Plastering

1. Keep all the mortar joints of wall rough, so as to give a good bonding to hold plaster.
2. Roughen the entire wall to be plastered.
3. Clean all the joints and surfaces of the wall with a wire brush, there should be no oil or
grease etc. left on wall surface.
4. If there exist any cavities or holes on the surface, then fill it in advance with appropriate
material.
5. If the surface is smooth or the wall to be plastered is old one, then rake out the mortar
joint to a depth of at least 12 mm to give a better bonding to the plaster.
 6. Wash the mortar joints and entire wall to be plastered, and keep it wet for at least 6 hours
before applying cement plaster.
7. If the projection on the wall surface is more than 12 mm, then knock it off, so as to obtain
a uniform surface of wall. This will reduce the consumption of plaster.

2. Groundwork for Plaster

1. In order to get uniform thickness of plastering throughout the wall surface, first
fix dots on the wall. A dot means patch of plaster of size 15 mm * 15 mm and having
thickness of about 10 mm.
2. Dots are fixed on the wall first horizontally and then vertically at a distance of about 2
meters covering the entire wall surface.
3. Check the verticality of dots, one over the other, by means of plumb-bob.
4. After fixing dots, the vertical strips of plaster, known as screeds, are formed in between
the dots. These screeds serve as the gauges for maintaining even thickness of plastering
being applied.
3. Applying Under Coat or Base Coat

1. In case of brick masonry the thickness of first coat plaster is in general 12 mm and in case
of concrete masonry this thickness varies from 9 to 15 mm.
2. The ratio of cement and sand for first coat plaster varies from 1:3 to 1:6.
3. Apply the first coat of plaster between the spaces formed by the screeds on the wall
surface. This is done by means of trowel.
4. Level the surface by means of flat wooden floats and wooden straight edges.
5. After leveling, left the first coat to set but not to dry and then roughen it with a scratching
tool to form a key to the second coat of plaster.

4. Applying Finishing Coat

1. The thickness of second coat or finishing coat may vary between 2 to 3 mm.
2. The ratio of cement and sand for second coat plaster varies from 1:4 to 1:6.
3. Before applying the second coat, damp the first coat evenly.
4. Apply the finishing coat with wooden floats to a true even surface and using a steel
trowel, give it a finishing touch.
5. As far as possible, the finishing coat should be applied starting from top towards bottom
and completed in one operation to eliminate joining marks.
5. Curing of Plastering works
1. After completion of the plastering work, it is kept wet by sprinkling water for at least 7
days in order to develop strength and hardness.
 2. Use of gunny bags or other materials is used to keep the plastering works wet in external
works.
3. Improper curing may lead to cracks formation or efflorescence in plaster work.

Care be taken after Completion of Plaster Work

 Cleaning of doors or frame and floor area is necessary at the completion of work.
 Curing should be started as soon as the plaster has hardened sufficiently and must be
cured for at least 7 days.
 Curing shall commence, 24 hours after the plaster is laid.

What Is Concrete Mix Ratio?

Making concrete, it is important to use the correct concrete mixing ratios to produce a tough,
long life, durable concrete mix.
To make concrete, four basic materials you need: Cement, sand, aggregate, water, and add-
mixture.

This concrete mix ratio of aggregate to sand to cement is an important factor in determining
the compressive strength of the concrete mixture.

Concrete grade types according to their mix

1) nominal mix concrete

2) design mix concrete

1) nominal mix concrete :- it is simple type of concrete mix used in domestic and formation of
low rise building, M5 M10 m15 M20 and M25 is used in domestic purpose for different type of
residential house and formation of bass for foundation. ratio of in this grade of concrete has fixed
ratio of sand cement and aggregate.

2) design mix concrete:- it is standard type of concrete mix in which mix ratio of cement sand
and aggregate is decided by expert engineer according to require strength of concrete and
requirement of concrete strength for high rise building over bridge dams formation of piles.

mainly mix ratio is calculated and decided by engineer according to requirement of strength of
civil work construction. So grade above m25 like M30 m35 m40 m50 and so on has no fixed mix
ratio of concrete that’s why it is called design mix concrete.

Concrete grade types according to their strength

1) ordinary concrete grade

2) standard concrete grade
3) high strength concrete grade

1) ordinary concrete grade :– it is simple type of concrete grade mainly used for flooring of
surface and formation of flat base for footing and filling , concrete grade like M5 M10 m15 and
M20 is ordinary concrete grade, in which M stand for mix and there numerical figure 5 10 15
and 20 stand for comprehensive strength of concrete in 28 days of curing time.

2) standard grade of concrete:- it is standard grade of concrete used for high rise building
construction ,formation of over bridge ,dams ,Bridge and different types of foundation piles, and
Railway sleeper. M25 M30 m35 m40 and m45 is known as standard grade of concrete used for
RCC work.

3) high strength grade of concrete :- it has higher strength than ordinary and standard grade of
concrete, m50,m55 m60 m70 is high strength grade of concrete, it is commercially used for
construction of high rise building according to requirement of strength and their strength and mix
ratio of cement sand and aggregate is also calculated and decided by expert engineer.

M20 grade of concrete used for structural work for footing, beam, column and slab. And
comprehensive strength of M20 grade of concrete is 20 mega pascal which gain in in 28 days of
curing time.

ASSESSMENT OF LEARNIG!

Upload your video while discussing the following:

 Understanding the meaning of masonry.
 Identify the uses of different kinds of tools in masonry.
 Different types of foundation.

Prepared by:
Voc. Tech Instructor