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Ethical Standards in World Religions:

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Ethical Standards in World Religions: III. Buddhism

Lance S. Cousins
The Expository Times 1974 85: 100
DOI: 10.1177/001452467408500402

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100
Ethical Standards in World
III. Buddhism
BY LANCE S. COUSINS, M.A., UNIVERSITY
BUDDHIST ethics can be looked at in several
different ways. There is the situation of the man
in the street, who is concerned with life in the world
of the senses. On a superior level arises the aim of
experiencing the joy and peace of a higher con-
sciousness. Higher still is the desire to achieve the
ultimate goal with a direct realization of the supra-
mundane. For the Buddhist believes that a total
destruction of ignorance and desire can be attained
by developing insight and awareness. Superficially
the last two of these aims are only the concern of
a small minority, but in practice such a clear dis-
tinction cannot be drawn. The ethic designed for
the ordinary man is intended both to be beneficial
in its own right and to lead in the direction of the
levels above. Normally a given individual will
derive his standards from elements of all three,
although the ’ mix ’ may vary.
A primary place has usually been allowed in
Buddhist ethics to the act of giving (däna). This
is seen as the beginning of ethical practice and as
providing a proper foundation for subsequent
progress. ’ He who gives alms, bestows a fourfold
blessing : he helps to long life, good appearance,
happiness and strength. Therefore long life, good
appearance, happiness and strength will be his
share, whether amongst heavenly beings or amongst
men ’ (AN IV 57). So giving is a good act which
produces advantages of a quite material kind in the
next life. Nor is this life forgotten : ’ Five bless-
ings accrue to the giver of alms : the affection of
many, association with holy men, good reputation,
self-confidence and heavenly rebirth ’ (AN V 34).
Similar statements are widespread in Buddhist
texts as well as commonplace among adherents.
At a higher level the practice of giving is directly
linked to the Buddhist path itself. The idea is
frequently met that a gift should be given in faith
so that as a consequence the mind becomes calm
and clear. While some stress is laid upon the
accompanying motivation, the main emphasis is on
the fact of giving itself. It would be regarded as
necessarily beneficial even if a more unselfish
motive would be better still. More unexpected
from a European standpoint is the belief that it is
advantageous to give to a virtuous person. This
derives from the emphasis on the resultant mental
state and certainly arises from acute psychological
observation.
Essentially a Buddhist (even more the non-
Buddhist or the lukewarm) is first asked to give on
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Religions:
OF MANCHESTER
grounds of material advantage both for this life and
also for the next. Then it becomes apparent that
a pleasurable and purer mental state arises ; this
provides further motivation. From another stand-
point the constant practice of giving should produce
an open-hearted and sensitive attitude towards
others of a wholesome kind. This is a foundation
for the undertaking of a more disciplined ethic and
a suitable mental basis for the superior forms of
Buddhist practice.
An obvious disadvantage in western eyes is a
tendency to economic wastefulness, which is per-
haps an inevitable result of emphasizing the re-
sultant psychological state of the giver rather than
the material gain of the recipient. Such criticisms
can be easily overdone ; clearly most Buddhists
obtain considerable pleasure from giving. It is
certainly no less justifiable than any other non-
productive activity aimed at producing pleasure.
Indeed for the Buddhist it is considerably superior
to many of the occupations of a society orientated
towards material gain and sense gratification. In
the context of an unequal society with considerable
poverty it can produce some contradictions. The
image comes to mind of the badly fed peasant
heaping quantities of food upon the well-fed monk.
Yet the peasant may feel that his return in terms
of fulfilment and mental growth is ample. The
sensitive observer cannot fail to note the radiant
features of many donors.
With such a foundation of generous-mindedness
the Buddhist will be expected to go on to observe
the discipline of keeping precepts. These vary
according to the commitment of the individual, but
in general the lay follower undertakes five precepts
-restraint from harming living beings, from taking
what is not given, wrong sensuality, false speech,
and from alcoholic intoxication. The exact manner
in which they are formally undertaken varies only
slightly among the different schools of Buddhism ;
they are usually taken as a set of five in conjunction
with a formal act of refuge in the Three Jewels :
the Buddha as the perfect way-shower, the
Dhamma as the profound truth to be realized in
the experience of each follower, and the Sangha as
the community of those with direct experience of
nibbana, represented in practice by the order of
monks.
The format of each precept is also important :
‘ I undertake the rule of training in refraining
from ...’ This is interpreted as a stress upon an

inner-directed morality in which the individual
makes his own efforts to try to conform with the
precept he has himself undertaken. Naturally as
in any other process of training failures are to be
expected, but they need not be taken too seriously
provided there is an on-going development.
Emphasis is sometimes laid on the need for the
approach to be neither too lax nor too fanatical,
but rather to accord with the model of a middle
way between extremes. Often a contrast is drawn
with an other-directed morality in which command-
ments are laid down by a deity and backed by
threat of punishment. This is less convincing in
practice, as Buddhism has always tended to
operate in a similar way at the popular level.
Breach of the precepts is expected to result after
death in rebirth in a hell world, as an unhappy
spirit, as an animal or at a minimum in an unhappy
human condition. True, this is the work of an
impersonal mental law rather than of a personal
deity, but the practical consequences are much the
same. Equally preachers will refer to the dis-
advantages even in this life of breach of the
precepts, pointing both to social and legal sanctions
and to psychological consequences such as guilt or
obsession.
The first precept is extremely wide-ranging. It
covers both physical harm and actual killing
whether of human beings or of animals. As far as
humans are concerned, intentional killing whether
directly or through an agent is always in breach
of the precept. This has not historically meant
that all Buddhists are pacifists, but only that
pacifism would be a superior way of life. In
practice most lay Buddhists would break the pre-
cept in self-defence or even perhaps in defence of
the community. The concept of a just war is
completely ruled out. Possibly this is one reason
for the freedom from forced conversion and wars
of religion, which has characterized most of the
history of the expansion of Buddhism.
The difference between human and animal life is
seen as minimal. This has important consequences.
The killing of animals, especially the higher animals,
is regarded almost as seriously as taking human life.
So professions such as that of the hunter or
slaughterer are widely seen as highly immoral. In
general vegetarianism is considered superior to
meat-eating, although in practice many Buddhists
do eat meat. This would be justified on the grounds
that it is the actual act of killing which is seriously
wrong. Meat-eating as such would be a minor
failing. Nevertheless Buddhists tend to be shocked
by the organized meat industry of the west and
would frequently prefer to sacrifice material ad-
vancement gained at the expense of other life-
forms, rather as a Christian might prefer to do
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101
without medical progress obtained by experimenta-
tion in a concentration camp. Any suggestion that
animals exist for the benefit of human beings would
be abhorrent. Rather it would be argued that
willingness to kill animals is due to moral anaes-
thesia resulting from habituation to wrongdoing.
The second precept is unambiguous in its formu-
lation ; refraining from taking what is not given
obviously covers theft and allied forms of dis-
honesty in the widest possible manner. It is
justified on the grounds that human beings feel
pain at the loss of their property. If one desires
happiness for oneself, one should not inflict suffer-
ing on others. Similar arguments are advanced
for other precepts.
In contrast the third precept’ has been variously
interpreted in different Buddhist societies, which
is quite in keeping with both its letter and its
spirit’ (Gombrich). Literally translated it runs :
’... refraining from wrong conduct in respect of
sense-desires ’. The intention is clearly to avoid
obsessive acts. In practice these are likely to be
of a sexual nature. Stress is laid upon avoidance
of adultery-one should avoid women who are
’ dearer to another than his own life ’. It is some-
times expressed more positively as joyous satis-
faction with one’s own wife ’. Likewise socially
taboo forms of sexual gratification should not be
practised, doubtless because they are productive
of guilt. Societies vary considerably in their sexual
mores and Buddhism has proved highly adaptable
in this respect. In some cultures pre-marital
intercourse has been considered a breach of the
precept, while in others it has not. Similarly
Buddhism has usually tolerated polygamy and
sometimes polyandry, although perhaps without
great enthusiasm.
Unambiguous is the rejection of wrong speech
by the fourth precept. This is always explained as
covering untruthful speech, tale-bearing and harm-
ful or unpleasant speech. Even idle chatter is often
included. Differing interpretations of the fifth
precept are possible. It can either be taken as
prohibiting alcoholic intoxication or as prohibiting
alcoholic drinks which cause intoxication. Un-
controlled or intoxicated states are directly opposed
to the Buddhist emphasis on inner calm and mental
clarity.
It is a frequent error to assume that because
Buddhism lays most stress upon a personal ethic
it is therefore lacking in a social dimension. It is
obvious upon reflection that this could not be so,
and traditionally lay Buddhism has always been
far from neglectful of social activities, but in this
area the differences between the different schools
of Buddhism are very marked. This is hardly
surprising. The cultural background in Ceylon is
102
very different to that in Japan or Tibet. Only the
general principles can be indicated here.
Within the family parents are exhorted to see to
the education and guidance of their children, while
the latter should take responsibility for the main-
tenance of the parents in old age. Similarly
relations between husband and wife should be
regulated by mutual respect and constancy, ex-
pressed in appropriate actions. Friends should
give mutual assistance and advice. The relation-
ship between teacher and pupil is also stressed,
especially care and attention on the part of the
pupil towards his work and the teacher’s person,
as well as the responsibility of the teacher to give
proper guidance out of a motive of compassion.
In the field of business the employer was expected
to treat his servants in a considerate and humane
manner, without overtaxing their strength or
neglecting their needs. In return the servant or
employee was expected to give good service. The
pursuit of wealth is actively encouraged for the lay
follower in Buddhist texts ; for the accumulation
of wealth is seen as an opportunity for the indivi-
dual to bring happiness to others around him and
to practise giving to worthy persons. Stress is laid
upon right livelihood as the means. The traditional
list is of five trades to be avoided-weapons, living
beings, meat, intoxicants and poisons. The main
aim is the avoidance of exploitation or harm to
others. There is also a tendency to object both to
miserliness and to a spendthrift use of wealth. The
ideal is a responsible use in order to benefit both
oneself and others.
Buddhist attitudes to government are based
upon similar principles. It would again be difficult
to give a detailed description ; Buddhism has
proved very adaptable in differing political con-
texts. The underlying intention in a given socio-
political situation is to move in the direction of a
more peaceful and harmonious society, free from
excessive tensions or material hardship. The aim
is to provide suitable exterior conditions for the
practice of the Buddhist way of life.
The five precepts together with the practice of
giving are the basic code of the ordinary man, who
does not aim at any major change in his own
consciousness. In practice few Buddhists com-
pletely ignore the higher goals. Most incorporate
a number of ideas connected with higher aims into
their value system and to a varying degree into
their behaviour.
The first of the two higher aims is that of
experiencing a higher consciousness, characterized
by purity, clarity of mind, joyfulness, inner peace,
loving-kindness, compassion, etc. The pre-requisite
ethical behaviour can be considered from both a
negative and a positive standpoint. First comes a
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process of purification or purgation with many
analogies to the earlier stages of the mystical path
in other religious traditions. The objective is to
achieve a state of mind which is normally free
from disturbance by the passions and restrained
from excessive attention towards sensory objects.
A necessary foundation for this is the practice of
the five precepts and often additional precepts will
be undertaken. Like other spiritual literatures
Buddhist literature enters into considerable detail
as to the vices to be avoided and the methods of
doing so.
Ultimately the method involves some form of
concentrative meditation designed to suit the
particular individual. The mind is believed to be
fundamentally pure and clean. By excluding dis-
turbances this natural purity can be recovered.
Such is the rationale for the value of concentration;
any wholesome object is suitable. The prayer of
theistic religions is usually so interpreted by
Buddhists. The adept can attain at will a higher
state of consciousness. This is usually defined in
terms of the suppression of the five hindrances :
(i) sense-desire, (2) aversion, (3) sloth and torpor,
(4) excitement and depression, (5) doubt. The
implications are obviously wide-ranging.
Closely related is the practice of what are known
as the four divine abidings : loving-kindness,
compassion, sympathetic joy, and serenity. In the
early texts they are recommended as the true path
to the realm of Brahma. To understand the
significance of this, a slight digression into Indian
cosmology is required. Keeping the precepts and
practising giving would lead to rebirth in a lower
heaven world. The devas who inhabit these
realms are often referred to as gods, but in a
Judaeo-Christian context the deva is closer to an
angel than a deity. For they are inferior both in
degree and in kind to Brahma who inhabits a
superior realm. Brahma is clearly intended as a
God with all the majesty and splendour that this
implies. True his creator r6le is denied and his
uniqueness
I
qualified-he is only the ruler of this
galaxy ’, but he is still a being at the summit of
the universe whose mode of existence is superior in
kind to that of inferior beings.
The four divine abidings are then a form of the
higher consciousness in which loving-kindness etc.
are experienced in a new and much more powerful
way. At this stage the adept already enjoys the
consciousness of the realm of God and is certain,
barring major relapse, to be reborn in the higher
heavens after death. This is the end result, but
each of these divine abidings is equally a way of
practice in itself and one widely influential in
Buddhist societies.
Loving-kindness as a practice is intended to

reduce hatred and fear. The practitioner
begin by attempting to direct loving-kindness
towards himself. This is doubtless on the sound
psychological basis that someone who is hostile to
himself is usually incapable of deep feeling towards
others. He should then go on to direct it to a
friend of his own sex. As the habit of such con-
templation becomes well-established, the object
can be changed firstly to neutral persons and then
to those for whom he feels enmity. Gradually it
can be extended further and further afield until it is
felt towards all living beings in the universe. The
state involved is described as similar to the feeling
of a mother for her child, but should be quite free
of either sentimentality or possessiveness.
The ideal here set before the Buddhist is very
high indeed. ’ Monks, even if bandits brutally
severed limb from limb with a two-handled saw,
he who entertained hate in his heart on that
account would not be one who carried out my
teaching ’ (MN I 129). ‘ He who gets angry in
response to the anger of another is in this way
worse than the other. Not getting angry in re-
sponse to another, one wins a battle which is hard
to win ’ (SN I 162). This is a very high level of
achievement, but it is generally recognized as the
most perfect way of keeping the first precept.
The second divine abiding is compassion which
is expected to eliminate cruelty. It is closely
linked with the concept of skilful means as its
practical accompaniment. From its beginning
Buddhism appears to have had a strongly prag-
matic tendency of this kind. Its skilful means has
often taken the form of an attempt to wean people
away gradually from unsatisfactory behaviour by
means of what has been described as a controlled
open frontier rather than by provoking a direct
confrontation, which could easily be counter-
productive.
The last three divine abidings are developed in
much the same way as the first. Sympathetic joy
should suppress jealousy and discontent, while
serenity should eliminate partiality. The set of
four are compared to the successive attitudes of a
mother to four sons : an infant whom she wishes
to grow up, an invalid she wants to get well,
a youth whom she desires to enjoy the pleasure
of youth for a long while and a man concerned
with his bnsiness affairs, about whom she is un-
worried.
The five precepts are a necessary accompaniment
as well as a preparation for the practice of concen-
trative meditation. Equally the habit of giving
assists the development of loving-kindness, com-
passion and sympathetic joy. As the process
continues the precepts will tend to be undertaken
at a deeper level and in a less formalistic way.
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103
should Eventually the devotee may wish to undertake
additional precepts.
There is some variety between countries as to the
exact possibilities. He may undertake eight or ten
precepts on set days of the lunar month or even
permanently. In some countries he will wear white
clothes for this purpose. In others he may adopt
robes similar to those of a monk. Ultimately he
may become a monk either for a limited
even
period or for life. The additional precepts prior to
full monkhood seem to be intended to prevent even
minor indulgence of the senses. They include
avoidance of personal adornment, public enter-
tainments and eating after midday. They can also
involve chastity and abstention from accepting
money. Doubtless they are intended as stages in
between the life of the ordinary layman and that
of the monk.
The use of the term ’ monk ’ to denote a Buddhist
mendicant religious is in some ways misleading.
The functions and activities of the Buddhist
bhikkhu do not exactly coincide with any of the
categories of European religious professionals.
There are of course many resemblances, but there
are also striking differences. He is not an inter-
mediary with deity nor is he permanently bound to
obedience to a hierarchy. His social function is
not primarily that of a shepherd to his flock and
he is not necessarily confined to a circumscribed
area. He is simply adopting a superior way of life
-at a minimum leading to a better rebirth, but
more particularly intended to assist the attainment
of the higher goals.
From the point of view of the lay Buddhist the
monk performs several functions. As the repre-
sentative of the third refuge he is the living em-
bodiment of a more perfect way of life. As such
he is a source of religious inspiration for all who
see him. He also acts as a ’ good friend ’ to guide
the layman in his moral and spiritual life. Lastly
and more immediately he is a ’ field of merit ’-his
very existence provides an opportunity for the
layman to make the gifts which will be of such
great profit in a future life.
The ethic of the monk is necessarily a demanding
one, involving acceptance of a large number of
precepts. At the present time three distinct sets
of these precepts are in use-one in Ceylon and
South East Asia, one in the Far East and one in
the Himalayan region and Mongolia. Although
these diverged more than two thousand years ago,
they all incorporate an earlier set of i5o, and the
later additions mostly concern minor matters of
decorum and dress.
The first four rules are the most important.
In theory a single breach involves expulsion from
the order of bhihkus. Prohibited are the taking of
104
life, theft, unchastity and false claim to higher
states. Transgressions of the remaining rules
necessitate suspension or confession. These lesser
rules cover less serious breaches of morality and
regulate the general way of life and government
of the order.
The original aim was clearly a harmonious and
non-acquisitive type of communal living without
a hierarchical structure of government. Every
decision was dependent upon the unanimous
agreement of all members of the local community.
Common ownership of property was permitted,
although a simple but not excessively ascetic life-
style was clearly envisaged. The monks were
expected to beg for their food, thus providing an
opportunity for the laity to acquire merit. They
were very restricted as to their personal possessions.
Naturally the original pattern has developed in
different ways over the intervening period, but the
main elements have usually been preserved.
The monks also practise the primary virtue of
giving, but in their case it takes the form of the
gift of teaching, reckoned as superior to any
material gift. This early became institutionalized
as the recitation of scriptures in formalized con-
texts such as funerals, house-warmings, exorcisms,
meals provided in lay households, etc.
The highest goal of Buddhism is nibbana or
enlightenment. This can be achieved in two ways
-the path of the disciple who aims directly for the
goal and the path of the bodhisattva who aims to
become a Buddha and teach the way to salvation
to countless beings. It should be understood that
the term Buddha is a title which refers specifically
to a being who rediscovers the way at a time when
it has been lost. The historical Buddha is only the
most recent of a long line of predecessors, while in
the future when the teaching has been lost others
will again arise.
According to the older belief still retained in
Theravada Buddhism the path of the bodhisattva
is suitable only for rare outstanding individuals.
By contrast Mahayana Buddhism usually holds
that it is a superior path suitable for many, and
one which all must eventually tread. The general
outline of the path is not disputed and follows the
traditional descriptions of the previous lives of the
Buddha. In essence it involves the practice of
perfections through a vast number of lives. The
list varies slightly, but always includes giving,
morality, patience, energy and wisdom. The
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bodhisattva must perform heroic acts of self-
sacrifice and attain an almost superhuman per-
fection in these areas. He should bring into balance
and perfect the two chief attributes of a Buddha-
great compassion and great wisdom.
Mahayana Buddhism developed several sets of
additional precepts of its own which are to be
undertaken in conjunction with the earlier pre-
cepts. They do not add a great deal. The main
difference lies in a greater emphasis on altruistic
action for the benefit of all beings ’ and a slightly
greater stress upon adapting to circumstances.
These are differences in degree, which do not
involve the introduction of any basically new idea.
Giving, lesser or greater precepts, higher con-
sciousness, the practice of perfections are all
preparation for the final goal. Buddhism refuses
to accept any positive description of nibbana, while
denying that it is a mere negation. This is
apparently on pragmatic grounds; any such
description is sure to become an obstacle. It can
be negatively characterized as the absence of greed,
hate and delusion. The result of fully realizing it
is a state of mind completely devoid of craving or
ignorance ; in more familiar terms a state of
sinlessness, freedom from fear or prejudice and
unimpeded spontaneity.
In achieving this goal the central feature is the
practice of mindfulness―a sustained attention to
one’s bodily actions until every act is automatically
noted, followed by similar awareness of feelings,
mental state and lastly mental law. Long-standing
practice of this kind will provide the opportunity
for momentary insight into the nature of reality.
This again may develop until it is succeeded by a
direct realization of nibbana in the first of the stages
of sanctity. It will now be apparent that clarity
of consciousness is paramount among Buddhist
values.
The different levels at which Buddhist ethics can
be understood and practised are closely interlinked.
Perhaps it would be best to adopt here the image
of a spiral path. Giving and the keeping of
precepts lead to a calm state of mind, which enables
greater clarity and understanding. These in turn
make possible enhanced generosity and a deeper
observance of ethical standards. Eventually the
ground is sufficiently well-prepared for the de-
velopment of a higher consciousness and the experi-
ence of sudden insight. So the spiral would
continue until the breakthrough into sanctity.