2 KINEMATICS OF FLUIDS IN MOTION ee 2.1 Real Fluids and Ideal Fluids Fluid dynamics is the science treating the stud: the term fluid is meant a substance that flows: o 2 solid. Fluids may be divided into two kinds: (i) liquids which are incom. pressible, i.e. their volumes do not change when the pressure changes, and (@) gases which are compressible fluids suffering change in volume whenever the pressure changes. There are no sharp distinctions between the three States of matter, however. The term hydrodynamics is often applied to the science of moving incompressible fluids. When matter is subjected to examination on the microscopic or mole- cular scale, it is found to consist of molecules in random motion and Separated from one another by distances which are at least comparable with inolecular size. In the case of gases, the separation distances are great: in the case of liquids, they are less. great and in the case of solids even less so. For the purpose of macroscopic analysis, however, the molecular Structure of matter is, in general, of no interest. It is thus more convenient to treat the fluid as having continuous structure so that at each point we can prescribe a unique velocity, a unique pressure, a unique density, ete. Moreover, for a continuous or ideal fluid we can define a fluid particle as the fluid ined within an infinitesimal yolume whose size is SO S y of fluids in motion, By ne Which does not is termed ction by mentioning briefly the natures re called into play in moving fluids: different velocities, have a common re hg ae ape across the boun Au r there is friction§2.2] VELOCITY OF A FLUID AT A POINT 71 between the particles: this will manifest itself in the form of equal and opposite tangential or shearing forces on each particle at the common boundary. In the case of inviscid fluids, however, there is no friction and consequently there are no tangential or shearing forces. All real fluids exhibit viscosity but in many cases, such as arise when the rates of variation of fluid velocity with distances are small, viscous effects may be ignored. 2.2 Velocity of a Fluid at a Point or E reér O(Fixed) Fro. 2.1 At time t a fluid particle is at P where OP=r and at time (¢ +54) the thiben i ae ceil D> SWE ex ¥ Se: hatch innerval de72 KINEMATICS OF FLUIDS IN MOTION i (Ch, 2 Moreover, since r=ai +) + ey, de 43 Me, ana a at so that w= {a : v3). AA(BAC)=(A- ©B-(A BC, (A+ B)C=(A - C)B-AA(BAC), (a) (4- 38) ian (in) ik, (a2) -a (in). 2 orm SE bs) -a D8) =P(ba?) —aa(7 Aq). Hence (1) may be developed in the form £=0q/ét + V(4q?) —qa(V Aq). (4) (4) is especially useful for potential flow for which 7 Aq=0. Also (4) may be more useful than (1) for general orthogonal curvilinear coordinates. Since so thatss. §F 86 KINEMATICS OF FLUIDS IN MOTION [Ch. 2 Pis a point on the boundary where the fluid velocity is q and where the boundary has a velocity U. If specifies a unit normal direction at P, thes since there must be no relative normal velocity at P between boundary and fluid we must have the two normal components equal, i.e. q:n=U-n, In the case of inviscid fluid this is the only condition. For viscous fluid in which there is no slip, the tangential components must also be equal. In the case when the boundary is at rest (as is often the case), we require q » n=0 at every point of the boundary. 2.11* General Analysis of Fluid Motion ° Fig. 2.11 Let P, P’ be two neighbouring points in a fluid particle moving along with the fluid so that at any time t, OP=r, OP’ =r + dr and P, P’ have Cartesian coordinates (x, y, 2), (x + dx, y + dy, x + dz) respectively (Fig. 2.11). ie [ ut dv, w+ dw] be the velocities e u=u(x, y, 3, t), etc., and ¢ is not {gn) GENPRAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID MOTION 87 ‘These equations may be written in matrix form: om | | ae Oe tb Os ee ov vile & & | |? (2) bw dw bw & ——_— 7 Oc tl le Let us now write a fe Ro oa ew “3H Card 1/20 , 20 1/éu, aw 1/20, au foxfgete t-aetse) *ale te) lees LYNN ype alae ak a age a alee = Then tulsa as iia Vi ahg Dect ol em a0 Be ee Oe Och Re Aes lc é eo ow ae” at a pi afece’ ay Seek (=A) (=4)) (=42) ‘Thus the matrix A is expressed as the sum of a symmetric matrix A) and a skew symmetric one Az. We now investigate the significance of these two matrices. We first observe thatee a 88 KINEMATICS OF FLUIDS IN MOTION [ch 2 is © quadric whose centre is P. Then partial differentiation of the LMS, of (4) wart, dx, dy, de confirms that the column vector on the Runs, of () is normal to the quadric surface (4). Writing dqi =i +O1j + tik where %, P, 1 are the components of (3), this shows that dq1 is eve ig normal to the quadric surface (4) having P as centre. Such a velocit is ascribable to a motion which is called a pure strain, The quadric ig the rate of strain quadric. By a suitable rotation of coordinate ‘equation of the quadric surface (4) may be reduced to the form a'(dx')? +b'(dy’)? + c'(dz')? = const. in which the coordinate axes coincide with the Principal axes of the quadric, The velocity components due to pure Strain parallel to the axes of the quadric are respectively [a'dx', bby’, c’dz']. Lines drawn Parallel to the principal axes are undergoing elongations at uniform rates, Next, we observe that 0 -¢ ny] fox nox — Cdy c 0 - dy! = | Céx- dz]. (3) Pe Olax, Edy ~ndx Writing dq2=uei +v2j + wk, where uo, v2, ws are the components of the matrix on the RuLS. of (5), and also = E+ j++ Ch, we see that Sqa= 0 A dr. 6 This shows dqzis ascribable to a rigid-body rotation® . Further substitution for én, € shows that o=}eurl q=ht () where ¢ is the vorticity vector. Thus the vortex line through the fluid element is its instantaneous axis of rotation. This analysis justifies the i i r flows for which curl q=0, leading as 1 called axes, the with angular velocity ts of the foregoing analysis of the following way: of any point P of it. : component dq; of P’ which is that for all other points P normal to a certain quadric lotion requires that the fluid is onent dq of P’ which is element. ‘This means that nly frozen, then the solid vector angular velocityg2.11) GENERAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID MOTION 89 ‘We note that the total velocity of P’ relative to P is dqi + dqo. Similar analysis may be obtained more tersely using the methods of Cartesian tensor analysis. Thus if P has coordinates x; and velocity components m and P’ coordinates x4 +dx; and velocity components 1 + du (81, 2, 8), then corresponding to equations (1), Sup = wi yy and Wp OY + OY, where ey Aus tuy0), Y= Ku — M40), so that ey is a symmetric tensor of the second order and cy is a skew- symmetric tensor of the second order. Thus if we write duy= du) + du, where du\) =eydxy, = @d%5, then du) is seen to be normal to the quadric e4j8xi53j—const., which is the rate of strain quadric centred on P. Also, we have [ou?, dul, duf] = [(corgdx3 — c214x2), (co21dx1 — cog2dx3), (@326x2 — @136%1)] “|idx1 4x2 dxs|l’ which is the vector es of [cs2, @13, 21] and [dx1, 5x2, 5x3], showing that the component du‘) represents a rigid-body rotation. We note further that ©32 13 O21 | fee elie)N MOTION *” KINFMATICS OF FLUIDS I ten 1 ishing of the the rotation is the same everywhere. The eae of the ey is the nee sary and sufficient condition that the fluid moves without strain Exercise 2 d 1. Show that a Quid of constant density can have a velocity q given, by Qeye (ety) q [-apeP (xt + y2)2? x+y? |" Find the vorticity vector. 2. Hie, 2) is any scalar or vector property of fluid and dH/dt is the rate of change of H for a fluid element moving with velocity q. Prove that dH 0H == +(q'V)H. we) For a fluid of density p, establish the equation of continuity, dp at Show that if q—mr/r8, where m is a constant, the equation of continuity for an incompressible fluid is satisfied at all points other than the origin O. Show further that, if Sis any closed surface not passing through O, the net volume of fluid flowing out of S per unit time is 4nm if S encloses O and zero if O is outside S. +pV -q=0. (London Univ., Gen. B.Sc. II, 1962) 3. If [A - ds=0 for all closed curves in a region R show that there exists a scalar function V such that A= — grad V. Show that the kinetic energy of uniform incompressible fluid moving irrotationally in the finite region between surfaces S;, Sp is given by from the surface normally into the fluid Hence or otherwise, show that, if Si, S2 at "(London Univ., Gen. B.Se. 11, 1965) ity, in Cartesians, for the flow of # ide everywhere in the irrotational, ble fluid, Prove that the flow must this statement. ‘ (Leeds Univ., B.Sc., 1961)g2.11] GENERAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID MOTION m1 5, Obtain in the form div q=0 the equation of continuity for a perfect incompressible fluid, q being the velocity. In particular, if P is any point in the fluid and M is the foot of the ‘dicular from P to the fixed axis Ox and if q has components U, rallel to Ox, and V, along MP, such that U and V are functions of x(=OM), R(=MP) and the time, show that the equation takes the form a a ag(OR) +5QVR)-0- Deduce the existence of a stream function y such that (London Univ., Gen. B.Sc. II, 1958) 6. Explain what is meant in hydrodynamics by a stagnation point. Referred to Cartesian axes Ox, Oy, Oz, a semi-infinite incompressible inviscid fluid occupies the region 2>0, and is bounded by a rigid plane at =0. The fluid is in steady irrotational motion with a stagnation point at oO. If the velocity potential g is taken as zero at O, and it is assumed valid to expand g in a power series of the form 9—ayx + aay + asz + a11x2 + agay® + aggz” + aroxy + eays + aaisx +--+ show that, with the axes Ox, Oy suitably orientated, the series is of the form 9— Ax? + By? — (A+B)? +terms of third order and higher. Discuss the form of the equipotential surfaces near the stagnation point for (i) motion in the (x, 2) plane, and | (ii) motion symmetrical about the axis Oz. (London Univ., B.Sc. Spec. Hons., 1963) (N.B. A stagnation point is one at which the velocity q=0. See Chapter 3, Section 3.9.) 7. Show that in the general motion of a fluid, the motion of a particle relative to a neighbouring particle consists of a pure strain compounded with a rigid body rotation.