ETHN ICITY: Identity and Difference Stuart Hall ‘This is an edited version of a speech delivered at Hampshire College, Amherst Mass. in the Spring of 1989. I've chosen to talk about questions of identity and ethnicity, first because questions about identity and ethnicity have suddenly surfaced again in English intellectual and critical discussion and debate. And secondly, because the relationship between cultural identities and ethnicities is a question that is also on the political agenda in Britain at the moment. Tl try to say in the course of my talk why I think questions of identity are once again in play conceptually and politically The Return of Identity T'm concerned with what is sometimes called the “return of the question of identity,” — not that the question of identity ever went away, but it has come back with a particular kind of force. That return has something to do with the fact that the question of identity focuses on that point where a whole series of different developments in society and a set of related ae 9Martine Frank Magnum, 1972 discourses intersect. Ide of unsettled space, or an unresolved question in that space, between a number of intersecting discourses. My purpose is to mark some of those points of intersection, especially around questions of cultural identity, and to explore them in relation to the subject of ethnicity in polities t by saying something about wh Let me st at of the way in which scems to have been the lo we have thought and ti dentity until recently, The | Iked about questions of of the discourse of identity assumes a stable subject, Le, we assumed that there is something which we can call our identity which, in a rapidly shifting, world, has the great advan Identities are a kind of gusrantee that the world ism falling apart quite coms to be. Is a ki nd turning world, That’s the kind of ultimate guarantee that identity scems to provide us with. The logic of ident of staying stil rapidly as it sometime: of fised point of thoug and being, a gr action, a still point in the is the logic of something like a “true self." And the language of identity wreh for a kind has often been relat of authenticity to one's experience, something that tells me where 1 come from. The logic and language of identity is the logic of depth — in reflect upon, It is an clement of continuit think most of us do recognize that our identities have changed over time, but we hi same sort of person, Disruption of Identity idemtity come from? What is displacing this depth — the autonomous origin, point of refer ence, and guaranteed continuity that has been with the language of id Jong, associat Wh s it about the turbulence of the world we that is increasingly mirror vicissitudes of identity? While, historically, many things have displaced or decentered the stable sense of identity that I just deseribed, I want to focus on four great de s in intellectual life and in Westera ght that have helped to destabilize the question of identity. Pil attach particalar names to three of them, just for com thou, Jon’ want to say they alone did it, but it i sem ARON na erence mcr mL Te cat 10Lean ity. 1 tities hope fa at we 2 the n of this cefer- co so stern the ke. I quite — poking the ideas to a useful to sum . The fi ne, but is just as important cannot be attached particular name to a single na Marx begins the de-centering of that sense of identity by reminding us that the always conditions to identity which the subject make history cannot construct. Men and women but not under conditions of their own making. They are partly made by the histories that they pvays constructed in part by the make, We are a practices and discourses thal make us, such that we cannot find within ourselves as individual selves or subjects or identities the point af origin from which discourse or history or practice originates, History has to be understood as a continuous dialectic or dialogic relationship between that which is already made and thit which is making the future. While Mary's argu ment deconstructed a lot of larly interested in his impact on the "game. Marx interrupted that ames, ('m particu wn of the sovereign subject who opens his or her mouth and speaks, for the first time, the truth, Marx reminds us that we are abvays lodged and implicated in the practices and structures of everybody else's life. Sccondly, there is the very profound displace ment which begins with Freud's discovery of the unconscious. If Marx displaced us from the past, Freu grow displaced us from below. Identity is itself Jed on the huge unknowns of our psychic simple way, to ugh the barrier of the unconscivw, lives, and we are unable, in any reach th the psychic life, We can't read the psychic directly into the social and the cultural, Neverthe less, social, cultural and political fife cannot be understood except in relationship to the forma- tions of the unconscious fife. This in itself notion of the self, of identit a fully self-reflective entity, It is not possible for destabilizes th the self to reflect and know completely its own identity since it is formed not only in the line of the practice of other structures and discourses, but also in a complex relationship with uncon scious life Thirdly, we must consider Saussure and his model of language and linguistics which has so transformed theoretical work, Saussurian linguis sion ticssuggests thatspeech ~ discourse enum itself — is always placed within the relationships to say of language. In order to speak, in order ourselves hing new, we must first ploe within the existing, relations of language, is no ulterance so novel and so creative that it does not already hear on it the traces of how that Language has been spoken before we opened our mouths, Thus we are always within langu To say something new is first of all to reaffirm hed in the the traces of the past that are in words we use, In part, to say something new is first of all to displace all the old things that the m of words mean — to fight an catire syst meanings. F it has been in our world to say the word “Black ck” in a new jing, else that 1 example, think of how profound in a new way. In order to say “B way, we have to fight off every Black has always meant its negative and p all its connotations, all metaphorical structure of Christian thought, for example. The whole history of Westera imperial thought is condensed in the stru dislocate what Black used mean in order to make it mean something new, in order to say “Black is Beautiful.” Pm not talking about Saussure’s specific theories of fanguage only, Pm talking about what happens to one’s conception of fom Card, 13.ity when one suddenly understands that one is always inside a system of languages that partly speak us, which we are always positioned within and against These are the great figures of modernism. W night say that if modernity unleashes the logic of identity T was tatking sbout carlier, modern: ism is modernity experienced as trouble, In the face of modernity’s promise of the great future therefore T know ing begins with me, 1am, Tam Western m verything, Eve modern ism says, “Hold on, What about the past? What Jou speak? What about the about? What all those other things that are speaking the language unconscious life you don’t know lowever, there's a fourth force of dest tion, This could be a variety of names. If you wanted to. stay within the episteme of Western knowledge, you could say Nietzsche But T want to say something else. f want to talk about the de-centering of identity that arises as a consequence of the end of the notion of truth do with Western discourses of rationality, This is the great de as having something directh centering of identity that is a consequence of the relativization of the Western world ~ of th discovery of other worlds, other peoples, other cultures, and other languages. Western rational thought, despite its imperializi form of universal knowledge, suddenly appears as just another episteme, To use Foucault’ words, just another regime of tush, Or Nietzsche's, not absolute Knowledge, not total Truth, just another particular form of knowledge harnessed to particular forms of historical power The linkage between knowledge and power is what made that regime Truc, what enabled that regime to claim to speak the truth about identity for everyone else across the globe When that installation of Western rationality n to be the begins W go and to be scen not as absolute, disinterested, objective, neutral, scientific, non- powerful truth, but dirty rath ~ (rath implicated s hurd game of power ~ that is the fourth game that destabilizes the old logic of identity, Fe heen talking so far about intellectual, theoretical, conceptual displacements of the notion of identity, but I want to talk about some of the displacements of identity that come from ‘ocial and cultural life rather than from concep: tual and theoretical thought. The great soci collectivities which used to stabilize oui identi- ties ~ the great stable collectivities of class, race gender and nation ~ have been, in our tin dermined by social and political deeply un opments. The whole adventure of the modern world was, for a Jong time, blocked out in terms of these great collective identities, As one knew ane’s class, one knew one’s phice in the social universe. As one knew one’s race, one knew ‘one’s racial position within the great races of the world in their hierarchical relationship 10 one another. As one knew one’s gender, one was able to locate oneself in the huge social divisions between men and women, As one knew one’s identity, one order of the universe. These collective nation, certainly knew about the peck identities stabilized and staged our sense of ourselves, That logic of idemity that seemed 80 eeeother tional be the ‘pears “ault’s Or total edge sower, wet is di that entity snality icated rth ntity tual, neep social fenti- race, imes, world ns of social of the at the beginning of my tall confident part held in place by these great collective social identities Now, it is not the best kept secret in th ts of things have rocked an world that al shaken those great collective, stable, social identities of the past. | don’t want to talk about y of those developments in detail, but if you think, for instance, of class, it certainly is not irve that, in societies like yours and mine questions of class ~ of social structure and of social inequality that are raised by the have gone away. But, nevertheless, way in which class identities were understood and experienced, the way in which pe focated themselves in relation to class identities, the way in which we understood those identities. organized politically ~ those stable forms of identity are much more difficult to find at joint in the twentieth century than they were 100 years ago. In fact, looking backwards, we're not sure whether the great stable identities F class were ever quite as stable as we told ourselves they were, There’s a kind of narrative of class that always makes the past look simpler than it probably was. If you go back into English nineteenth century life, you will find that class was a pretty complex formation even then. 1 think there is, nevertheless, some relative sense in which the nation-state, the great class forma tions of industrial capitalism, certainly the way in which gender was conceptualized, and, toward h century, the way in jon of the world could the end of the ninet which the entire popt be thought of in terms of the great family of races ~ 1 do think there is a way in which these gecat structuring principles did tie down the question of our social and cultural identities and that they have been very considerably fractured, frag mented, undermined, dispersed in the course of the last fifty years ‘The Universe is Coming Now, this fragmentation of social identity is very much a part of the modern and, indeed, if you believe in it, the postmodern expericnce particular shape to it, Specifically, if Ir , the fray and the same time, while the this metaphoric nentatio and global at om do not seem great sta ties in the mi to hold Take “the nation.” The nation-state is increas ingly besieged from on top by the interdepen: dence of the planet ~ by the our ecological life, by the enormous interpenctra x aterdependency of tion of capital as a global force, by the comp nk t of backward, developed, and ways in which world markets onamies developed nations. These enormous systems are increasingly undermining the stability of s tion, Nation-states are in trouble, not going to prophesy that the nation-state, that has dominated the history of the world for so. long, is going to bow out gracefully So on the one hand, the nation and all the appear toh: gone identities that go with upwards ~ reabsorbed into Larger communitic that overreach ties. But at the same time there is also move conneet national identi- ment down below. Peoples and groups and tribes: d together in the who were previously he called th cover identities that they had forgotten. So for enti pation states hegin to rediy ‘example if you come to England and hope to see some great stable cultural identity called “the English” ~ who represent everybody else what you will find instead is that the Scots, for cxample, are about to fly off somewhere. They We are Scottish and we are European, but we certainly aren't British.” And the Welsh sag ‘We're not British either hecause you've forgot nas Well go somewhere else ten us and eee RE EEMen's Fas! Which one is more | American? And Northe same time the Northwest and the a of England, Mrs, Thatcher, at were left to rot by are not truly British any longer cither ~ they're sort of marginal to everybody cle. Then the old trade unionists and all Blicks, sre somebody else, too. You're left with the English as a tight fittic island somewhere around souls and the Thatcher And they are 1 only about with about 2 government hovering over it continually asking the question ~ the rest of the world but about most of the le feel part So at one and the same time pe of the world and part of their village. They have acighborhood identities and t! the world, Their bodies ar vy are citizens of endangered by Chernobyl, which dida’t knock on the door and say “Can I float radiation over you 4 territory?” Or ano winter P've ever experienced in E the consequence in part of the last year ~ destruction of rain forests thousands of miles sway. An ecological understanding of the world is one that challenges the notion that the nation-state and the boundaries of sovereignty t. The will keep things stable because.they won So on the one hand, we have global identities because we have a stake in something and, on the other hand, we can only know ourselves because we are part of some face-to-face communities. This brings me back of cultural idemtity ia this maclstrom, Given this theoretical and to the question of the fate conceptual de-centering that I've just spoke about, siven the relativization of the great stable Jontities that have allowed us to know who we| d the gland, of the miles world wt the cignty . The ntities global know some > back tity in 1 and poken stable ho we _— —_—_—— eee are — how can we think about the question of cultural identity? Post-Identity?: Cover Stories There is some language for the notion of doing without identity all together. That is my somewhat unfavorable reference to the extreme version of postmodernism. The argument is that the Self is simply a kind of perpetual signifier ever wandering the earth in search of a transcen- dental signified that it can never find ~ a sort of endless nomadic existence with utterly atomized individuals wandering in an endlessly pluralistic void. Yet, while there are certain conceptual and theoretical ways in which you can try to do without identity, I’m not yet convinced that you can. I think we have to try to reconceptualize what identities might mean in this more diverse and pluralized situation. This takes us back to some of the very pro- found things that people have said about identity within recent forms of theorizing. First of all, we are reminded of the structure of “identification” itself. Idemtity, far from the simple thing that we think it is (ourselves always in the same place) understood properly is always a structure that is split; it always has ambivalence within it. The story of identity is a cover story. A cover story for making you think you stayed in the same place, though with another bit of your mind you do know that you've moved on, What we've learned about the structure of the way in which we identify suggests that identification is not one thing, one moment, We have now to reconceptu- alize identity as a process of identification, and that is a different matter. It is something that happens over time, that is never absolutely stable, that is subject to the play of history and the play of difference, T don’t want to bore you autobiographically, but I could tell you something about the process of my own identification. If I think about who I am, I have been — in my own much too long experience — several identities. And most of the identities that I have been I've only known about ‘not bécause of something deep inside me — the real self — but because of how other people have recognized me. So, I went to England in the 1950s, before the great wave of migration from the Caribbean and from the Asian subcontinent. I came from a highly respectable, lower middle class Jamaican family. When I went back home at the end of the 50s, my mother, who was very classically of that class and culture, said to me “I hope they don't think you're an immigrant over there! 1 had never thought of myself as an immigrant! And now I thought, well actually, I guess that’s what I am. I migrated just at that moment, When she hailed me, when she said “Hello immigrant,” she asked me to refuse it and in the ‘moment of refusal — like almost everything my mother ever asked me to do —I said “That's who I am! I'm an immigrant” And I thought at last, F've come into my reat self, And then, at the end of the 60s and the early Ds, somebody said to me “These things are going on in the political world —I suppose you're really Black.” Well, I'd never thought of myself as Black, cither! And I'll tell you some- thing, nobody in Jamaica ever did. Until the 1970s, that entire population experienced them- selves as all sorts of other things, but they never called themselves Black. And in that sense, Black has a history as an identity that is partly polii- cally formed. It’s not the color of your skin, It’s not given in nature, Another example: at that very moment I said to my son, who is the result of a mixed mar- riage, “You're Black.” “No,” he said, “Pm brown.” “You don’t understand what I’m saying! You're looking to the wrong signifier! I'm not talking about what color you are, People are all sorts of colors. The question is whether you are culturally, historically, politically Black. That's who you are.” ‘The Other So experience belies the notion that identifica- tion happens once and for all ~ life is not like that. It goes on changing and part of what is changing is not the nucleus of the “real you” LY 18inside, it is history that’s changing, History changes your conception of yourself. Thus, another critical thing about identity is that it is partly the relationship between you and the Other. Only when there is an Other can you know who you are. To discover that fact is t0 discover and unlock the whole enormous history of nationalism and of racism, Racism is a structure of discourse and representation that tries to expel the Other symbolically ~ blot it out, put it over there in the Third World, at the margin. The En the Blacks hut because they don't know who they are without the Blacks, They have to know who are not in order to know who they are. And with things that the English are not. They are not Black, the are not Indian or Asian, but they are not Europeans and they are not Frogs either and on and on, The Other. It is a fantastic moment in Fanon’s Black Skin, White Masks when he: talks of how the gaze of the Other fixes him in He knows what it is to be Black white child pulls the hand of her mother and says “Look momma, a Black man.” And he says “Twas fixed in that gaze.” That is the gaze Of Otherness. And there is no identity wlish are racist not because they hate the English language is absolutely replet an iden when ¢ that is without the dialogic relationship to the Other. The Other is not outside, but alse inside the Self, the identity. So identity is a process, plit, Identity is not a fixed point but identity e relation ambivalent point. Identity is also # ship of the Other to oneself Difference(s) You could tell ths nception of {story also in terms of a entity. Some of the most work that modern psychoanalysts have psychic € import done ~ Lacan and so forth — and that feminists h the imp © done in terms of sexual identity’ is to show jance of the relationship of the Other. ‘The constriction of difference as a something that goes on over time, is something that feminism has been showing us is never finished. T ‘nt — the notion that masculinity and notion that identity is complete at femininity can view cach other as a perfects replicating mirror image of each another ~ untenable alter the slightest reading of any feminist text or alter reading Freud's Three Essays on Seauality So the notion that idemtity s outside represen- tation ~ that there are our selves and then lang ich_ we describe ourselves untenable, Identity is within discourse, with representation, it is constitute tion, Identity is a narrative of the 8 i’s the story we tell about the self in order to in part by know who we are. We impose a structure on it The most important effect of this reconceptusli zation of identity is the surreptitious return ¢ difference. Identity is 4 game that ought to be inst difference. But now se ave to think about identity ia relation dag to difference. There arc differences between the ways in which genders are socially and psychically constructed. But there is no fixity to those tional oppositions. Ik is are opposition, itis a relation of difference So we're then in the difficult conceptual area of trying to think identity and difference There are two differen notions of There are the of racism ~ Black and white, civilized and dilference operat great differences of the discouprimitive, thom and us, But this new eoncey 0 tut da. I Derrida you find a notion of differance that of difference is a conception muck closer t notion of difference one finds in recognizes the endless, ongoing nature of the nstructioa of meaning but that recognizes also there is always the play of identity and difference and always the play of difference across identity, You can’t think of 1 cach other You see, there has been in our lifetime ~ not in yours, bul in mine + a politics of identity There was a politics of identity in 1968 in which the various social movements tried to orvanize themselves politically within one ide ntity of being a woman was the subject of the feminist movement. The identity of being a Black person was the identity of the Black ity. So the movement, And in that rather simpler univers there was one identity to each movement. While you were in it, you had one identity. OF cours oven then, all of us moved between these Mable identities, We were sampling these different identities, but we maintained the so-called ‘ative that we were notion, the myth, the really all the same. That notion of essent forms of identity is no longer tenable The Thatcher Pr sect So, how can one think about identity in this new context? J want to say just a word he way this has emerged politically in the United Kingdom: in the last ten years. T referred a fuw moments ago to a very marrow and exclusive conception of Englishness that fies at the abso hue center of the political project of Thatcher ism. When I first started to write about Thatct cerism in the early 7s, T thought it was largely nic and political project. 1 is only recently thal 1 understood how profoundly it is rooted in a certain exclusive and essentialist conception of Englishness, Thateher defense of 4 certain definition of En England did't go to the Falklands War inadver tenily. It went because there was someth there about the connection of the great imperial 4 banned Benetton ad past, of the empire, of the tion whove Lait cannot be tweaked, of the little country that stood up to the great dictator, I's a way of tythivally living all the great moments of the English past in, Well, it happens that 0 be in the South Athintic, miles away from Y in a little corner of the globe that most Englis people can't identify on the map. This is M famous phrase “The first time is histor second time is farce.” And the third time is an extremely long trip to the South Atlantic, This is the moment of decl ime it had te ne that is always a mo- er in national culture nent of dix ‘The Return of the Repressed So it’s a very profound part of the Thatcher project to try to restore the identity that in their view belongs to Great Britain ~ ¢ Britain, fnc,, Lad. ~ a g to a world power, But io this very moment of the attempted syinbotic restoration of the great English identities that have mastered and domi ated the world over three or four centuries, there come heme to roost in Bnytishy society some other British folks, ‘They come from Jamaica, Pakistan, Bangladesh li ! part of the colonial world that the English, just in the 1950s, decided they could do without. Just in the very monient when they decided they could do without us, we all took the banana beat and came right back home. We turned up saying “You said this was the mother country, Well, f just came home.” We now stand as a permanent reminder of that fe ssed, hidden eee RES eetitenennImeihcemenntenmions of the Black Experience, rrsphic exnibtion, history. Every time they walk out on the street, some of us ~ some of the Other ~ are there There we are, inside the culture, going to their chools, speaking their lang music, walking down their streets, looking like we own a part of the turf, look belong. Some third generation Blacks are starting to say “We are the Black British.” After all, who c, playing their ig like we are we? We're not-Jamaicans any more. We have a relationship to that past, but we can't be that entirely any more, You can see that debates around questions of identity are at the center of political fife in England today Ethnicities: Old and New What does all that Pve been saying have to do with ethnicity? Pye lefi the question of ethnicity to the last because ethnicity is the way in which I want to rethink the relationships between identity and differe that ethnicity is what we all require in order to think the relationship between identity and ce, F want to argue difference. What do I mean by that? There is 90, way, it seems to me, in which people of the world can act, can speak, can create, can come in from the margins and talk reflect on their own experience unless they come from some place, they come from some history, they inherit certain cultural traditions. What we've learned about the theory of enunciation that there’s no enunciation without positionality. You have to position yourself somewhere in can begin to order to say anything at all. Thus, we cannot do without that scnse of our own positioning that is connoted by the term ethnicity, And the relation that peoples of the world now have (0 their own past is, of course, part of the discovery of their own ethnicity. They need to honor the hidden histories from which they come. They need to understand the languages which they've heen not taught to speak, They need to under stand and revalue the traditions and inheritances of cultu al expression and creativity. And in that sense, the past is not only a position from which to speak, but it is also an absolutely necessary ree enone niece ERE AaNR A NINE tei ae 18— | Z i reismo of the n come cgin to come history, What ation is onality. hore in not do, ing that nd the have to scowery nor the e. They they'¥e under ritances {in that n which »eessaty — enema resource in What one has to say, There is no Ww, in which those elements of the past, s roots, can be done without way, in my vie ethnicity that depend on understand understanding onc But, om the other hand, there comes the play ition that our of difference. This is the recogni relationship to that past is quite a comple: we can't pluck it up out of where it was and simply restore it to ourselves. If you ask my son, who is seventeen and who was born in London, where he comes from, he cannot tell you he comes from Jamaica, Part of his identity is there but he has to discover that identity. He can’t just take it out of a suitease and plop it on the table and say “That's mine.” It’s not an essence like that. He has to learn to tell himself the story of his past. He has to interrogate his own histary he has to relearn that part of him tha in that culture, For examp earning wood sculpture, and in order to do th, he has had to discover the traditions of sculptur has an invest le, he’s ing of a society in which he has never lived. So the relationship of the kind of ethnicity Pm talking about to the past is not a simple, essen tial one ~ it is constructed one. It is construct ed in history, it is constructed politically in part It is part of narrative. We t stories of the into contact, creatively, with it. So this new kind ourselves the arts of our roots in order to come of ethnicity — the emergent ethnicities — has a relationship to the past, but it is a relationship that is partly through memory, partly through narrative, one that has to be recovered. It is act of cultural recovery Yet it is also an ethnicity that has to recognize its position in relation to the importance of difference. It is an ethnicity that cannot deny the role of difference in discovering itself, And Pl tell you a simple, quick story to show you what T mean, About two years ago Twas involved in a photographie exhibition that was organized by the Commonwealth Institute in England, and the idea behind it was very simple. Photography i one of the languages in which people speak about their own past and their own experience and construct their own identity. Large numbers of people in the marginal societies of t Commonwealth have been the objects of some not the subject of their ne else’s represcntati own representatious. The purpose of this exhibi tography td tion was to enable some people in to use the creative medium of nee ~ to peak and address their own expe empower their ethnicities When we came to look saw bwo things at one and the same time. First of all, we saw the enormous excitement of people who are able for the first time to speak about what they have always known about their culture, their childhood, about the topos they grew up. Th ~ to speak i languages, their people, in which arts in our society are being transformed hourly by the new discourses of subjects who have been margi coming into representation for the first time, But we also saw something else that we were not prepared for. From those local ethnic enclaves, what they want to speak about as‘well is the entire world, ‘They want to tell you how they went from the village to Manhattan, They are not prepared (©——————— be ethnic archivists for the rest of their lives. They are not prepared only to have something to say of marginalization forever. They have a stake in the whole dominant history of the world, they want to rewrite the history of the world, not just tell my little story. So they use photography to tell us about the enormous migrations of the world and how people now move-of how all ur identities are constructed out of a variety of different discourses. We need a place to speak from, but we no longer speak about ethnicity in a narrow and essentialist way. That is the new ethnicity. It is a new concep- tion of our identities because it has not lost hold of the place and the ground from which we can speak, yet it is no longer contained within that place as an essence. It wants to address a much wider variety of experience. It is part of the enormous cultural relativization of the entire globe that is the historical accomplish- ment — horrendous as it has been in part — of the twentieth century, Those are the new ethnici- ties, the new voices, They are neither locked into the past nor able to forget the past. Neither all the same nor entirely different. Identity and difference. It is a new settlement between identity and difference. OF course, alongside the new ethnicities are the old ethnicities and the coupling of the old, essentialist identities to power, The old ethni ties still have dominance, they still. govern. Indeed, as I tried to suggest when I referred to Thatcherism, as they are relativized their propen- sity to cat everything else increases, They can only be sure that they really exist at all if they consume everyone else. The notion of an identity that knows where it came from, where home is, but also lives in the symbolic ~ in the Lacanian sense ~ knows you can't really go home again, You can't be something else than who you are. You've got to find out who you are in the flux of the past and the present. That new conception of ethnicity is now struggling in different ways across the globe against the present danger and the threat of the dangerous old ethnicity. That’s the stake of the game. Stuart Hall is Professor of Sociology at the Open University, London. He is author of Reproducing Ideologies (1984) and The Hard Road To Renewal (1988). He has coedited numerous volumes including The Idea of the Modern State(1984) and Politics and Ideology (1986). —— 20