Importance of Radiation Safety and Its Origin

Introduction Rontgen was the first scien tist to

observe and record X -rays, first
A radiographer's most important responsibility is to finding them on November 8,
implement safety procedures and regulations. These include 1895. He had been experimenting
safety and emergency procedures of the employer and state with a Crookes tube (a glass
and federal regulations. This is done primarily to ensure the vacuum tube with electrodes at
safety of the radiographer, the assistant and the members of either end) and noticed a glow
the general public while performing daily tasks. coming from a screen painted
Understanding and following proper radiation safety practices with barium platinocyani<le that
and procedures while working with both gamma-ray sources was some distance away. He knew
and X-ray emitting devices are the only ways to effectively that the image he saw was not
ensure one is not exposed to harmful doses of radiation. being cast by the cathode rays as
they could not penetrate air for
Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen.
The passage of radiation through human tissue was found to any significant distance. After
be harmful during its experimental stages in the late 1800s. considerable investigation, he
Many of the first scientists and their subjects were injured due named the new rays "X" to indicate their origin was unknown.
to overexposure.
On December 22, 1895, Wilhelm Rontgen produced an
Since 1940, industrial radiography has gained widespread acceptance X-ray, of his wife's hand (Figure 1.1). On New Year's Day
as an effective examination tool. Along with improvements in 1896, Rontgen mailed 'his report of the discovery of
equipment, safety practices and procedures have evolved. Despite the X-rays to the leading scientists of Europe and into each
improvements in both equipment and procedures, envelope he slipped a handful
radiographers continue to be overexposed and injured due to a of the pictures he had taken.
lack of understanding and not following safety practices and Within two months of the
procedures. Most cases of overexposw-e arc not sufficient enough to announcement of Rontgen's
cause radiation bums. H owever, repeated violations resulting in discovery, hospitals throughout
overexposure can lead to long-term injury due to the cumulative the world were using X -rays to
effects on the human body. Until workers responsible for aid in various medical
following the safety procedures and regulations fully applications. For Rontgen's
comprehend the requirements, the benefits of compliance and discovery, he was awarded the
attention to details, overexposures will continue. Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901.

The Beginning of Radiography Henri Becquerel

Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen 1852-1908
1845-1923 In 1896, while investigating
phosphorescence in uranium
Figure 1.1: Rontgen
The origins of industrial radiography have been attributed to salts, Henri Becquerel
produced an X-ray of his
the German scientist Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen. wife's hand in 1895. accidentally discovered
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety

radioactivity. Investigating the Ernest Rutherford

work of Rontgen, Becquerel 1871-1937
wrapped a fluorescent substance, Ernest Rutherford was a British
potassium uranyl sulfate, in physicist and Nobel Prize winner
photographic plates and black whose work marked several
material in preparation for an important steps toward the
experiment requiring bright understanding of atomic structure.
sunlight. However, prior to When the study of radioactive
actually performing the substances was new, he became
experiment, Becquerel found that interested in the properties of the
the photographic plates were fuUy particles and rays emitted. While
exposed. This discovery led experimenting with a sample of
Becquerel to investigate the radium, he applied a magnetic
Henri Becquerel.
spontaneous emission of nuclear field and found that the emissions
radiation. could be broken down to a
Ernest %t ~ ~rf<:mi
positively charged particle, a
Marie Curie negatively charged particle and an
1867-1934 energy ray that was neither positive nor nega•in~ i..-:a tl:.:s
Marie Sklodowska Curie was the unaffected by the magnetic field. He named the'e ~
Polish-French chemist who gave alpha particles, beta particles and gamma ray;. Hi' :k
the name radioactivity to the much to show their individual nature.
emission of radiation from atoms.
Working with her husband, Pierre During this time he collaborated on research into the
Curie, she showed thorium and transmutation of elements. Rutherford demon-:.:a;~ iliz
uranium to be radioactive, and radioactivity was the spontaneous disintegration o:· ...:~ti
demonstrated that the noticed that a sample of radioactive material im~ •
radioactivity of a substance was same amount of time for half the sample to deca: - a
proportional to the quantity of half-life - and created a practical applicari )11 fo~ =his
Marie Curie.
radioactive material present. phenomenon using this constant rate of decay a- .i dock.
Noticing that the radioactivity in could then be used to help determine the acrua.l a~ • t:::..
some samples was too high to explain by any concentration of Earth that turned out to be much older than mo,: cf dx
uranium, she set out to isolate the source of the radioactivity. scientists at the time believed.

In 1898, she discovered polonium in pitchblende. However, Early Gamma Radiography

the radioactivity found was still not strong enough to explain
the observations made; further investigations were carried out
and, late that year, Marie discovered a trace amount of highly
Gamma radiography got its
start in the United States in
c
radioactive radium. During the course of four years, the 1929 at a naval research
Curies refined 8 tons of raw ore to produce 0.035 oz (1 g) of laboratory. The Navy wanted a
radium. In later years, as a gift for her scientific discoveries, method to inspect thick steel
Marie was presented with a pendant containing radium. Not castings, but X-rays available
surprisingly, Marie died of leukemia suspected as being caused at the time were limited to
by overexposure to radioactivity. 3 in. (7.6 cm). Using radium
(Figure 1.2), it was possible to
Pierre Curie inspect thicknesses in the
1859-1906 range of 10 in. (25.4 cm) to
Pierre Curie worked with his wife 12 in. (30.5 cm). These
Figure 1.2: In • ;.!1J
Marie Curie in isolating polonium radiographs were achieved by
radiog raphy sv~ ·c:::s
and radium. They were the first to a method called fishpoling like this. - he 0 · C ! - -
use the term radioactivity and were (Figure 1.3), where a rad ium was sea e-:
pioneers in its study. Pierre and radiographer would hold a (A) and placeo ~a­
one of his students made the first weak radium source attached aluminum-a .o :or..:a:...'"l!!!!
discovery of nuclear energy by to a long rod for the length of This source was ha:" ~
identifying the continuous the exposure or through the using the cords C ~~
emission of heat from radium use of a primitive rig. A the conta iner
particles. Pierre Curie. source strength of 1/10 of a

2
~--------- ---------~----q)apter 1 - Importance of Radiation Safety and its Origin

Radiation Hazards

The uses of gamma-ray

sources and X-ray emitting
devices have proved to be an
invaluable tool across the
petrochemical, aerospace,
nuclear and construction
industries. Exposure to
harmful radiation is an
occupational hazard that
radiographers face.
Historically, the three main
reasons for overexposure
during the performance of Figure 1.4: In February 1896, a
radiography are as follows: man's hand was X-rayed in
Failure to maintain order to aid in the surgical
constant use of the removal of gunshot pellets
(black spots) embedded as the
radiation survey meter
result of a hunting accident.
both in the initial survey
approaching the
=gure 1.3: Fishpoling required a radiographer to hold a weak
·adium source attached to a long rod for the length of the
equipment and throughout all activities associated with
exposure, or to prop th e fishpole through a rig to hold it steady. radiography.
Failure to properly store the source in the shielded
.:urie was typical and exposure times of several hours to as position, such as an incompletely retracted source or a
.ong as four days were necessary. The radiation exposure disconnect of the source from the drive cable with the
.:luring normal use using these methods would be considered source left in the guide tube .
O\·erexposure today. The radium sources used then were very Utilization of the equipment by technicians with a
.,·eak in comparison to today's modern sources. disregard for the hazards involved, and in some cases
with older equipment, the source not being locked into
: Ianufactured gamma-ray sources, such as iridium and cobalt, position at the termination of an exposure.
::-ecame available in 1946. These new sources quickly replaced
:.,e weaker and more expensive radium sources. Due to the In today's industry, gamma-ray sources and X-ray devices
-::rength of the modern-day sources, equipment had to be emit more intense and penetrating radiation compared to the
-"!lproved to protect radiographers and the general public relatively low activity or energy potential of the early materials
=·:-om overexposure. Equipment design derived from the available. In turn, these powerful sources have the ability to
•;.rnple needs for safety, both during operation and expose the radiographer and those around him/her to a great
:::msportation. Improvements in equipment is a continuing deal of harmful radiation in a very short period of time.
r rocess of the manufacturers enforced by the national Radiography is generally performed under difficult working
·.:ensing authority. conditions with little or no direct supervision or assistance.
The added pressures of time constrictions, pressure to
Benefits of Early Radiography produce, weather delays, long hours and difficulty in
controlling the affected area all have to be dealt with,
T"!e discovery of radiography was a monumental compiling the possibilities for mistakes leading to an
.:.:omplishment in the 19th century. The ability to see into overexposure. Today's overexposures are generally due to
C"- l:ter seemed to have an endless number of applications. The complacent attitudes, fatigue, disregard for hazards, blatant
-=e:nest need for early X-ray application was found in the disregard for established procedures and regulations, and/or
c edical field; the need for exploratory surgery was becoming intentional misuse.
1 :.'n.ing of the past.

Through proper planning, good procedures and practices,

T:; e firs t medical use was at Massachusetts General Hospital.
X-:ays were used to radiograph the hand of an individual who
W'2S shot in a hunting accident (Figure 1.4). The radiographs
-a~ed the projectiles in the hand, which minimized the
- ::-:cal trauma. These early applications of X-rays were just
~ ?recursor to what would follow.
exposure to harmful radiation can be reduced to minimal
levels. It is the responsibility of the radiographer to adhere to
and follow all implemented regulations set forth by the
applicable jurisdictions and company policies to ensure the job
is performed in a safe manner.
 Chapter 1 Review Questions
In the early years of radiography, what caused personnel 6. The responsibility to adhere to the regulations, license
to be overexposed? conditions and company policies falls to:
a. poor equipment design a. the radiographer
b. lack of understanding b. the assistant radiographer
c. a lack of and poor safety practices c. the radiation safety officer
d. all the above d. all radiation workers

In what year did Marie Curie discover radium? 7. Alpha particles were discovered by:
a. the beginning of 1896 a. Marie Curie
b. the end of 1897 b. Pierre Curie
c. the beginning of 1898 c. Ernest Rutherford
d. late in 1898 d. Henri Becquerel

Who coined the term radioactivity? 8. The first medical X-ray was conducted at:
a. Marie and Pierre Curie a. Berlin Memorial Hospital
b. Henri Becquerel b. Oslow General
c. Ernest Rutherford c. Boston General
d . Wilhelm Rontgen d . Massachusetts General

In the early years of radiography from 1920-1930, the 9. Regulations from one state to the next are essentially the
maximum thickness that could be inspected via same for radioactive materials.
X-radiation was of steel? a. true
a. 1 in. (2.54 cm) b. false
b. 2 in. (5.08 cm)
c. 3 in. (7.62 cm)
d. 10 in. (25.4 cm) 10. A radiographer has several avenues to seek guidance and
counsel. The first person he or she can turn to is?
a. their state or federal jurisdiction's hotline
Historically, it has been proven that the predominant b. their program's radiation safety officer (RSO)
cause of overexposures is: c. a senior technician
a. improper surveys d. the NRC
b. the source being left in an uncontrolled state
c. the source not being locked once retracted to the
shielded position 11. The origins of industrial radiography can be attributed
d. all of the above to:
a. Henri Becquerel
b. Wilhelm Rontgen
c. Ernest Rutherford
d. Pierre Curie
~~~~~~~-Chapter2_

Fundamentals of Radiation

Types of Radiation increases, the light has gone beyond violet and has become
ultraviolet. Ultraviolet cannot be seen nor felt but can give a
Radiation is a form of energy. There are two basic types of suntan or sunburn depending on the exposure.
radiation, particulate radiation and electromagnetic radiation
(pure energy). Particulate radiation consists of particles that Particulate Radiation
have mass as well as energy, for example, alpha and beta Alpha particles (Figure 2.1) arc a form of positively charged
particles. Electromagnetic radiation, such as X-rays and particulate radiation that has a mass and the charge of tv10
gamma rays, has neither mass nor charge. Visible light is protons, much
another form of wavelike radiation. All wavelike radiation like the helium e Neutron Nucleus
travels at the speed of light - 186 000 miles/s nucleus (two
299 338 km/s). protons, two
e Proton
neutrons). Alpha
At the heart of the matter is energy state: the higher the state
of energy, the higher the frequency and the shorter the
particles have
very poor
,·'/ Alpha
particle
wavelength - and, as a result, the greater the penetrating penetrating
ability of the signal. A basic understanding of matter and ability due to
energy is somewhat important in this regard. their relatively
slow speed (they protons and neutrons
T he law of conservation basically says that energy cannot be travel at
destroyed only converted, such as electrical energy can be used sub-light) and Figure 2.1: Alpha particles are positively
~o produce light. In a light bulb, electrical energy is converted their large size charged particulate radiation.
into heat (thermal energy). The filament of the bulb becomes of two atomic
white hot and emits light. The individual atoms of a white mass units (AMU). Alpha particles are considered
h0t object vibrate very fast. Heat is the measure of how fast high-energy, large, sub-atomic structures.
-~e individual atoms in a given substance are moving. But it is
:.ne law of nature that when atoms are moving very fast, they Beta particles are a form of particulate radiation that has a
'ill give off some of their energy in the form of wavelike negative charge and a small, but negligible, mass equivalent to
r2diation if anything changes their motion. that of an electron - 1/1840 AIVIU. These are produced
through nuclear disintegration and are moderately
Another aspect of the law of conservation is that matter can penetrating.
be used to create energy, but energy cannot create matter. For
example, we can burn a piece of wood and convert the stored Particulate radiation is of secondary concern to industrial
erergy in the wood to light (photonic energy) and heat radiographers. Since these particles have weight and are
~.nermal energy), but thermal energy cannot be used to create relatively large in size, they are easily absorbed by a small
.a :-iece of wood. amount of shielding such as the material used in manufacturing
to package the source. It should be noted that in many
11-:.e most energetic wavelength detectable w ith the human radiography cameras the common shielding materials, such as
~ b \'iolet in color. As the energy of the radiation particles depleted uranium, will emit alpha particles in the event of a

5
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety

leak. For this specific reason, periodic leak and wipe tests arc between these radiations is the energy levels of some arc
mandatory. sufficiently high enough to penetrate and alter matter
(ionization) . The energy level, more precisely the frequency or
Examples of the penetrating abi lities for each radiation type wavelength, allows radiation to pass through material. The
are illustrated in Figure 2.2. higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength; shorter
wavelengths are capable of passing through matter. Natural
Paper Plastic Concrete and manufactured sources have unique energy patterns, which
contain multiple wavelengths. While X-rays are generated by

~
Alpha / electromechanical means, wavelengths up to 32 MeV can be
~
generated. By comparison, the shortest wavelength of
Beta radioactive materials such as cobalt-60 is 1.33 MeV.
•
., X-radiation
Gamma, X-ray X-rays are produced by applying very high voltage direct
~
' current between a cathode and an anode within a
vacuum- scaled envelope creating a stream of electrons
Neutron
(' directed at a target with a high atomic number (anode target).
When the electrons from the cathode collide with the
electrons of the target material, energy conversion occurs
primarily in the form of heat, but also includes the production
Figure 2.2: Examples of the penetrating abilities for each type of
of X-rays. X-ray equipment is available in a wide variety of
radiation.
voltages, ranging from 5 kV through 32 MeV. Various
methods have been developed to accelerate electrons over this
Electromagnetic Radiation wide range of applied voltages. Examples of high voltage
Electromagnetic radiation includes radio waves, microwaves, X-ray generators include:
infrared waves, visible light, X-rays, gamma rays and cosmic 1. Van de Graaff X-ray generator,
rays (Figure 2.3), all of which travel at the speed of light - 2. Betatron generator,
186 000 miles/s (299 338 km/s). The major difference 3. Linear accelerator.

Table 2.1: Common radioisotopes.

Radiation
Isotope Effective kV Half-life Thickness Ranges
[R unit per hat 1 ft (1 m)]
1 in. to 2.5 in.
Cesium 137 660 kV 30.2 years 3.4 (0.32)
(2.54 cm to 6.35 cm)
1 in. to 9 in.
Cobalt 60 1250 kV 5.3 years 14.0 (1.3)
(2.54 cm to 22.96 cm)
0.5 in. to 3 in.
Iridium 192 357 kV 74 days 5.2 (0.48)
(1.27 cm to 7.62 cm)
1 in. to 12 in.
Radium 226 1600 kV 1580 years 8.8 (0.82)
(2.54 cm to 30.48 cm)
0.125 in. to 1 in.
Selenium 75 215 kV 120 days 2.2 (0.208)
(0.318 cm to 2.54 cm)

Radiation wavelength (nm)

10 10-4
I I I I I I I I I

I
X- rays
"' E
:o
-i:iadio Infrared :§F ~Ultraviol et- I
~Cosmic rays
> 1- - - Gamma rays
I
I I I I I I I I I I I I

10-6 10

Photon energy (MeV)

Figure 2.3: The electromagnetic spectrum .

6

All of the above produce X-rays using different means of
exciting electrons.
Gamma Ray Radiation
X -ray and gamma-ray sources differ only in their origin of
production. X-ray devices produce radiation by exciting and
bombarding electrons. Gamma-ray sources produce radiation
through the process of spontaneous disintegration, where an
unstable element tries to become stable by releasing energy in
the form of alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays.
Refer to Table 2.1 to reference common radioisotopes.
Radiation's Interaction with Matter
In the early twentieth century, physicists Ernest Rutherford,
Ernest Marsden and Hans Geiger conducted experiments
that proved that the atom is mostly empty space with almost
all of the mass concentrated in the tiny nucleus and the
electrons spread out over a relatively large space surrounding
the nucleus. In these experiments, a stream of positively
charged alpha particles was aimed at an extremely thin sheet
of gold foil. It was observed that most of the alpha particles
went straight through the sheet and that only a few were
deflected. Those that went straight through the foil passed
through the electron cloud area of an atom and those that
were deflected had come close enough to the positively
charged nucleus to undergo a repulsive effect.
The fact that an atom is mostly empty space is significant to
our understanding of how radiation interacts with materials.
X-rays and gamma rays travel through material in packets of
energy referred to as photons. W hen traveling through material,
some photons may simply pass through or between atoms
while others may interact with an atom. It is the fact that some
radiation is stopped within a material while some proceeds
through that is the basis for utilizing radiation in NDT.
Radiation can be either ionizing or nonionizing. Ionizing
radiation has enough energy (?. 34 eV) that it can alter
material by striking and removing electrons from an atom.
Nonionizing radiation lacks the energy to do so. Radio waves,
microwaves, infrared waves, visible light and ultraviolet light
are types of nonionizing radiation. X-rays and gamma rays are
types of ionizing radiation. Further ionization can be caused
by the electrons that are ejected from a material targeted by
X -rays or gamma rays. T hese ejected electrons are energized
particles of radiation; they move through matter much like a
billiard ball, one hitting another and transferring energy from
one to another. T his is referred to as secondary radiation . In
this Study Guide, the word radiation refers to ionizing
radiation either from primary or secondary sources.
After scientists learned that the unknown radiation (X-rays)
produced from a Crookes tube was capable of penetrating
opaque objects and producing an image on a photographic plate,
Chapter 2 - Fundamentals of Radiation
they set out to investigate what happened to the high-energy
rays themselves after they had interacted with matter.
When a low-energy X-ray or gamma-ray photon hits a
material, the energy of the photon is completely absorbed into
the material. This is called the photoelectric effect.
When a medium-energy X-ray or gamma-ray beam hits a
material, some of the X-ray energy is absorbed by the
material, an electron in the outer shell of the atom is released
and the X-ray that is deflected off of the material with less
energy is called compton effect or scatter.
When low-, medium- or high-energy types of radiation react
with the human body, the energy breaks apart the molecules
in the cells of the human body. Under controlled conditions,
this type of reaction can be used effectively in the treatment
of some diseases, but excessive exposure of the human body to
radiation leads to serious injury and can sometimes be fatal.
X-rays and gamma rays can be used in testing metals because
no damage is done to the metal. Metals conduct electricity
and any electrical imbalance is quickly corrected because
electrons move freely within a metal.
Photons having sufficient energy are able to penetrate into
the atom and transfer their energy to an inner shell electron.
The inner shell electron then has enough energy to break
loose from the atom and leave a hole where it used to be. The
ejected electron is called a photoelectron.
Immediately, another electron from a higher level shell falls
down to take the place of the ejected electron. Because the
filli ng electron h as a higher energy, when it falls into a lower
energy position, the excess energy is released as a photon with
a characteristic (X-ray) wavelength unique to th e element
(Figure 2.4).
,• Eject ed electron
M
Incident
electrons with
energy greater
than K-s hell Characteristic X-ray from
binding energy L to K electron transition
Figure 2.4: Characteristic X-rays are created when a higher energy
electron falls to a lower energy position.
The reflected radiation photons are scattered, meaning that
they bounce in all directions. All of the scattered X -rays have
longer wavelengths and h ence are weaker than the original
7
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety

X-ray beam. The wavelength of a scattered X-ray is angle Electron - A unit of negative electrical charge; mass =
dependent, which means that the new wavelength depends 1/ 1840 Al\1U
only on the angle of scattering and not on the initial
wavelength of the X-ray or the nature of the scattering
material. A ray th at is scattered directly backward (in the
direction from which it originated) has the longest wavelength,
which means that it h as the least energy of all scattered rays.

The Basics ofAtomic Theory:

The Atom and Fundamental Particles The nucleus,
which contains
It was discovered due in great part by Ernest Rutherford that neutrons and protons.
the atom, once thought to be t he smallest division of matter,
was itself made up of even smaller particles (Figure 2.5).
Figure 2.5: The funda mental particles of an atom include protons,
neutrons and electrons.
Fundamental Particles
Proto n - A unit of positive electrical charge; mass= 1 Al\1U
Neut ron - Electrically neut ral; mass = 1 Al\1U

IUPAC 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Old IA llA lllA IVA VA VIA VllA Vl llA VlllA VlllA IB ll B l llB IVB VB VIB VllB VlllB
Group CAS IA llA lllB IVB VB VI B VllB VI II VIII VIII IB llB lllA IVA VA VIA VllA VlllA

1 z 1 2
ES H He
A 1.01 4.00
2 z 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ES Li Be B c N 0 F Ne
A 6.94 9.01 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.1 8
3 z 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
ES Na Mg Al Si p s Cl Ar
A 22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
4 z 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
ES K Ca Sc Ti v Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
A 39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.61 74 .92 78.96 79.90 83.80
5 z 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
ES Rb Sr y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
A 85 .47 87.62 88.91 91.22 9 2.91 95.94 (98) 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 11 8.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29
6 z 55 56 57 72 73 76 74 77 75
78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
ES Cs Ba La : Hf Ta Os w Ir Pt
Re Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
A 132.91 13 7.33 1 38 .91 : 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 20 7.20 208.98 (209) (21 0) (222)
7 z 87 88 89 : 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 (113) 114 (115) 11 6 (11 7) 11 8
I
ES Fr Ra Ac I Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uu t Uuq Uup Uuh Uu s Uuo
A (223) (226) (227) : (267) (268) (271) (272) (270) (276) (281) (280) ( ) - ( ) - ( ) - ( )

Lanthanide series Z 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
ES Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
A 140.12 140.91 144.24 (145) 150.36 151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97
Actinide series Z 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
ES Th Pa u Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
A 232.04 231.04 238.03 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
Legend
IUPAC period numbering system (1 to 18) used by International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
Old period system (with roman numerals) formerly used by International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
CAS period numbering system (with rom an numerals) used by Chemical Abstracts Service
z atomic number
ES elem ent symbol
A atomic weigh t
lan th anide series occurs here
actinide series occurs here

Figure 2 .6: The periodic table of elements.

8

T he Periodic Table
In 1869 Lothar Meyer and Dmitri Mendeleev made a list of
all the chem ical elements known at the time in order of
increasing masses. By subdividing the list into groups or
periods, they could see that a repetition, or recurrence, of
similar chemical and physical properties occurred at more or
less regular intervals. T here were many empty places in the
table into which Mendeleev correctly assumed unknown
elements would fit. Based on the table, he was able to predict
the characteristics of the missing clements from the properties
of the nearby known elements.
From the periodic table (Figure 2.6), the periodic law of the
elements was derived. It states that the properties of the
chemical elements depend on the structure of the atom and
that these properties vary periodically with the atomic
number of the element.
T he 18 vertical columns in the table are called groups and the
elements in each group have similar properties. These
similarities are repeated periodically in the horizontal rows,
comprising the seven periods. All the elements in each row
have the same arrangement of electrons on the various shells
of the atoms.
The Atom
The basic structure of the atom is conceived as consisting of a
small, relatively heavy nucleus made up of protons and
neutrons surrounded or orbited by electrons revolving in
orbital shells about the nucleus.
Atoms are the basic building blocks of nature; combined, they
create compounds such as simple water. A molecule of water
is a combination of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of
oxygen (Figure 2.7) or written
simply as Il20. Hydrogen being
the simplest of elements is made up
of a nucleus with one proton and
orbited by one electron; thus, it is
physically balanced as well as
electrically balanced and so stable.
Through a chemical process, the
hydrogen atoms are bonded with
Figure 2.7: Example of a
the oxygen atom's eight electrons simple water molecule,
orbiting a nucleus of eight protons one part oxygen/two
and eight neutrons. parts hydrogen.
Atomic Energy Levels
The atom is normally electrically balanced with the number
of protons within the nucleus being equal to the number of
electrons within its orbiting shells. Therefore, an atom is
considered stable and balanced, such as a helium atom: two
protons/two electrons. (Refer to the periodic table.)
Chapter 2 - Fundamental s of Radiation
Electrons are held in orbit around the nucleus in what are
referred to as valence shells. Seven valence shells named K shell
through Qshell exist. Each corresponding valence shell has a
specific number of electrons it can hold before moving into an
outer shell. To determine the maximum number of possible
electrons within a specific shell, use the following equation:
2(n)2
To work the above equation, determine the shell number you
are interested in and apply it in place of (n). However, this
formula is valid for the first four shells (K, L, M and N) since
no known element has more than 32 electrons in any one shell.
Example: 2(3)2 = 18
A possible number of electrons in valence shell M = 18.
Remember, there are seven valence shells. The shells of an
atom have different energy levels with the outer shells having
t he higher energy content and the inner shells having the
higher binding force. Each shell also cannot contain any more
than the maximum number of electrons, as discussed
previously.
The charge of the nucleus of an atom is determined by the
number of protons in the nucleus. This number of protons
determines the type of element. For example, any atom with
eight protons is oxygen; no matter how many electrons or
neutrons arc present, it will be oxygen. More than 100
elements have been discovered and each element has a unique
atomic number representing the nuclear charge or number of
protons. In an atom of neutral charge, the atomic number is
identical to the number of orbi tal electrons.
The atomic number is conventionally Z- 77
represented by the symbol Z and
identifies the chemical element. The
atomic number Z should not be
confused with the mass number A,
wh ich is the total number of protons
and neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom (Figure 2.8).
Ir
Iridium
A- 192.22
The symbols for the elements are
commonly written with subscripts
and superscripts. The subscript denotes Figure 2.8: An
element chosen from
the atomic number and the superscript
the periodic table.
refers to the sum of the neutrons and The A number
protons, which is approximately the denotes the atomic
atomic weight - 77l r" 2• mass/weight. The Z
number denotes the
Isotopes atomic number.
Elements with a common atomic number (the same number
of protons) and a different atomic weight (a different number
of neutrons) arc called isotopes of that element. There arc
stable and unstable isotopes. The stable isotope is not
radioactive, whereas the unstable isotope may be radioactive.
9
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety
Radioactive isotopes arc called radioisotopes. As with most
things in nature, the unstable radioisotope will seek a return
to stability; through this process an unstable atom will release
energy by losing an alpha particle, either losing or gaining an
electron (beta particle), or by spontaneous fission.
The number of isotopes for each element varies. For example,
hydrogen's most common form has one proton and no
neu trons. There are also two isotopes of hydrogen. Deuterium,
which has one proton and one neutron, is a stable isotope.
The other is tritium, which has one proton and two neutrons
making it an unstable isotope. Being unstable (radioactive)
means an isotope will change in some way to attain a stable
condition and in the process of this change it must emit
energy in the form of radiation.
Radiation from Nuclear Decay
There are a number of naturally occurring radioisotopes, one
of which is the clement radium. An unstable isotope
undergoes a breaking up or disintegration of the nucleus as it
seeks a stable state and in the process, the nucleus gives off
radiation. In the process, the nucleus changes (alpha
emission), but docs not disappear. The emission of radiation
in this process is known as radioactive decay.
By applying a strong magnetic field, Rutherford was able to
show that alpha and beta particles were affected by magnetic
fields, but gam ma rays were not.
During his radiation experiments, r:rnest Rutherford placed a
bit of radioactive material in a lead container. A small opening
in the container allowed only a narrow beam of radiation to
escape. He found that when he placed a zinc sulfide plate in
the radiation beam, a small circle began to glow. When he
placed a strong magnetic field near the beam, it caused three
spots to appear on the zinc sulfide screen. This experiment
showed that there were three different types of radiation
present: alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays.
The alpha particle was identified as being two protons and
two neutrons (the same as a helium nucleus). The positive
charge of the alpha particle caused the particle to be deflected
by the magnetic field.
T he beta particle was identified as being a lightweight
negatively charged particle (the same as an electron). The
negative charge of th e beta particle caused the beta particle to
be deflected in the opposite direction of the positively charged
alpha particle. The beta particle's deflection was greater than
the alpha particle's deflection even though the alpha particle
charge is twice that of the beta particle. This is due to the
great difference in their mass.
The third type of radiation that was identified was unaffected
by the magnetic field. This radiation was identified as the
10
gamma ray, which is not a charged particle, but was found to
demonstrate the same characteristics as the earlier discovered
X-rays.
Research has shown that the X-rays and gamma rays have a
dual characteristic, acting sometimes like a particle and other
times like a wave. It is postulated that the energy of these rays
were in discrete packets of electromagnetic energy known as
photons. Photons have momentum but no mass or electrical
charge.
Ionization
An electrical balance of an atom is maintained when an equal
number of protons and electrons exists. When an event takes
place that causes an orbital electron to be ejected, there is a
disturbance in the electrical balance of the atom. This
disturbance is called ionization. An ion is an atom, group of
atoms, or free particles with either a positive or negative
charge.
Ionization works slightly differently depending on whether an
ion with a positive or a negative electric charge is being
produced. A positively charged ion is produced when an
electron bonded to an atom absorbs enough energy to escape
from the electric potential barrier that originally confined it,
thus breaking the bond and freeing it to move. A negatively
charged ion is produced when a free electron collides with an
atom and is subsequently caught inside the electric potential
barrier, releasing any excess energy in the form of radiation.
The ionization processes whereby X-rays or gamma rays
passing through matter lose energy to atoms are known as the
photoelectric effect, compton scatter and pair production.
Photoelectric Effect
The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon whereby there is a
loss of photon energy during interaction with an atom
(Figure 2.9). Part of the photon energy is given up to break
the binding force that holds an electron in its orbital shell and
the remaining energy is used up to give the dislodged electron
velocity. T he atom becomes a positive ion and the ejected
electron becomes a negative. T his is the predominant effect in
the absorption of low-energy photons (typically 100 kV and
below).
Figure 2.9: Photoelectric effect.

Compton Effect
Higher energy protons (typically 100 kV to 10 MeV) interact
with the atoms in matter in the phenomenon known as
compton scatter. Compton scatter is the absorption of some of
the energy of a photon (Figure 2.10), and the remainder of
the energy is given off as a secondary photon (scatter). The
absorbed energy breaks the binding force that holds the
electron in its shell and gives the dislodged electron velocity.
The atom becomes a positive ion
~ ~n
Ionization products
Figure 2.1 0: Compton effect.
When ionization has occurred due to interaction of radiation
with an atom, the atom becomes a positive ion and the
dislodged electron a negative ion. The energy which has not
been given up to the electron continues as a lower energy
photon, also known as scatter radiation or secondary radiation.
Note that as the primary beam has interacted with the atom
and given up a portion of its total energy state to eject the
electron, the energy loss is released as secondary radiation at a
lower energy state and thus a longer wavelength. This lower
energy photon leaves the atom at an angle to the original path
of the incident photon. This lower energy p hoton ionizes
other atoms through compton scatter or the photon energy is
completely absorbed by the photoelectric effect.
Pair Production
The higher energy photons of 1.02 Me V or more cause a
phenomenon in the atoms of matter known as pair production.
This process occurs when the higher energy photon
approaches the nucleus and changes from energy to an
electron-positron pair. The positron is an extremely
short-lived particle with a positive charge and the same mass
as the electron (Figure 2.11). The positron combines with an
electron and changes into gamma rays with 0.51 MeV
photons each. These photons then cause ionization through
compton scatter or the photoelectric effect.
Absorption of Radiation
A material's ability to absorb or attenuate radiation is a matter
of the energy state versus the material's atomic density and
thickness. Materials such as lead, tungsten, tantalum or
depleted uranium are said to be atomically dense. The higher
Chapter 2 - Fundamentals of Radiation
the density, the more a material is able to shield or attenuate
energy.
Atom
High energy
electromagnetic
radiation
The atom remains neutral
0
Positive ion
Figure 2.11: Pair production.
Recall that ionizing radiation can be particulate (for example,
alpha, beta and neutrons) and pure energy (X-ray and gamma
ray). Unlike X-rays and gamma rays, particulate radiations
have mass and travel at sub-light speeds. Each penetrates
matter to a different degree and each ionizes matter such as
human cells. While alpha and beta particles ionize matter
directly, the neutron ionizes indirectly. A neutron h as little
effect on electrons since it has no electric charge and the
electrons are such a minute size. If a neutron hits the nucleus
of an atom and is absorbed or causes fission, the nucleus may
emit particles that ionize. This process is called activation
whereby the affected material becomes radioactive. While
neutrons can activate matter causing it to become radioactive,
alpha and beta particles do not make matter radioactive. It is
important to note that alpha, beta and neutron radiation, just
as with X-rays and gamma rays, cannot be detected by the
human senses.
Decay of a Radioisotope
Radioactive decay is the breakup or disintegration of unstable
atoms resulting in the emission of radiation. As a radioisotope
atom decays, changing from an unstable atom to a stable
atom, it may go through several steps and the radiation energy
level at each given step will be different; however, once this
change is completed, the atom has returned to a stable state
and no more radiation is given off.
Each time an unstable atom decays, the result is a daughter
element. If that daughter element is radioactive, the process of
decay continues. The rate at which decay occurs is different
for each radioactive clement or daughter element. Some decay
rates are very long, in some cases decades or more. Therefore,
it is important to note that once a material such as a source
for radiography is radioactive, it is considered to be radioactive
forever though the level of radioactivity will diminish.
The strength of a source is called its activity, which is defined
as the rate at which a radioactive sample decays. More precisely,
11
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety

it is the number of atoms that decay and emit radiation in 1 s.
The unit used to measure activity is the curie (37 billion
disintegrations per second or 3.7 x 1010 dps).
The SI unit is the becquerel, which equals 1 dps or 2.7 x 10 11
curies. It would be impractical to refer to typical radiation
sources in the unit Bq because the resulting number would be
excessively large. For example, a 10 Ci source would be
expressed as 10 billion becquerel or 10 000 000 000 Bq. For
more practical use, the unit of giga (billion) or tera (trillion) is
typically used such as 999 GBq (1 Ci is equal to 37 GBq).
Therefore 999 GBq would equal 27 Ci.
The activity of a given radioisotope is a measurement of
disintegrations in a given period of time. T he time it takes a
given radioisotope to reduce its activity by one-half is referred
to as a radioactive half-life.
For example: common radioisotopes used today are Co-60
and lr-192. Both of these elements produce radiation, yet they
decay at very different rates. Ir-192 has a h alf-life of 74 days;
Co-60 has a half-life of 5.3 years. (See Table 2.2.)
of manufactured radioisotopes in the early 1940s brought
radiography into the forefront of NDT. As previously
mentioned, the different types of ionizing radiation have
different effects on a material. In the case of neutrons, a
neutron may be absorbed in an atom changing it to a different
version or isotope of that element.
To artificially cause a material to become an isotope, material is
exposed to a high quantity of neutron energy. Atoms in the
material may absorb a neutron. The extra neutron will result in
an increase in the atomic weight thereby creating a
radioisotope of the element. In some cases, the resulting
isotope is unstable or radioactive. Given enough time for a
sufficient number of atoms in a material to absorb a neutron, a
material of specific elements will become radioactive. This
process is referred to as activation.
For example, cobalt-59 which is a stable isotope of the element
cobalt will become cobalt-60 when activated through neutron
bombardment (Figure 2.12). Another example is iridium-191
that becomes iridium-192.

Table 2.2: The radioactive decay of lr- 192.

Cobalt-59 wafers

lr-192 Decay

Curies
Time Half-life
(Gigabecquerels) Neutrons ~\ I cf
100
bo mbard "-o"'o o_ =-o / /
0 0
0 Days 0 Packages of '
0.........
5
SE / O'./
O ~==
(3700)
Co-59 wafers. - 0 _ :: o o-
50 -o -o - 5 0 - 0-
74 Days 1
(1850) -0_0
-0 = o-o-o- =
-o-0 :: 0-0-
148 Days 2
25
(925) -0
~/ 5
0 =
=-- 0 o-
:: '-.o,
222 Days 3
12.5
(462.5)
/~~o= - - ~g~,
6.25 / / Reactor \ '
296 Days 4
(240.5)
As a bombardment of neutrons collides with packages
3.125
370 Days 5 of cobalt-59 wafers, atoms in the wafers absorb and
(11 5.625) retain t he extra we ight of neutrons.
1.5625
444 Days 6
(57.8125)
0.78125
518 Days 7
(28.09625)
0.3906
592 Days 8
(14.4522)
0.1953
Once the cobalt-59 wafers are activated by capturing
666 Days 9 extra neutrons, the material becomes cobalt-60, an
(7.2261) unstable and radioactive isotope. Wafers are sealed in
stainless capsules and through disintegration emit
gamma rays.
Creating a Radioactive Isotope (Radioisotope)

i\.long with the many isotopes that occur in nature, there are Figure 2.12: Cobalt-59 is bombarded with neutrons to become
cobalt-60.
many common manufactured radioisotopes. The introduction

12
 Chapter 2 - Fundamenta ls of Radiation

Chapter 2 Review Questions

L The two basic types of radiation are:
a. audible and visible
b. sub-light and faster than light
c. particulate and electromagnetic
d. energetic and prolific
8. Beta particles have a mass:
a. equal to 1840 times that of an alpha particle
b. equal to that of an alpha particle
c. much greater than that of an alpha particle
d. much less than that of an alph a particle

2. Wavelike radiation travels at:
a. just slightly below the speed of light as atmospheric
conditions are not constant
b. at the speed of light without regard to pressure,
temperature or magnetic fields
c. in a wavelike motion allowing it to curve around
objects
d. at subsonic speeds nearly 3280.84 ftls (1000 mis)
3. Gamma rays travel in a wavelike motion at the speed of
light , which is:
a. 3280.84 ft/s (1000 mis)
b. 186 000 miles/s (299 338 km/s)
c. 610 236.22 ftls (186 000 m/s)
d. 1000 miles/s (1609 .34 km/s)
4. Matter can be turned into energy.
a. true
b. false
9. In modern radiography the alpha and beta particles arc
of little concern because:
a. they have very little mass and energy and thus are
not harmful
b. they travel at sub-light speeds and as such pass right
through us
c. they travel at sub- light speeds and as such arc easily
contained or shielded
d. materials used in modern radiography do not emit
alph a or beta particles
10. X-radiation is created by applying a:
a. low voltage of direct current across the filame nt of a
vacuum tube
b. high-voltage alternating current across the cathode
of a vacuum tube
c. low-voltage alternating current across the target of a
vacuum tube
d. high-voltage direct current across the cathode of a
vacuum tube

5. Alpha particles are much like a helium nucleus as they
have:
a. two protons and two neutrons
b. one proton and one neutron
c. two protons, two neutrons and two electrons
d . one proton, one electron and one neutron
11. X - rays arc produced by an X-ray tube by the:
a. radioactive source inside the tube
b. passage of electrons striking the radium target
c. passage of electrons across the tube striking the
target
d . radioisotope inner chamber

6. Alpha particles have a/an: 12. R adio waves, microwaves and infrared waves are
a. positive charge types of:
b. negative charge a. ionizing radiation
c. neutral ch arge b. nonionizing radiation
d. alternating charge from positive to negative c. visible light waves
d. non-visible light waves

7. Beta particles have a/an:

a. positive charge 13. The neutron has an atomic mass of:
b. negative charge a. 1 AMU
c. neutral charge b. lOAMU
d. alternat ing charge from positive to negative c. 1000 AMU
d. 1840 AMU
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety

14. The shorter the wavelength or higher the frequency, the 18. As a radioisotope decays, the elements return to a stable
greater the penetration; as such: state by undergoing several steps; once complete the
a. primary beams have greater penetrability than material continues to produce radiation.
secondary beams a. true
b. secondary beams have greater penetrability than b. false
primary beams
c. scatter beams have greater penetrability than
secondary or primary beams 19. After 148 days, lr-192 would have undergone how many
d . all beams have the same wavelength and are halflives?
essentially the same a. 4
b. 3
c. 2
15. Elementary particles with a unit negative electrical d. 1
charge and a mass approximately equal to 1/1840 that of
a proton are:
a. protons 20. Activation is the process of bombarding material with:
b. neutrons a. excess electrons
c. electrons b. excess protons
d. valence shells c. excess neutrons
d. the combination of electrons and protons

16. The atomic weight of an atom is the combination of the

total number of protons and neutrons held in the 21. The total number of ____ identifies an element.
nucleus. This is also known as the: a. proto ns
a. proton number b. neutrons
b. neutron number c. electrons
c. Z number d. a combination of protons and neutrons
d. A number

22. Gamma radiation has a shorter wavelength than visible

17. Gamma rays are affected by magnetic fields. light, therefore making it:
a. true a. less penetrating
b. false b. more penetrating
c. brighter
d. less stable
 Chapter 3

Biological Effects of Radiation Exposure

Discovery of Biological Effects of Radiation radiation. The different types of radiation have an increasing
level of impact on living tissue. A factor or multiplier is
Radiation burns were first noted in 1896 within a month of applied when evaluating the radiation absorbed dose (rad)
Rontgen's announcement of his discovery of X-rays. In the times the severity or quality factor to determine the effective
following years, it became widely known that dangers existed radiation dose or roentgen equivalent man (rem).
while using X-rays and that those using the new technology
needed to take certain precautionary measures to avoid injury. Both gamma rays and X -rays have a quality factor (level of
Although there were known dangers related to radiation, not severity) of 1, whereas the different forms of particulate
everyone was protected. Because of this, many suffered serious radiation have greater impact on living tissue and therefore a
radiation burns and observed cancerous growths mainly on greater factor used to determine the equivalent dose in
the hands. By 1905, the effects of radiation had spread and rem. For example, the impact of an exposure to 1 R (10 mSv)
were becoming more understood by those who worked with of fast neutrons would be 10 times greater [or 10 rem
it; chronic radiation injuries became quite rare. (100 mSv)J than an exposure to 1 R (10 mSv) of X-rays or
gamma rays. Table 3.1 lists the different radiation types and
Early experimenters with natural radioactive materials also their associated quality factor (QJ
suffered burns caused by radiation. Henri Becquerel was
burned carrying a radium sample in his pocket. Both Marie To calculate rem, multiply the rad by the quality factor (Q2.
and Pierre Curie received radiation burns to their skin and
later died of leukemia, possibly attributed to their work with Table 3.1: Roentgen equivavent in man calculations.
radiation .
Equivalent
Radiat ion Type Rad Q
Scientists have long known that overexposure to radiation can rem
have harmful effects in humans. Some of these effects include
redness of the skin (radiation burn), cancer and genetic ~ X-ray 1 (10 mSv) 1 1 (10 mSv)
defects in future generations. Death can also occur soon after ('< Gamma Ray 1 (10 mSv) 1 1 (10 mSv)
j
exposure to large doses of radiation. Scientists have known for
more than 50 years that these types of health effects can result
from radiation exposure. Studies have been performed on the • Beta Particle 1 (10 mSv) 1 1 (10 mSv)

effects in people who have been exposed to radiation through

medical treatment, radiation accidents or as a result of
exposure to an atomic bomb. Earlier scientists also noted the
•
0
The rmal Neutro n s

Fast Neutrons
1 (10 mSv)

1 (10 mSv)
5

10
5 (50 mSv)

10 (100 mSv)

biological effects while studying genetic defects within insect c:t~ Alpha Part icles 1 (10 mSv) 20 20 (200 mSv)
offspring; this discovery won Hermann Muller the Nobel
Prize in 1946.
Radiation and Its Effect on Biological Materials
As previously mentioned, there are different forms of ionizing
radiation - radiation that has sufficient energy to penetrate Exposures to any form of energy produce changes in
material. These include gamma rays and X-rays, and biological materials, anything from a slight warming to the
particulate radiation including alpha, beta and neutron complete destruction of the material.
15
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety
When exposures are minimal, the warming of the skin may
feel pleasant; if the exposure becomes excessive, the skin will
burn. Exposure to the sun is a good example. Everyone is
aware exposure to excessive sunlight or heat in various degrees
may result in discomfort or burns. If too much of the body is
overexposed, death may occur. G amma-ray and X-ray
exposures are very similar to that of exposures to the sun or
other sources of heat, in that exposures may range from
insignificant to death. The main difference is that radiation
permeates through the body causing damage not only at the
surface but within the body as well. Internal organs are much
more sensitive to radiation than the skin, muscles or bones.
To really understand radiation effects (damage) to biological
materials, the damage radiation does at the cellular level must
be examined. The most sensitive cells of the human body are
the white blood cells, followed in order of importance by:
immature red blood cells, digestive system lining cells, cells of
the gonads, blood vessel cells, bone cells, muscle cells and
nerve cells. Penetrating radiation passes through most cells
without damaging them. However, penetrating radiation can
produce chemical reactions in the cell that yield toxic
substances or may break components such as the cell walls or
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) . DNA is found in every cell in
the human body; it consists of molecules that determine the
function that each cell performs (Figure 3.1). When radiation
interacts with a cell wall or DNA, the cell either dies or
becomes a different kind of cell,
such as a cancer cell. If such
damage is small, sometimes the
damage can be repaired.
The human body is constantly
repairing small damages such as
bruises, cuts and scrapes;
however, as the amount of
damage increases, the repair
time increases. When too many
cells in a single tissue or organ
are destroyed or altered, the
change may be noticeable and
the damage may take a long
period of time to repair (such as
the recovery from a serious
burn). Sometimes damage is
Figure 3.1: DNA is found in
every cell in the human body;
severe enough that recovery
it determines the function requires medical assistance. If
that each cell performs. t he destruction or change in
cells is too severe or involves
too many organs, the result could be the amputation of the
affected tissue or even death. C hanges to biological materials
are categorized as either prompt effects or delayed effects.
Prompt Effects of Radiation Exposure
Prompt effects of radiation exposure show signs of damage
within a short period of time, also referred to as an acute
exposure. The time periods \·ary \\ith the amount of exposure
and the affected area. Shon periods are considered to be
within a few hours to a couple weeks after the incident.
Relative to acute doses (doses recei,·ed over a short period of
time - 24 h), the actual amount of radiation needed to cause
symptoms varies. Figures comparing dose rates to expected
symptoms differ depending on the source of the information.
In general 25 rem (0.25 Sv) will have no detectable effect;
50 rem (0.5 Sv) will cause slight, temporary blood changes;
100 rem (1 Sv) may cause nausea and fatigue; 150 rem
(1.5 Sv) is considered the mortalit:· threshold; 320 rem to
360 rem (3.2 Sv to 3.6 Sv) is considered a 50/ 60 lethal dose
(with minimal supportive care); -l80 rem to 540 rem (4.8 Sv
to 5.4 Sv) is a 50/60 lethal dose \\ith supportive medical
treatment (50/60 is that dose at which 50% of the patients die
within 60 days); and 800 rem (8 Sv) produces a 100%
mortality rate. Again, these figures vary from source to source
and account for a whole body exposure; these particular
figures are derived fro m NCRP No. 98 Guidance on Radiation
Received in Space. To grasp the concept of how long an
exposure of 500 R (5000 mSv) would take while standing 1 ft
(0.3 m) from an unshielded 100 C i source of Co-60 refer to
the following example:
100 Ci x 14.0 R = 1400 R/h
(100 Ci x 140 mSv = 14 000 mSv/h or 14 Sv/h)
1400 R/h + 60 min = 23.33 R/min
(14 000 mSv/h + 60 min =
233.3 mSv/min)
500 R + 23.33 R/min = 21.43 min
(5000 mSv + 233.3 mSv/min =
21.43 min)
A time of21.43 min would be needed
to obtain a 500 R (5000 mSv) dose at
1 ft (0.3 m) from the source. The
equation used to determine the time
needed will be gone over in depth in
the following chapters.
Example of Severe Radiation
Overexposures
A very serious radiation burn from a
radiography source, similar to those
shown in Figure 3.2, occurred in
California in 1979. The burn was
caused when a man found a 28 Ci
iridium radiography source that had
Figure 3.2: At right are typical modern
radiographic sources. Note the cobalt
source on the left is mounted on a
much longer pigtail as cobalt exposure
devices are typica lly much more
shielded than iridium sources and as
such have longer S tubes to traverse.
 Chapter 3 - Btolo_gical Effects of Radiation Exposure

been accidentally left at a job site by a radiographer. The man
was not a radiographer and did not know what the source
was. He picked it up, put it in his back pocket and left it there
fo r about 45 min.
The radiation dose to a portion of the man's right buttock
exceeded 20 000 rem (200 Sv). At a depth of about 3 in.
(7.6 cm), the dose exceeded 1000 rem (10 Sv). Much of the
burned tissue had to be surgically removed, leaving the man
permanently disfigured and partially disabled for life.
An even worse accident occurred in Argentina, where a man
found a source and put it in his front pocket. Unfortunately,
this placed the source closer to the arteries that carry blood to
the legs. The radiation damage disintegrated the arteries and
both legs were amputated.
Dropped radiography sources have also been picked up by
workers in Germany (1968),Japan (1971), Peru (1999) and
South Africa (1977), resulting in serious radiation burns. (See
Figures 3.3 and 3.4.)

T he man became nauseated about an hour after the exposure.

"Nausea is a common symptom after the stomach receives a
dose of radiation exceeding about 100 rem (1 Sv). In this case,
the source was carried close enough to the stomach to cause it
to receive a dose of roughly 100 to 200 rem (1 to 2 Sv). A bout
6 h after exposure, the man noticed a burning feeling and a
reddening of his buttock. The burning and reddening got
worse and two days after the exposure, the man went to a
doctor.

In the first few days after exposure, radiation burns are hard
to recognize because they are very similar to other skin
irritations. The doctor thought the injury was caused by an
insect bite.
Figure 3.3: Blistering on the right hand of the fingers of a Peruvian
T he burn worsened until it became a large, open sore. The weld er after he p icked up an unshielded lr-192 source with his
patient was hospitalized 17 days after the exposure. After right hand and placed it in his right back pocket. The incident
three days of persistent questioning by the attending doctors, ocurred in Feburary 1999. This photograph was taken in April of
the man told about having the radioactive source in his that year.
pocket. At this point, the doctors realized t hat he had a
radiation burn.

By this time, the man had an open wound about 4 in.

(10.16 cm) in diameter and almost 1 in. (2.5 cm) deep. A
second, but less severely burned area, was nearby. The wound
caused continuous severe pain.

To treat the burn, doctors surgically removed the dead tissue.

A thick piece of skin was cut loose from the man's thigh,
folded over and sewn onto the wound to close it. Six months
after the accident, the skin flap had an edge that was not
healing and a nearby burned area was deteriorating. Ten
months after the accident, a second skin flap was sewn onto
the smaller wound. At 19 months after the accident, doctors
had not been completely successful in closing the wounds.
Further reconstructive surgery was anticipated. Two years after
the accident, the man still walked with a limp and
experienced pain where he was burned.
Other Examples
A similar accident occurred in India in 1968. A man fo und a
radioactive source and put it in his back pocket. He suffered a
serious radiation burn as a result. Years later, a large scar
remained.
Figure 3.4: The large necrotic lesion that resulted on the right thigh
of a welder from Peru after placing an lr-192 source in his back
pocket for more t han 3 h. This photograph was taken in May 1999,
about 3 months after the incident. Most of the lesion was covered
by a crust and was superinfected. The edges were well defined,
bliste red and above the surface of the surrounding tissue. The
right leg was eventually amputated.
Fortunately, such severe radiation burns are rare. Companies
licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission reported
visible radiation burns less than once a year between 1971 and
1980. Because about two-thirds of the companies performing
gamma radiography in the United States are licensed by the
individual states, not the NRC, their statistics are not
included in NRC totals.
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety
Incidents of this type, as with most radiography incidents, are
easily prevented. The radiographer must maintain control of
the source through following well-established procedures and
regulations. At the forefront is the use of the survey meter.
The survey meter is the radiographer's ability to sense the
presence of radiation, to determine that equipment is working
correctly and that the source is properly stored and shielded.
Most of the worst incidents in recent times have occurred to
nonradiographic personnel because the radiographer failed to
maintain control of the radiation source. By not using survey
meters, radiographers can lose control of their sources and fail
in their responsibility to protect themselves and others.
Radiation Sickness
Depending on the amount and the area affected, different
outcomes are plausible. A large dose concentrated to one part
of the body, such as a hand, may cause severe burns and
possible amputations. If a large dose is delivered to the whole
body in a short period of time, severe illness or even death
may occur.
J\. dose of 100 R (1000 mSv) or less to the torso will not
usually produce any noticeable symptoms. As the dose
increases above 100 R (1000 mSv) symptoms of nausea,
vomiting and diarrhea may occur within the following hours.
Other symptoms may follow within the coming weeks, such
as hair loss, appetite loss, general weakness, a feeling of ill
health, purple spots on the skin from internal bleeding, fever
and continued diarrhea.
If the entire body is exposed to a radiation dose exceeding
500 R (5 Sv) in a day or less, death is likely within a few
weeks, due to the affected bone marrow, which produces the
blood cells, but can no longer produce enough. Below 500 R
(5 Sv), recovery is likely with medical attention, although the
patient can expect several months of illness. A person exposed
to 1000 R to 2000 R (10 Sv to 20 Sv) may survive if the
delivered dose is spread out over several weeks.
Fatalities from Overexposure
Only one radiographer in the world is believed to have died
from the prompt effects of radiation and, in that case (July
1981), the exposure was probably not accidental. However,
others in the world have died from large radiation exposures
from radiography sources that were not properly stored in their
shielded containers.
In a well-known accident in Mexico, several people died of
radiation sickness caused by a radiography source. On March
21, 1962, a construction security guard was given a 5 Ci Co-60
(185 GBq) source for safekeeping by his employer. The
security guard did not know what the source was, but he
assumed it was valuable because the employer told him to store
it in a safe place and to make sure no one went near it. Because
the security guard knew that valuable property should be
guarded carefully, he took the source home. The source was in
18
a lead container, but presumably, the security guard removed
the source from the container out of curiosity to see what was
valuable about it.
Sometime between March 21 and April 1, his son found the
source and placed it in a front pocket of his trousers. On
April 1, the security guard's wife found the source and placed
it in a drawer in the kitchen.
On April 17, the security guard's mother-in-law moved in
with the family to help care for the boy who by that time was
sick from the radiation. At this time, she noticed the
blackening of the glasses that had been close to the source in
the drawer.
On April 29, the boy died of radiation sickness. On July 19,
his mother died, too. It was later estimated that the boy had
received a dose between 3000 rem and 5000 rem (30 Sv and
50 Sv) and his mother a dose between 2000 rem and
3000 rem (20 Sv and 30 Sv).
On July 22, 1962, the employer claimed the source and took it
away. The family did not suspect the tragedy it had caused. In
August, the security guard's two-year-old daughter became
very ill. On August 13, an alert physician suspected for the
first time that the common symptoms of the members of this
family might be caused by radiation. On August 18, the little
girl died. It was later estimated that she had received between
1400 rem and 1900 rem (14 Sv and 19 Sv).
On J\.ugust 20, the security guard and his mother-in-law were
admitted to the hospital with what appeared to be radiation
exposure symptoms. Because he was away from the house a
lot, the security guard had been exposed on and off and it is
believed that he had received less exposure than the other
members of the family had. He was discharged from the
hospital on September 6, but kept under close medical
observation. His mother-in- law did not survive. She died on
October 15. It was estimated that she received between
1500 rem and 3000 rem (15 Sv and 30 Sv) over the period of
time she was exposed.
This tragedy could have been avoided if the radiography
company had kept better control of its sources. A radiography
source must not be left in the hands of anyone who does not
know how dangerous it is.
Delayed Effects of Radiation
When large doses of radiation are spread over extended
periods of time, an individual may not show obvious signs of
sickness. The effect from radiation may lie on the cellular
level. Radiation is known to affect cells at the DNA level.
Large amounts of radiation may not kill the cell, but could
alter the DNA contained within it, changing the purpose of
the cell altogether. The new cell formed is sometimes a cancer
that reproduces rapidly and can kill the organism in which it
 Chapter 3 - Biological Effects of Radiation Exposure

lives. Cancer caused by radiation exposure is no different from
naturally occurring cancer. Natural causes of cancer result in
death for about 20% of the United State's population.
Most scientists would agree that for every 1 rem (0.01 Sv) of
radiation received, the chance of dying from cancer is
increased by no more than 1 in 10 000. What this means is
that for every rem received, it adds 1 chance in 10 000 of
dying of cancer.
Genetic Defects (Mutations)
Other effects of radiation are genetic defects or mutations of
DNA molecules. For example, if the mutated DNA is in a
reproductive cell, such as an egg or sperm, the offspring may be
born with physical and/or mental disabilities, although most
genetically damaged cell/sperm combinations do not survive.
impractical or impossible for radiation workers to maintain a
zero radiation dose, the principle of ALARA is that the
worker makes every effort to keep radiation exposure to a
minimum, considering the benefits derived from its use and
the consequences incurred from any exposure.
Radiographers should not underestimate simple measures
available to practice ALARA. Maximizing the amount of
distance between the controls and the projector, positioning
yourself so that large equipment (e.g. tanks, pipe, vehicle, etc.)
is between you and the source, and the use of a collimator
whenever possible, are examples of what can be done to
control and reduce exposure.
Occupational Dose Limits for Adults - 10 CFR
Part 20.1201

T he licensee shall control the occupational dose to individual

Since 1927, scientists have known that radiation had the adults, except for planned special exposures under 10 CFR
ability to cause genetic defects. Early evidence that radiation Part 20.1206, to the following dose limits (Table 3.2).
caused genetic defects was observed in insects. Increased
Table 3.2: Total effective dose equivalent radiation dose
numbers of genetic defects were found in the descendants of
limits.
insects that had been exposed to radiation though the defects
observed were the same as defects noted as occurring
naturally. Similar studies were carried out on animals with TEDE Radiation Dose Limits
similar results, increased number of defects, but still the same All doses given in rem (mSv}
defects that occur naturally. Annual Dose Limit Lifetime
Area of Exposure
O ccupational PSE PSE
Most people who suffer from a genetic defect are not
conscious of it. Genetic defects are not always physical and Whole body - Head
may not affect the person enough to cause concern. Some and trunk (including
well-known genetic defects are color blindness and male gonads), arms S (SO) S (SO) S (SO)
hemophilia (a failure of the blood to clot properly). above the elbow and
legs above the knee
Radiation exposure of 500 mrem/year (5000 µSv/year) to
Lens of the eye lS (lSO) lS (lSO) 7S (7SO)
pregnant women is an area of concern. Reasons being, the
fetus is growing rapidly; therefore, the cells are dividing very
Extremit ies - Hands,
rapidly. This is especially true in the first trimester of the so (SOO)
elbows, feet or legs so (SOO) 2SO (2SOO)
pregnancy. Rapidly dividing cells are much more easily below the knee
affected than slower growing cells such as those within adults.
NRC Regulatory Guide 8.13 and 10 CFR 20 should be read PSE - Planned Special Exposure 10 CFR Part 20.1206
and understood by all women of childbearing age who work
within the industry as a radiographer or radiographer's Minor and Embryo/Fetus Exposure
assistant.
Age< 18 years
ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) Doses 10% of dose limits for an adult
Minors
Example: Whole body s 0.5 rem/year
ALARA is the acronym for as low as reasonably achievable (S mSv/year)
which means making every effort to maintain and control
exposures as far below the dose limits as is practical. This Declared pregnant Dose s O.S rem (S mSv) during
women entire gestation period
concept or philosophy comes out of the Federal Regulation
10 CFR Part 20 which says in part: "ALARA means making
Embryo/ fetus Dose s O.S rem (S mSv)
a reasonable effort to maintain exposure to radiation as far
below the limits as is practical. Taking into account the state
of technology, and the economics of improvements in relation
to benefits to the public health and safety." While it may be

19
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety
A) The annual limit, which is more limiting of - T he
total effective dose equivalent being equal to 5 rem
(0.05 Sv); or
• The sum of the deep-dose equivalent and the
committed dose equivalent to any individual
organ or tissue other than the lens of the eye
being equal to 50 rem (0.5 Sv).
13) The annual limits to the lens of the eye, to the skin
of the whole body, and to the skin of the
extremities, which are;
• A lens equivalent of 15 rem (0.15 Sv), and a
shallow dose equivalent of 50 rem (0.5 Sv) to the
skin of the whole body or to the skin of any
cxtre mi ty.
C) Doses received in excess of the annual limits,
including doses received during accidents,
emergencies, and planned special exposures, must be
subtracted from the limits for planned special
exposures that the individual may receive during the
current year and during the individual's lifetime
[10 CFR Part 20.1206(e)(1)(2)].
D) W hen the external exposure is determined by
measurement with an external personal monitoring
device, the deep dose equivalent must be used in
place of the effective dose equivalent, unless the
effective dose equivalent is determined by a
dosimetry method approved by the NRC. The
assigned deep dose equivalent must be for the part of
the body receiving the highest exposure. The assigned
shallow dose equivalent must be the dose averaged
over the contiguous 1.0 cm2 of the skin receiving the
highest exposure. The deep dose equivalent, lens dose
equivalent, and shallow dose equivalent may be
assessed from surveys or other radiation
measurements for the purpose of demonstrating
compliance with the occupational dose li mits, if the
individual monitoring device was not in the region of
the highest potential exposure, or the results of
individual monitoring are unavailable.
O ccupational D ose Limits for Minors - 10 CFR
Part 20.1207
The annual occupational dose limits for minors are 10% of
the annual dose limits specified for adult workers in 10 CFR
Part 20.1201.
Dose Equivalent to an Embryo/Fetus - 10 CFR
Part 20.1208
The licensee shall ensure that the dose equivalent to the
embryo/fetus during the entire pregnancy, due to the
occupational exposure of a declared pregnant woman, does
not exceed 0.5 rem (5 mSv).
• The licensee shall make efforts to avoid substantial
variation above a uniform monthly exposure rate to a
declared pregnant woman so as to satisfy the limits
set forth.
Planned Special Exposures - 10 CFR
Part 20.1206
A licensee may authorize an adult worker to receive doses in
addition to and accounted for separately from the doses
received under the limits in 10 CFR Part 20.1201 provided
that each of the following conditions are satisfied.
1. The licensee authorizes a planned special exposure only
in an exceptional situation when alternatives that might
avoid the dose estimated to result from the planned
special exposure are unavailable or impractical.
2. T he licensee (and employer if the employer is not the
licensee) specifically authofrzes the planned special
exposure, in writing, before the exposure occurs.
3. Before a planned special exposure, the licensee ensures
that the individuals involved are -
Informed of the purpose of the planned exposure;
Informed of the estimated doses and associated risks
and specific radiation levels or other conditions that
might be involved in performing the task; and
I nstructed in the measures to be taken to keep the
dose ALARA considering other risks that may be
present.
4. Prior to permitting an individual to participate in a
planned special exposure, the licensee ascertains prior
doses as required by 10 CFR Part 20.1204(b) during the
lifetime of the individual for each individual involved.
5. Subject to 10 CFR Part 20.1201, the licensee does not
authorize a planned special exposure that would
cause an individual to receive a dose fro m all plan ned
special exposures and all doses in excess of the limits to
exceed -
The numerical values of any of the dose limits in 10
CFR Part 20.1201 in any year, and
Five times the annual dose Umits in 10 CFR Part
20.1201 during an individual's Ufetime.
6. The licensee maintains records of the conduct of a
planned special exposure in accordance with
10 CFR Part 20.2105 and submits a written report in
accordance with 10 CFR Part 20.2204.
7. The licensee records the best estimate of the dose
1es1.1kJng.fFom the p),wnea speda) e.xpos1.11e Jn the
individual's record and informs the individual, in writing,
of the dose within 30 days from the date of the planned
special exposure. The dose from planned special
exposures is not to be considered in controlling future
occupational dose of the individual under 10 CFR Part
20.1201 but is to be included in evaluations required by
10 CFR Part 20.1206.
 Chapter 3 - Bio_
logical Effects of Radiation Exposure

Chapter 3 Review Questions

Overexposures to personnel can result in: 6. ALARA means:
a. cancer a. as little as reasonably achievable
b. genetic defects carried into further generations b. as low as reasonably acceptable
c. death c. as little as reasonably acquired
d. all of the above d. as low as reasonably achievable

)
All radiation exposures are equally serious and can result 7. The maximum occupational dose for an adult
in death. radiographer is:
a. true a. 5 rad per year
b. false b. 5 rem per year
c. 5 Sv per year
d. 5 Gy per year
)_ Ionizing radiation passes through the entire body; as
such, damage can occur to the:
a. skin 8. The maximum occupational dose for a minor is:
b. internal organs a. 10% that of an adult radiographer
c. muscles b. 5 mSv
d. all of the above c. 0.5 rem
d. all the above

L Prompt effects of radiation exposure to acute doses

include: 9. The alpha particle is:
a. blood changes a. as energetic and damaging as the beta particle
b. nausea b. less energetic and less damaging than the gamma ray
c. fatigue c. more damaging than the gamma ray
d. all of the above d. less energetic than the beta particle

Industrial radiography, being one of the most dangerous 10. The alpha particle has a quality factor of:
jobs in the world, has killed: a. 1
a. more than 100 radiographers in the United States b. 5
b. more than 10 radiographers in the world c. 10
c. only one radiographer is known to have died in the d. 20
world
d. only one member of the public is known to have
died in the world
 ·~~~~~~~Chapter4

Radiation Detection Equipment

Importance of Radiation Survey Equipment
Unlike common hazards such as fire, our senses, including
sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste, cannot detect the
presence of ionizing radiation.Just the same, the hazards are
very real and consequences can be life-altering injuries and
even death. Instruments must be used by the radiographer to
detect radiation. Among these instruments are four devices
required for use by the radiographer: survey meters, alarming
rate meters, pocket dosimeters, and either film badges,
thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) or optically stimulated
luminescent dosimeters (OSL).
tube depends on the type of instrument used. T hey can lie
within or on a small probe connected to the meter with an
electrical cable. Gas-filled tubes are used in two types of survey
meters: geiger-miiller survey meters (Figure 4.1) and ionization
chamber survey meters (Figures 4.2 and 4.3). For industrial
radiography applications, most survey meters used are of the
geiger-milller type, due to their ability to measure small
amounts of radiation and their rugged capabilities. Certain
geiger-miiller survey instruments must be used with care.
When radiation intensities are too high, the instrument may
saturate and produce a false reading of zero.

Survey meters and alarming rate meters are designed to

measure the presence of radiation while pocket dosimeters and
film badges or TLDs/OSLs provide the ability to monitor or
record radiation doses received.

Survey Meters (Dose Rate)

Figure 4.1: A standard
geiger-muller survey instrument.
Note the battery check and the
scale selection.
Survey meters measure
immediate dose rates. They
are an effective way of
determining the presence of
ionizing radiation. These
instruments are used as the
first line of defense against
overexposure should any
mishap or equipment
malfunction occur. The use
of the survey meter helps to
aid in locating the safe Figure 4.2: Internal ionization chamber survey meter.
radiation level perimeters.
Ion chamber survey meters are particularly useful in the energy
Survey meters used in ranges typically associated with X-radiation; whereas
industrial radiography geiger-miiller survey meters are more accurate at the higher
typically use a cylindrical energies, ion chambers are more accurate and stable at the
gas-filled tube to detect lower energies.
radiation. The location of the
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety
The survey meter is arguably the most important tools in the
radiographer's inventory; performing a proper survey each and
every time with a calibrated and operable survey meter will
dramatically increase safe operations. Choosing the right survey
meter for the application is nearly as important. Geiger-mUller
tubes do not respond well to the lower energies, such as X-rays
below 100 kcV, and as such will typically give readings that arc
grossly inaccurate, whereas ion chambers do respond well at
these lower energies.
Survey meters used in the radiography industry arc required
to read 2 mR/h to 1000 mR/h (0.02 mSv to 10 mSv).
Figure 4.3: An example of an external gamma/beta probe.
Reading a Survey Meter
Determining the current dose rate is the primary purpose of
the survey meter. Several precautions must be made prior to
determining whether it is in a useful state.
1. Check batteries within the measurement instrument.
This can usually be performed on the instrument itself by
selecting t he battery setting and observing the gage.
2. Verify the current calibration date with attached sticker.
3. Select the proper scale, for example, xO.l mR/h,
xl mR/h, xlO mR/h, xlOO mR/h. (xl µSv/h, xlO µSv/h,
xlOO µSv/h, xl OOO µSv/h)
4. If required or available, the use of a check source
(Figure 4.4) with a known value can be observed to verify
suitability. (A check
sou rce is usually a
Cs- 137 source of
around 5 µCi
[185 kBq].) To
determine the current
dose rate, radiographers
need to be aware of the
scale in which the
meter is set. Upon
entering an area with Figure 4.4: Cs-137 5 µCi (185 kBq)
higher levels of check source.
radiation, the radiographer may need to adjust the
settings on the instrument to account for an accurate
dose rate.
Making a Proper Radiation Survey
A great deal of emphasis has been given to the survey as if it
were a single event conducted at different times during the
course of the radiographer's work. In this concept, th ere are
three surveys that are most critical: verifying the survey meter
is working, checking that the source is stored in its safe
position, and surveying after an exposure has been performed.
In reality, the radiographer must use the survey meter at all
times when there is a source present. Specific surveys to be
performed include: during handling, during use, during
transporting and while performing tasks involved in receiving
and returning the camera containing the source. P rocedures
may vary from company to company on how to perform a
proper survey.
Specific attention should be given to the 360-degree survey
that is performed each time a source is retracted back into the
projector/camera. This includes:
observing the survey meter as the source is returned
to the shielded position; the radiographer should
observe the meter's movement return to zero;
prior to approaching the camera after the source is
retracted, ensure that the source is locked in the
shielded position by challenging the lock; attempting
to push the source out to the exposed position;
approaching t he camera observe the survey meter,
looking for abnormally high readings;
as the exposure device is reached, extend the survey
meter ahead of you toward the exit port, (this area
will produce the highest levels of radiation in the
event of an improperly secured source) and;
continue by sweeping the survey meter around the
exposure device 360 degrees and finish by sweeping
the survey meter out along the guide tube to the
source stop.
D istance has a great effect on reducing exposure rates, no
matter what the source's strength or characteristics. Once the
source is retracted to the shielded posi tion, at the standard
crank-set length of 25 ft the survey meter should show
essentially zero.
As a practical rule, while observing t he survey meter, a specific
sequence will occur.
1. As the source is exposed (pushed out of the fully shielded
position into the guide tube) the meter will see a
dramatic increase in exposure rate.
2. As the source reaches the collimator the meter will show
a decrease from the maximum rate seen while in the
completely unshielded position of the guide tube, to the
semi-shielded position of the collimator.
 Chapter 4 - Radiation Detection Equipment

3. At the termination of the exposure, the process is must lie between ±20% of the actual expected reading. For
reversed, the meter goes from reading the semi-shielded digital instruments with auto scaling, multiple measurements
rate to maximum as the source travels from the across the required range (2 mR/h to 1000 mR/h (20 µSv to
collimator through the guide tube. 10 000 µSv)] are necessary.
4. As the source returns through the guide tube to the fully
shielded position of the exposure device the meter will
read essentially zero.

If unexpected readings arc observed, something is wrong. A

source could be exposed or the survey meter may be
malfunctioning. When problems arise, the radiographer will
need to carefully assess the situation without risking
unnecessary exposure by creating distance between himself or
herself and the exposure device, and determine the corrective
action. The employer will have an emergency procedure that
provides the limits of action the radiographer can take to
rectify the problem. If the problem cannot be rectified
through simple means, the radiation safety officer (RSO)
must be contacted and the problem assessed through the
company's safety procedures. If the problem is resolved by the
radiographer, the radiographer must inform the RSO of the
event. 1t is up to the RSO to determine if further action is
necessary an<l, at the very least, if there is an opportunity for a
lesson learned that can be shared for the benefit of other
Figure 4.5: An example of a popular digital survey meter.
radiographers.

During the radiographer's continual use of the survey meter, Only trained individuals in accordance with ANSI standards,
another specific survey of considerable importance is required. 10 CFR Part 34, and the applicable manufacturer's
This survey is conducted at the boundary identifiers (signs recommendations should perform calibrations.
and ropes/tape). These readings need to be taken throughout
~he day as field shots tend to change in orientation and result Pocket Dosimeters (Dose)
;n different intensities at different locations.
Survey meters measure dose rate; dosimeters measure dose
Calibration received. Radiographers are required to wear two types of
Survey meters must be calibrated semiannually (not to exceed dose-measuring devices: a d irect reading dosimeter
-;.x months) as required by the Nuclear Regulatory (Figures 4.6 and 4.7) and a personal monitoring device such
'- mmission or at any time when the accuracy of the meter is
-_.:;pect. Survey meters should have a sticker verifying the last
.:alibration and the next calibration due date. Calibration
-cquires placing the survey meter at a known dose rate
distance from a source specifically packaged for conducting
.:alibrations. If necessary, the survey meter may be adjusted to
:'roduce the desired reading on the instrument. Adjustments,
.:- possible, must be made in strict compliance with
Figure 4.6: A direct reading pocket dosimeter, often referred to as a
:lanufacturer instructions and only by personnel specifically
pencil dosimeter or pocket ion chamber.
:::-ained to do so. Newer technology digital survey meters, such
" Figure 4.5, require special equipment typically maintained
b· the manufacturer or secondary standards laboratories for
adjustment.

~f )~t analog and some digital survey meters have intensity

St.-tings (manually adjusted scales) that need to be calibrated
dependently of one another. The usual procedure to
Eye piece Reticle Lens Quartz fiber
.::.Wbrate survey equipment is to take two reading points on electroscope
e; .:h scale. These points should be taken at approximately
"Ile-third and two-thirds scale. Accuracy of the calibration Ciru IYO /1 ..,, r. 1+""1\U ""I \ , , , : ......... ,,..., .... ..,r; .............. _ ........... _ - ..... - -1 - - ... ....... -=-- .... ..
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety

as a film badge or thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD) or Pocket dosimeters must be checked at intervals not exceeding
optically stimulated luminescent dosimeter (OSL). It should 12 months. Pocket dosimeters are quite rugged, yet they can
be noted here that all of the above, the ion chamber (pencil sustain significant damage by being dropped. If dropped, the
dosimeter), the TLD and the OSL, are all dosimeters. The radiographer should refer to his or her employer's operating
only difference is the method used to record dose history and and emergency procedure for the required action. All pocket
the method to read that history. Operators are also required to dosimeters will lose their charge through leakage. If a
carry an alarming rate meter, which will emit audible alarms dosimeter is working properly, this natural leakage will be so
in areas containing concentrations of radiation greater than small that the dose recorded over a working day will not be
500 mR/h (5000 µSv/ h). affected. If a dosimeter becomes damaged or dirty, it may lose
its charge quite rapidly, leading to false readings.
Pocket dosimeters, such as Figure 4.8, provide an immediate
measurement of dose received at any given time. Standard When using a self-reading pocket dosimeter, certain steps
pocket dosimeters generally have a scale of 0 mR to 200 mR should be taken to ensure the intent of its usefulness is being
(O µSv to 2000 µSv). taken advantage of.
Dosimeters should be charged (set to zero) prior to
beginning the shift (Figure 4.9).
Secure the dosimeter to the body.
Periodically check the dosimeter throughout the day.
If a high reading is observed, the radiographer must
,l.:-;.,~,.T Survey Meter Mode refer to the employer's operating and emergency
.·/tM·
-~ -" ""' response procedures and/or contact the RSO as a
high reading is an indication that a problem has
occurred. The problem may be as simple as a
malfunction of the pocket dosimeter or it could be
Dose Rate Alarms an indication of radiation dose to the radiographer.
If the dosimeter reads off scale, further radiographic
·l work must cease and the RSO should be notified
___:__ ~. .:i
Dose Alarms

Figure 4.8: An example of a pocket dosimeter.

Before a pocket dosimeter can be used to measure radiation

(a)
dose, it must be zeroed. G iven the nature and function of the
pocket dosimeter, the process of zeroi ng involves charging it
with a special charging stand. The radiographer places the
pocket dosimeter on the charging stand and adjusts the
amount of charge to bring the quartz fiber needle to the zero
point on the scale seen in the dosimeter. This must be done at
the beginning of every shift, the resulting reading (often not
exactly zero) recorded and at the end of the shift the reading
(b)
observed and recorded to determine the daily dose.

Technically speaking, the self-contained fiber voltmeter and

ion chamber of the pocket dosimeter must be charged. A
central electrode is given a positive charge using a simple
battery. Negative ions (electrons) are released in the gas
surroundi ng the electrode and are attracted to the positive
electrode, thereby neutralizing the charge. There are two (c)
internal fibers within the dosimeter: one glued in position and
the other repelled by the charge. As the charge is neutralized
Figure 4.9: Image viewed in self-reading pocket dosimeter.
the fi bers attract and thereby give a received dose (a) Dosimeter full y charged. The quartz fiber rests near 0 on the
measurement. scale. (b) Dosimeter exposed to radiation. The reading is 2 6 mR
(260 µSv). (c) Fully discharged dosimeter. The fiber is off the scale.
 Chapter 4 - Radiation Detection Equipment

immediately. The RSO will collect the film badge or Film badge readings are the basis for a permanent dose
TLD for processing. record. Badges are to be worn at all times while working with
radiation. In the event of a pocket dosimeter reading off scale,
Alarming Rate Meters film badges and/or T LDs are the only way to provide the
technician with an accurate absorbed dose.
_....rrning rate meters (rate
.w.rms) must be worn by all Film badges are very durable but can still be damaged from
~1dustrial radiographers. Rate light, excessive heat and moisture. If a puncture occurs
.;.'..arms (Figure 4.10) are generally exposing the internal film, the film badge will be ru ined,
·om on the trunk of the body much like radiographic film. Heats in excess of 130 °F
.:...1d give an audible signal when (54.44 °C) can also affect the film, producing an undesired
o.-posed to radiation levels above fogging. Submerging a film badge in water or laundering can
; .., mR/h (5000 µSv/h). also cause damage.

Different types of rate alarms are Thermoluminescent Dosimeters

.;yailable for different work
environments. Audible, visual and Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) are very similar to
·ibrating alarms are used film badges in appearance and purpose (Figure 4.11). Unlike
:hroughour the industry. film badges, TLDs use
pills of crystalline
:\larming rate meters are not a materials that store
substitute for the radiographer's Figure 4.10: Typical energy deposited by
alarming rate meter.
~esponsibility to maintain radiation. The energy
.::onstant use of the survey meter. deposited within the
The alarming rate meter is the radiographer's own personal crystalline structure
radiation alarm as a last preventative measure against can be heated then
unnecessary radiation exposure. In accordance with NRC read as an emitted
requirements, the alarming threshold is 500 mrem/h light. Special readers
5000 µSv/h). In most cases, to achieve this level, a problem are used to measure the
Figure 4.1 1: A typical TLD.
has occurred that should be evaluated. light given off.

- hould the radiographer overlook his/her responsibility to Optically Stimulated Luminescent Dosimeters
maintain constant use of the survey meter and rely on the
alarming rate meter, there is potential for the radiographer to Optically stimulated
accumulate an excessive radiation dose throughout the day luminescent dosimeters
and not be aware of it. Rate alarms or chirpers must be (OSL) are similar to
.:becked at intervals not to exceed 12 months. both TLDs and film
badges in appearance
Film Badges and purpose and are
another option to the
:\ film badge is a dosimeter containing a piece of film, similar employer's radiation
ro that of radiographic film. Ionizing radiation in the area of monitoring program
the film badge exposes the film. The darker the film, the (Figure 4.12).
higher the received dose. The film must be sent to a National Aluminum oxide
\'oluntary Laboratory Accreditation Program (NVLAP) lab crystals in the
~or processing, and is processed using a densitometer-based dosimeter are affected
Figure 4.12: Sample OSLs.
instrument and then converted to exposure. during radiation
exposure and when
To produce the proper response and allow the processor to processed by exposure to the green light of a laser or LED,
interpret the response correctly, the film must be held in a emit a blue light proportional to the radiation exposure.
>pecially designed badge. The film badge contains metal filters
ro tell how penetrating the radiation was and, therefore, The same recommendations should be followed while using
"\·hether the exposure was caused by high-energy or film badges, TLDs and OSLs.
.ow-energy radiation. From this information, dose is Wear the badge for the full length of the shift .
.::alculatcd. Do not expose the badge to high temperatures or
water.
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety

Stop work if the badge is lost or damaged. Submit a
damaged badge to the RSO and get a new one.
Report a lost badge to the RSO immediately.
Processing of badges is done on a regular schedule.
Know the schedule and have your badge available for
processing.
Alarm Systems and Area Monitors for Permanent
Installations
Generally, monitors and alarm systems are used with
permanent installations (Figure 4.13). Guidelines for the rules
pertaining to permanent installations can be found within
10 CFR Part 34.33.
(c) A licensee may apply to the Commission fo r approval of
alternative methods for controlling access to high
radiation areas.
(d) The licensee shall establish the controls required by
paragraphs (a) and (c) of this section in a way that does
not prevent individuals from leaving a high radiation
area.
(e) Control is not required for each entrance or access point
to a room or other area that is a high radiation area solely
because of the presence of radioactive materials prepared
for transport and packaged and labeled in accordance
with the regulations of the Department of Transportation
provided that -
(1) The packages do not remain in the area longer than
three days; and
(2) The dose rate at 39.37 in. (1 m) from the external
surface of any package does not exceed 0.01 rem
(0.1 mSv) per hour.

Permanent Radiographic Installation -

10 CFR Part 34.33
Each entrance that is used for personnel access to the
high radiation area (Figure 4.14) must have both a
conspicuous visible and audible warning signal to warn of the
presence of radiation (Figure 4.15). The visible signal must be
actuated by radiation whenever the source is exposed. The
audible signal must be actuated when an attempt is made to
enter the installation while the source is exposed.
Figure 4.13: A permanent radiographic installation in Saudi Arabia.

Different configurations for permanent installation programs

may be implemented. The requirements for entry control have
been outlined as in 10 CFR Part 20.1601.
(a) Each entrance that is used for personnel access to the
high radiation area in a permanent radiographic
installation must have eitl1er:
(1) A control device that, upon entry into the area,
causes the level of radiation to be reduced below that
level at which an individual might receive a deep
dose equivalent of 0.1 rem (1 mSv) in 1 h at 1 ft
(30 cm) from the source, or from any surface that
the radiation penetrates,
(2) A control device that energizes a conspicuous visible
or audible alarm signal so that the individual
entering the high radiation area and the supervisor of
the activity are made aware of the entry; or
(3) Entryways that are locked, except during periods
when access to the areas is required, with positive
Figure 4.14: The entrance to this high radiation area in a
control over each individual entry.
permanent installation is indicated by a bright red door.
(b) In place of the controls required by paragraph (a) of this
section for a high radiation area, the licensee may
substitute continuous direct or electronic surveillance that The alarm system must be tested for proper operation with a
is capable of preventing unauthorized entry. radiation source each day before t he installation is used for
radiographic operations. The test must include a check of

rh the visible and
_dible signals. Entrance
mrol devices that
duce the radiation
~..el upon entry must be
c:•ted monthly. If an
~mrance control device
: an alarm is operating
mproperly, it must be
mmediately labeled as
ietective and repaired
"ithin seven calendar
.-:lays. The facility may
.:ontinue to be used Figure 4.15: A visible warning signal
outside a permanent high radiation
during this seven-day
area features red and green lights
period, provided the indicating when it is safe to enter.
'.icensec implements the
.:ontinuous surveillance requirements of§ 34.51 and uses an
alarming rate meter. Test records for entrance controls and
audible and visual alarms must be maintained in accordance
with § 34.75.
Leak Testing of Sealed Sources -
10 CFR Part 34.27
According to § 34.27:
(a) The replacement of any sealed source fastened to or
contained in a radiographic exposure device and leak
testing of any sealed source must be performed by
persons authorized to do so by the NRC or an
Agreement State.
(b) The opening, repair, or modification of any sealed source
must be performed by persons specifically authorized to
do so by the Commission or an Agreement State.
(c) Testing and record keeping requirements.
(1) Each licensee who uses a scaled source shall have the
source tested for leakage at intervals not to exceed
six months. The leak testing of the source must be
performed using a method approved by the
Commission or by an Agreement State. The wipe
sample should be taken from the nearest accessible
point to the scaled source where contamination
might accumulate. The wipe sample must be
analyzed for radioactive contamination. The analysis
must be capable of detecting the presence of
0.005 pCi (185 Bq) of radioactive material on the
test sample and must be performed by a person
specifically authorized by the Commission or an
Agreement State to perform the analysis.
Chapter 4 - Radiation Detection Equipment
(2) The licensee shall maintain records of the leak tests
in accordance with § 34.67.
(3) Unless a sealed source is accompanied by a certificate
from the transferor that shows that it has been leak
tested within six months before the transfer, it may
not be used by the licensee until tested for leakage.
Sealed sources that are in storage and not in use do
not require leak testing, but must be tested before use
or transfer to another person if the interval of storage
exceeds six months.
(d) Any test conducted pursuant to paragraph (c) of this
section which reveals the presence of0.005 µCi (185 Bq)
or more of removable radioactive material must be
considered evidence that the sealed source is leaking. The
licensee shall immediately withdraw the equipment
involved from use and shall have it decontaminated and
repaired or disposed of in accordance with Commission
regulations. A report must be filed with the Director,
Office of Federal and State Materials and Environmental
Management Programs, by an appropriate method listed
in § 30.6(a) of this chapter, the report to be filed within
5 days of any test with results that exceed the threshold
in this paragraph (d), and to describe the equipment
involved, the test results, and the corrective action taken.
A copy of the reporr must be sent to the Administrator
of the appropriate Nuclear Regulatory Commission's
Regional Office listed in appendix D of 10 CFR Part 20
of this chapter "Standards for Protection Against
Radiation."
(e) Each exposure device using depleted uranium (DU)
shielding and an S tube configuration must be tested for
DU contamination at intervals not to exceed 12 months.
T he analysis must be capable of detecting the presence of
0.005 µCi (185 Bq) of radioactive material on the test
sample and must be performed by a person specifically
authorized by the Commission or an Agreement State to
perform the analysis. Should such testing reveal the
presence of 0.005 µCi (185 Bq) or more of removable
DU contamination, the exposure device must be removed
from use until an evaluation of the wear on the S tube
has been made. Should the evaluation reveal that the S
tube is worn through, the device may not be used again.
DU shielded devices do not have to be tested for DU
contamination while in storage and not in use. Before
using or transferring such a device however, the device
must be tested for DU contamination if the interval of
storage exceeded 12 months. A record of the DU
leak-test must be made in accordance with § 34.67.
29
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety

Chapter 4 Review Questions

1. Radiation can be detected by the human senses. 6. A survey meter must be calibrated on each scale (lx,
a. true lOx, lOOx, etc.) at two points: one-third and two-thirds
b. false scale. The accuracy of each reading must be within:
a. 5%
b. 10%
2. Which of the following detects, measures, or in some c. 20%
way records ionizing radiation? d. 30%
a. thermoluminescent dosimeter
b. film badge
c. pocket ion chamber (dosimeter) 7. A dosimeter measures:
d. survey meter a. dose rate
e. rate alarm b. lifetime exposure
£ all of the above c. weekly exposure
d. dose received since the last time it was charged

3. Which of the two types of survey meters is considered

most appropriate for industrial radiography? 8. A rate alarm meter or alarming rate meter must sound a
a. gciger-milller tube continuous audible alarm greater than 80 dB at 1 ft
b. ion chamber (0.3 m) at:
a. 500 mR/h (5000 µSv/h)
b. 400 mR/h (4000 µSv/h)
4. The survey meter must be capable of measuring a range c. 100 mR/h (1000 µSv/h)
of: d. 2 mR/h (20 µSv/h)
a. 0 mR/h through 10 R/h
(O µSv/h through 100 mSv/h)
b. 2 mR/h through 1 R/h 9. Dosimeters and rate alarms must be calibrated every:
(20 µSv/h through 10 mSv/h) a. three months
c. 0 mR/h through 1 R/h b. six months
(O µSv/h through 10 mSv/h) c. 12 months
d. 2 mR/h through 10 R/h d. prior to use
(20 µSv/h through 100 mSv/h )

10. Film badges and thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs)

5. After a source has been returned to the shielded position
a survey meter should show:
a. an increase in exposure rate followed by a decrease to
zero
b. an increase in exposure rate followed by a decrease to
about mid-range of scale assuming the meter is set
on the proper scale
c. zero at 25 ft (7.62 m) away
d. zero and increase as the radiographer approaches th e
exposure device no matter what scale it's on
are considered dosimeters in the same manner as the
pocket ion chamber. The main difference between a film
badge or TLD and ion chamber is the:
a. film badge and TLD must be developed
b. ion chamber needs batteries
c. ion chamber is a direct reading instrument and the
TLD/film badges must be processed by a National
Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation Program
(NVLAP) lab
d. TLD needs to be processed before being sent to a
lab

11. Sources must be leak tested every:

a. one month
b. two months
c. three months
d. six months
 DRAFT - FOR REVIEWER USE ONLY

12. Exposure devices using depleted uranium (DU) must be 14. Should a source or exposure device return a wipe
leak tested every: resulting in more than 0.005 µCi (185 Bq) the licensee
a. 12 months must do what?
b. two years a. immediately call the NRC for disposal
c. three years b. immediately remove it from service and have it
d. six years decontaminated or disposed of
c. immediately dispose of it, typically by burial
d. immediately notify the NRC and dispose of it at a
13. A leak test would be considered failed should the sample waste site
tested return a value greater than:
a. 0.005 Ci (185 000 000 Bq)
b. 0.005 mCi (185 000 Bq) 15. Gamma alarms (audible and visible), also known as area
c. 0.005 µCi (185 Bq) alarms, must be tested every:
d. 0.005 nCi (0.185 Bq) a. day prior to use
b. 8 h and quarterly
c. day
d. three months

31
 Chapter 5

Controlling Radiation Exposures

Working safely in radiography not only takes knowing what
radiation is and how it works, it takes knowing the specific
measures in which to reduce the radiation exposure and hence
the absorbed dose. This chapter covers the three basic
concepts to lower the potential absorbed dose. The basic
concept of ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable) should
be every radiographer's concern when dealing with
radiation-emitting sources.
T here are three basic steps to limit radiation exposure.
1. Decrease the time spent near radiation sources.
2. Increase the distance between personnel and the
radiation source.
3. Utilize shielding.
Time
T ime spent within a given radiation field determines the
absorbed radiation dose. Dose from dose rate and time is
calculated as follows:
Dose
Dose Rate or
Time
D Another example of time versus absorbed dose that every
DR = - : : : } T = -D : : : } D =DR(T)
T DR
For example, a survey meter reads 40 mR/h (400 µSv/h) at a
given distance. This means the radiographer will receive
-tO mR (400 µSv) staying at that location for 1 h. If the
radiographer stays in t he same location for 2 h, the radiation
dose would be 80 mR (800 µSv) and for 3 h, 120 mR
1200 µSv or 1.2 mSv).
The message is clear. The longer the radiographer remains in
the area of radiation exposure, the greater the radiation dose
received.
Scenario: The following meter reading was taken at the
boundary: 5 mR/h.
What exposure would a person receive if he/she stood at the
boundary for 30 min?
Solve the equation for dose:
D =DR(T)
Plug in the known values:
D = 5 mR/h(0.5 h)
D= 2.5 mR
Note: Ensure units are the same when using them in this
equation. For example, 30 min equals 0.5 hand 1000 mR
equals 1 rem.
radiographer has to deal with is camera setup.
Scenario: A source is to be used to make an exposure; it takes
1 min to set the connection at the exit port of the camera. A
reading of 1 R/h or 1000 mR/h (10 mSv or 10 000 µSv/h) has
been measured at the port. To determine the absorbed dose to
the fingers, one would take the 1000 mR/h (10 000 µSv/h) and
divide by 60 min to determine the dose rate for every minute
spent making the connection:

1 h at 40 mR/h = 40 mR/h (1 h at 400 µSv/h = 400 µSv/h) lOOO mR/h = 16.66 mR/min
2 h at 40 mR/h = 80 mR/h (2 h at 400 µSv/h = 800 µSv/h) 60 min
3 h at 40 mR/h = 120 mR/h (3 h at 400 µSv/h = 1200 µSv/h)
10 000 µSv/h S I .
- -- - - - = 166 .6 µ vmm
60 min
33
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety

If only 30 s are needed, then the absorbed dose would be cut in of 100 times this output or 520 R/h at 1 ft (5200 mSv
half to 8.33 mR (83.3 µSv): at 0.3 m).
5.2 R x 100 Ci= 520 Rat 1 ft
16.66 mR/min = 833 mR (5200 mSv at 0.3 m)
2
Inverse Square Law
166 µSv/min = 83 _3 µSv
2 The inverse square law states that from a point source "the
radiation intensity is inversely proportional to the square of
SpcncYmg \ess time ne:a! \\ 'i>O\\n:.e ·\.,, ?.c.c.omp\l.,,\\eC. 'o':r the 0.\'1.tan ce hom tne 'i>ource:'
exposing and retracting the source as quickly as
possible; Consider the source as a given point; each time the distance
carrying the exposure device to and from the job site from the source is doubled, the intensity drops by a value of
quickly yet in a safe manner; four (Figures 5.1 and 5.2). This exposure versus distance ratio
svending down time away from the source; can be calculated using the inverse square law.
connecting and disconnecti ng the source tube from the
exposure device quickly while ensuring that the
Inverse Square Law Example
connection is correct and secure (the exit port of a
A = Radiation source
gamma camera generally emits the highest levels of
B = Focal point
radiation).

Understanding the principles of time in controlling radiation C1 = First film pane

dose allows the radiographer to calculate in advance the 1, C2 = Second film pane
probable dose and to make any necessary adjustments in
01 = First source t o film
advance to minimize the dose.
distance

Distance 0 2 = Second source to film

distance
D istance from a source is another factor that the radiographer /1 = Intensity at dista nce 1
can utilize in minimizing radiation dose. /2 = Intensity at distance 2

The following lists the common industrial radiographic

isotopes and their dose rate output per curie at 1 ft (0.3 m).
To determine th e output of any source at 1 ft (0.3 m), Figure 5.1: The inverse square law.
multiply the number of curies for the source hy the dose rate
from the figure for the type of source being used.

Co-60
14.0 R/h per curie at 1 ft
(140 mSv/h per curie at 0.3 m) Radiation intensity at distance D 1
Radiation intensity at distance D 2
Cs-137 Distance at intensity 11
3.4 R/h per curie at 1 ft Distance at intensity 12
(34 mSv/h per curie at 0.3 m)
The inverse square law can be represented in several diftereru
lr-192 ways:
5.2 R/h per curie at 1 ft
(52 mSv/h per curie at 0.3 m) x(D2)2
/2 12 x(D2)2
/1 = (DJ D1--
Se-75 /I
2.2 R/h per curie at 1 ft
(22 mSv/h per curie at 0.3 m)
/1x(D1)2 /1x(D1)2
For example, Ir-192 has a dose rate of 5.2 R/h per curie at Di =
12 = (Di)2
1 ft (52 mSv/h per curie at 0.3 m) from the source. A 100 Ci [2
(3700 GBq) Ir-192 source would have a radiation dose level
 Chapter 5 - Controlling Radiation Exposures

!..i__ CD2)2
I2 (D1 )2
Define the variables:

11 = 119.6
12 = unknown
D 1 = 1 ft
D 2 = 32 ft
Figure 5.2: Another way to visualize the inverse square law.
Replace the variables in the formula:

In order to use the inverse square law effectively, it may be 119.6 32 2

helpful to memorize the constant variables. I2 12
Along with knowing the constants, having a scientific Rewrite the equation with the square of the values:
calculator is necessary. W hile performing the inverse square
law, be sure to use the same values throughout the equation. 32 2 = 1024
For example, if intensity is given in milliroentgen per hour, 2
then use milliroentgen per hour throughout your calculations.
1 =l
119.6 1024
Examples will be worked for 12 and for D 2 . Both of these
I
equations will be valuable tools to the radiographer in setting
perimeters and calculating dose.
To use the cross multiply and divide technique, take the
It is not the intent of this book to teach algebra, but knowing variable you are solving for (12 ) and place it to the left side of
a simple method to solve the basic inverse square law the equation. On the right side of the equation, multiply the
equation will prevent errors in memorizing the various forms two variables that are diagonal from each other (119.6 and 1)
of the formula and completing the calculation. The following and divide the result by the third value (1024).
examples use the age-old technique of cross multiply and
divide. To do this you will need to know three of the four
variables of the inverse square law. Replace the variables in the I = 119.6x1
2
formula with the known values. Then simply look for the two 1024
values that are diagonal to each other, multiply these together, I = 119.6
and divide by the third. For ease of understanding, these 2
1024
equations will be worked using imperial units only.
12 = 0.116
Review the following two examples using this technique and
try a few others for yourself. The dose rate at 32 ft (12 ) from the source (11) is 0.116 R/h.
For the radiographer, typical dose rates are expressed in
Example 1: Intensity at D 2 mR/h. To convert 116 Rib to mR/h, simply multiply by 1000.
To work this equation, it is necessary to know the amount of
curies, the source type and the distance at which you desire to 0.1168x1000 = 116.8 mR/h
know the intensity.
Example 2: Initial Distance at 12
Source: Ir-192, 23 Ci Source: Ir-192, 23 Ci
Find the dose rate at 32 ft from the source. Find the distance from the source required for 2 mR/h.

Determine the dose rate using the constant for Ir-192. First determine the dose rate using the constant for Ir-192.

5.2 R/h/Ci at 1 ft from the source. 5.2 R/h/Ci at 1 ft from the source.
5.2 x 23 Ci= 119.6 R/h at 1 ft 5.2 x 23 Ci= 119.6 R/h at 1 ft

Use the inverse square law: Use the inverse square law:

!..i_ (D2 )1
12 (D1)2
35
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety

Define the variables: The most immediate method of shielding the source for the
radiographer is through the use of the collimator (Figure 5.3).
11 = 119.6 R/h A collimator is a device fitted to the end of the guide tube that
12 = 2 mR/h shields (reduces) the radiation in directions other than what is
D 1 = 1 ft needed for the radiograph. The radiographer must utilize a
D 2 =unknown collimator whenever possible. Another method is to utilize a
shooting booth for small objects or a shooting bunker or
Notice that the units for dose rate are different. To solve the room for larger objects. Shielding material common to
problem, dose rate units must be consistent. Multiply R/h by radiography includes lead, tungsten and depleted uranium, all
1000 to find mR/h: of which have a high atomic number.

119.6x1000=119 600 mR/h Radiographers may

be assigned to
Replace the variables in the formula: radiograph objects in
a concrete exposure
119 600 ( D1 )2 room. While it is
2 f typical that the room
will already be rated
Square the values: for ma.ximum
2
permitted radiation
1 =1 source and a known
radiation level
I 19 600 ( D 2 )2 outside of the room,
2 it may be necessary
for the radiographer
To use the cross multiply and divide technique, take the to estimate the
variable you are solving for [(D2)2] and place it to the left side expected radiation
of the equation. On the right side of the equation, multiply level himself or
Figure 5.3: Collimators are used to shield
the two variables that are diagonal from each other (119 600 herself. To estimate
radiation.
and 1) and divide the result by the third value (2). the radiation levels
outside the room,
(D
2
)2 = 119 600 x I the radiographer must know what the radiation levels will be
2 inside. Use the inverse square law previously described for the
distance of the source in the room to the inside of the wall.
(Di)" = 119 600 Then estimate the amount the radiation will be reduced by
2 knowing the thickness of the wall.
( D 2 )1=59 800 Attenuation from a material is expressed in what arc called
ha!f·value layers or tenth- value layers. Some common materials
To solve for D 2 take the square root of both sides of the used for shielding have been given thickness values that are
equation. required to achieve a half- or tenth-value layer. Depending on
the energy of the source, different thicknesses are required for
~(D2 ) 2 = J59 800
each.

D2 = 244.5 ft When using lr-192, the half-value layer thicknesses required

for these materials are:
Using a source of lr-192, 23 C i, the distance required for concrete -1.7 in. (43 mm),
2 mR/h is 244 .5 ft. steel - 0.5 in. (13 mm),
lead - 0.2 in. (5 mm),
Shielding tungsten - 0.1 in. (2.5 mm).

Shielding is considered to be any material that drops the For Co-60 the values change due to the intcnsity emitted:
primary intensity to less than what it would be without it, for concrete - 2.4 in. (1 mm)
example, a collimator, truck, wall, trash can or even chicken steel - 0.8 in. (20 mm)
feathers, provided you had enough. lead - 0.5 in. (13 mm)
tungsten - 0.3 in. (8 mm)
depleted uranium - 0.3 in. (8 mm)
 Chapter 5 - Controlling Radiation Exposures

These values are important in determining the type, amount

of, and what material may be necessary to accomplish the task
at hand.

For the example above, to estimate the level of radiation

outside the room, determine the number of half-value layers
for the thickness of the wall. Then divide the radiation level
by half for each half-value layer.
....,.....
If your meter reads 20 mR/h, what would the reading be with •••
....
a
"'°"'"°"
1 in. of steel shielding in place?

Determine the half-value layer (HVL) for the material being

utilized. As indicated above, the HVL of steel is 0.5 in.

Figure out how many HVL of steel you have: 1 in. of steel at
0.5 in. per HVL:
1 in. steel
- - - -- =2HVL
0.5 in. (HVL)
Divide 20 mR/h by two twice, once for each HVL:
20mR/h= 10 rnR/h
2 the enclosure
10 mR/h = 5 mR/h
2 cameras use an S design with a
Formulas that are more precise are available for half-value
layer, but either calculated or estimated, it is the responsibility
of the radiographer to always confirm radiation levels by use
of the survey meter.
Examples of the previous statement are seen generally in
day-to-day tasks whether realized or not. Shooting rooms
(Hgure 5.4) are generally made of thick concrete, lead doors
and maze-shaped patterns. Some of our gamma ray source
cameras use an S tube design with a depleted uranium shield
(Figure 5.5). In these areas, specific materials with specific
thicknesses are used to shield personnel from overexposure.
Various shielding tools are available, as well as collimators of
different thicknesses, materials and designs. Lead bricks, sheet
and shot also make excellent shields and are widely used.
Classes oflnstallations for X-ray and
Gamma Ray Use
.fiic.:a: ,~t;; .cciuc cypc:~- ur ilua-au.·<.d<.<a:':L( : r.cr .£a..r.--g-.£rt:i'rrt'.£-r«f-
mstallat10ns: protective, enclosed, unattended and open.
1. Protective Installation
This class provides the highest degree of
safety/protection. Several requirements need to be met to
classify an installation as protective.
Figure 5.4: Typica l shooting room configuration with concete walls.
The source and Maximum shielding
exposed objects
are in a
permanent
/
enclosure. No
one is Depleted uran ium
permitted in
S tube design
during
radiographic Figure 5.5: Some gamma-ray source
work.
depleted uranium shield.
Safety
interlocks prevent access during irradiation.
If occupancy cannot be easily determined by the
operator, the following requirements should also be
provided; (a) fail-safe audible or visible warning
signals to indicate the source is about to be used; (b)
emergency exits; (c) effective means of terminating
the exposure from within the enclosure.
The radiation intensity at a distance of 2 in. (50 mm)
from the outside surface of the enclosure may not
exceed 0.5 mR (5 µSv) in any 1 h.
Warning signs must be posted at specific locations.
No one may be exposed to more than the permissible
doses.
2. Enclosed Installation
This class usually offers the greatest advantages for fo'.ed
installations with low use and occupancy. With proper
supervision an enclosed installation offers a degree of
protection similar to the protective installation enclosure.
The enclosed installation requirements are very similar tG
that of the protective installation given that the radiation
.c.t:fcem;-~ a"c~.fcr«:!fc.r/e=a-#.dfa;C-~c:?'~P"
a<'/
any accessible and occupied area within 1 ft (0.3 m) from
the outside surface of the enclosure may not exceed
10 mR (100 µSv) in any 1 h. The exposure at any
accessible and normally unoccupied area within 1 ft
(0.3 m) from the outside surface of the enclosure may not
exceed 100 mR (1000 µSv) in any 1 h. Enclosure

37
ASNT Stud}' Guide: Industrial Radio.graphy Radiation Safety
installations require procedures to avoid exceeding
permissible doses.
3. Unattended Installation
This class consists of automatic equipment designed and
manufactured by a supplier for a specific purpose that
does not require personnel in attendance for operation.
The requirements for this type of installation are as
follows:
The source is installed in a single-purpose device.
The source is enclosed in a shield, where the closed
and open positions are identified and a visual
warning signal indicates when the source is exposed
or turned on.
The exposure at any accessible location 1 ft (0.3 m)
from the outside surface of the device cannot exceed
2 mR (20 µSv) in any 1 h.
The occupancy in the vicinity of the device is limited
so that the dose to an individual may not exceed
100 mR (1000 µSv) per year.
Warning signs must be posted.
In areas where exposures may exceed the
measurements in the items above, service doors must
be locked or secured.
4. Open Installation
T his class may only be used when operational
requirements prevent other class types. Mobile or
portable equipment used routinely in a single location
should be made to meet the requirements of one of the
other permanent installation's classes. T he requirements
include the followi ng.
The perimeter of any area in which the exposure can
exceed 100 mR (1000 µSv) in any 1 h must be
posted as a high radiation area.
No unauthorized or unmonitored person may be
p ermitted in th e high radiation area during
irradiation.
The perimeter of any area in which the radiation
level exceeds 5 mR (50 µSv) in any 1 h must be
pos ted as a radiation area.
The equipment essential to the use of the source
must be inaccessible to unauthorized use, tampering
or removal.
No persons may be exposed to more than th e
permissible dose limits.
Restricted areas must be clearly marked and
monitored.
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~~~~~------,
installations require procedures to avoid exceeding
permissible doses.
3. Unattended Installation
This class consists of automatic equipment designed and
manufactured by a supplier for a specific purpose that
does not require personnel in attendance for operation.
The requirements for this type of installation are as
follows :
The source is installed in a single-purpose device.
The source is enclosed in a shield, where the closed
and open positions are identified and a visual
warning signal indicates when the source is exposed
or turned on.
The exposure at any accessible location 1 ft (0.3 m)
from the outside surface of the device cannot exceed
2 mR (20 µSv) in any 1 h.
The occupancy in the vicinity of the device is limited
so that the dose to an individual may not exceed
100 mR (1000 µSv) per year.
Warning signs must be posted.
In areas where exposures may exceed the
measurements in the items above, service doors must
be locked or secured.
4. Open Installation
This class may only be used when operational
requirements prevent other class types. Mobile or
portable equipment used routinely in a single location
should be made to meet the requirements of one of the
other permanent installation's classes. The requirements
include the following.
The perimeter of any area in which the exposure can
exceed 100 mR (1000 µSv) in any 1 h must be
posted as a high radiation area.
No unauthorized or unmonitored person may be
permitted in the high radiation area during
irradiation.
The perimeter of any area in which the radiation
level exceeds 5 mR (50 µSv) in any 1 h must be
posted as a radiation area.
The equipment essential to the use of the source
must be inaccessible to unauthorized use, tampering
or removal.
No persons may be exposed to more than the
permissible dose limits.
Restricted areas must be clearly marked and
monitored.
 Chapter 5 - Controlling Radiation Exposures

Chapter 5 Review Questions

1. There are basically three methods of protection from 7. The inverse square law is written as:
ionizing radiation. What are they? a. the intensity is directly proportional to the distance
a. time, distance, collimators squared
b. distance, time, lead aprons b. the intensity is indirectly proportional to the distance
c. shielding, time, distance squared
d. dense atomic structures, time and distance c. the intensity is directly proportional to the square of
the distance
d. the intensity is indirectly proportional to the distance
2. To determine the total dose received:
a. multiply the rate of dose by the total time exposed
b. multiply the exposure time by the exposure rate 8. Mathematically, the inverse square law is written as:
c. multiply the survey meter's reading by the total a. f 1 x f 2 =D 1 x D 2
exposure time b. f/f2 = D / D 2
d. all of the above c . f /f2 = D 12 !Di
d. f 1 x f 2 = D 22 x D 12

3. At a dose rate of 60 mR/h (600 µSv/h), 1 h of exposure

would be? 9. The inverse square law can be broken down to solve for
a. 60 mR/h (600 µSv/h) intensity as:
b. 6 mR (60 µSv) a. f 2 = (11 x D 12)/D 22
c. 1 mR (10 µSv) b. f 1 = (12 x D 12)/Dz2
d. 60 mR (600 ~tSv) c. D2 = (11 x Di2)/Di
d. D 1 = (11 x D 12)/Di

4. The specific gamma ray constant for Co-60 can be 10. The inverse square law can be broken down to solve for
expressed as: distance as:
a. 14 R/Ci (140 mSv/Ci) a. f 2 = (11 x D 12) 1Dz2
b. 14 R/h (140 mSv/ h) b. f 1 = (l x D/) ID/
c. 14 Rift (140 mSv/ft) c. D2 = ~[(11 x Di2)/f2J
d. 14 R/Ci at 1 ft (140 mSv/Ci at 1 ft) d. D = (11 x D 12)/D/

5. The specifi c gamma ray constant for lr-192 can be 11. Shielding can be expressed by the amount of shielding
expressed as: provided, so that the amount of shielding that would
a. 5.2 R/h/Ci (52 mSv/h/Ci) reduce the original exposure rate to one-half would be
b. 5.2 R/h (52 mSv/h) stated as:
c. 5.2 R/h/ ft (52 mSv/h/ft) a. 1 half-value layer
d. 5.2 R/h/Ci at 1 ft (52 mSv/h/Ci at 1 ft) b. 1 tenth-value layer
c. 1 layer
d. 10 layers
5. A specific gamma ray constant can be stated as:
a. dose rate per curie at a specific distance
b. curies per foot 12. The best material to use as shielding would be:
c. activity per curie per yard a. paper
d. curies per meter b. plastic
c. wood
d. lead
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety

13. When using lead to shield an Ir-192 source, you would 17. You have an intensity of 50 mR/h at 100 ft (50 µSv/h at
need _ _ _ to reduce the original exposure to 30.48 m) from a source. Moving to 50 ft (15.24 m)
one-half would increase your exposure rate by a factor of what?
a. 0.2 in. (5.08 mm) a. 2 times
b. 0.25 in. (6.35 mm) b. 3 times
c. 0.3 in. (7.62 mm) c. 5 times
d. 0.5 in. (12.7 mm) d. 4 times

14. Standing in a 100 mR/h (1000 µSv/h) field, the 18. If the radiographer has 100 mR/h at 25 ft (1000 µSv at
radiographer will make four 10 min exposures. The 7.63 m), the exposure rate at 50 ft (15.24 m) would be
radiograp her's total exposure for the day would be: _ _ with 1 half-value of shielding between the
a. 25 mR (250 µSv) radiographer and the source.
b. 66.7 mR (667 µSv) a. 25 mR/h (250 µSv/ h)
c. 66.7 mR/h (677 µSv/h) b. 12.5 mR/h (125 µSv/ h)
d. 400 mR (4000 µSv) c. 25 mR (250 µSv)
d. 12.5 mR (125 µSv)

15. With 30 Ci of iridium with a gamma constant of

5.2 R/h/Ci at 1 ft (52 mSv/h/Ci at 0.3 m), what would 19. There are _ _ type(s) of installations used in
your exposure rate be at 1 ft (0.3 m) from the source? radiography.
a. 156 mR/h (1560 µSv/h) a. 1
b. 156 R/h (1560 mSv/h) b. 2
c. 156 R (1560 mSv) c. 3
d. 156 mR (1560 µSv) d. 4

16. If you have 73 Ci of Co-60, your exposure rate at 2 ft 20. The most common type of installation used in field
(0.6 m) from the source would be? radiography is:
a. 511 R (5110 rnSv) a. open
b. 264.6 R (2646 mSv) b. protective
c. 262.8 R (2628 mSv) c. enclosed
d. 255.5 R (2555 mSv) d. unattended

Gamma Ray Radiography
Radiation Detection
_.\s discussed in Chapter 4, Radiation Detection Equipment, the
human senses lack the ability to detect the presence of
radiation. Due to the dangerous effects that radiation poses,
(here is a need for detection equipment. Proper surveys ensure
,afe work practices, can prevent overexposures and let a
radiographer know if and when a problem arises.
Survey Requirements and Techniques
As stated in 10 CFR Part 34.49 Radiation Surveys, the
licensee shall conduct surveys with a calibrated and operable
radiation survey instrument that meets the requirements of
10 CFR Part 34.25.
10 CFR Part 34.25 states that the licensee shall keep
sufficient calibrated and operable radiation survey
instruments at each location where radioactive material is
present to make the radiation surveys required and that
the survey instruments shall be calibrated semiannually
not to exceed six months.
Instrumentation required by this section must be capable
of measuring a range from 2 mrem (20 µSv) per hour
through 1 rem (10 mSv) per hour.
Have an overall accuracy of ±20%.
When using a survey instrument meeting the requirements of
10 CFR Part 34.25, the licensee shall conduct a survey of the
radiographic exposure device and the guide tube after each
exposure upon approach. The survey must determine that the
sealed source has returned to its shielded position before
exchanging films, repositioning the exposure head or
dismantling the equipment. Surveys must also be conducted
any time a source has been exchanged and whenever a
radiographic exposure device is placed in a storage area.
Each licensee shall maintain a record of each exposure device
survey conducted before the device is placed in storage. Each
Chapter 6
record must be maintained for three years after it is made.
Due to the varying job sites that different companies endure,
site specific procedures should be written on proper survey
techniques by the representing radiation safety officer (RSO).
Personnel Monitoring Devices -
10 CFR Part 34.47
l. The licensee may not permit any individual to act as a
radiographer or a radiographer's assistant unless, at all
times during radiographic operations, each individual
wears on the trunk of the body, a direct reading
dosimeter, an operating rate alarm and a personnel
dosimeter that is processed and evaluated by an
accredited National Volunta1y Laboratory Accreditation
Program (NVLAP) processor. At permanent radiography
installations where other appropriate alarming devices are
in routine use, the wearing of an alarming ratemeter is
not required.
Pocket dosimeters must have a range from 0 mR to
200 mR (0 µSv to 2000 µSv) and must be recharged
at the start of each shift. Electronic personal
dosimeters may only be used in place of ion-chamber
pocket dosimeters.
Each personnel dosimeter must be assigned to and
worn by one individual.
Film badges (TLDs or OSLs) must be replaced at
intervals not to exceed one month and other
personnel dosimeters processed and evaluated by an
accredited National Voluntary Laboratory
Accreditation Program (NVLAP) processor must be
replaced at periods not to exceed three months.
After replacement, each personnel dosimeter must be
processed as soon as possible.
2. Direct reading dosimeters, such as pocket dosimeters or
electronic personal dosimeters, must be read and the
exposures recorded at the beginning and end of each
shift, and records must be maintained for three years.
41
ASNT Studv Guide: Industrial Radioaraohv Radiation Safetv
3. Pocket dosimeters, or electronic personal dosimeters,
must be checked at periods not to exceed 12 months for
correct response to radiation and records must be
maintained three years after the original document has
been made. Acceptable dosimeters must read within plus
or minus 20% of the true radiation exposure.
4. If an individual's pocket chamber is found to be off scale,
or if his or her electronic dosimeter reads greater than
200 mR (2 mSv), and the possibility of radiation exposure
cannot be ruled out as the cause, the individual's
personnel film badge, TLD or OSL must be sent in for
processing within 24 h. In addition, the individual may
not resume work associated with licensed material use
until a determination of the individual's radiation
exposure has been made. This determination must be
made by the radiation safety officer (RSO) or the RSO's
designee. The results of this determination must be
included in the records maintained in accordance with
34.83 (until the commission terminates the license).
5. If the personnel dosimeter that is required by paragraph
(1) of this section is lost or damaged, the worker shall
cease work immediately until a replacement personnel
dosimeter meeting the requirements of paragraph (1) is
provided and the exposure is calculated for the time
period from issuance to loss or damage of the personnel
dosimeter. The results of the calculated exposure and the
time period for which the personnel dosimeter was lost or
damaged must be included in the records maintained in
accordance with 34.83 (until the commission terminates
the license).
6. Dosimetry reports received from the accredited NVLAP
personnel dosimeter processor must be maintained until
the commission terminates the license.
7. Each alarming rate meter must 1) be checked to ensure
that the alarm functions properly before using at the start
of each shift; 2) be set to give an alarm at a preset dose
rate of 500 mR/h (5 mSv/h); with an accuracy of ±20% of
the true radiation dose rate; 3) require special means to
change the preset alarm function; and 4) be calibrated at
periods not to exceed 12 months for correct response to
radiation. The licensee shall maintain records of alarm
rate-meter calibrations for three years after the original
document has been made.
Radiographic Equipment and Requirements
Performing radiographic functions requires that numerous
rules, regulations and procedures arc followed. This section
reviews the various types of equipment used and the
requirements asked of radiographers.
Exposure Devices
An exposure device (camera) contains a sealed radiation
source, where the source or shielding can be moved so that
the source becomes unshielded to make a radiographic image.
Exposure devices can be classified into three types: portable
(class P), mobile (class M) and fixed (class F ). Examples of
common radiographic exposure devices used in field
applications are Ir-100 portable device and Co-60 Model
680B mobile device. See Figures 6.l(a) and (b).
Figure 6.1:
Radiographic
exposure devices
used in field
applications are:
(a) an lr-100
portable device CAUTION
RADIOACTIVE
and (b) a Co-60 MATERIAL
Model 6808
mobile device.
•••
a
TYPE B(U)PACKAGE
UN 2916
(a)
Exposure devices are further divided into Category I and
Category II equipment. Per ANSI N43.2-1980 (10 CFR
34) Category I exposure devices actually expose the
radioisotope outside its shielded container, generally through a
cranking apparatus.
Category 11 devices, such as Figures 6.2(a) and (b), expose the
source by a shutter mechanism or rotating the source to an
unshielded position. The sealed source is not removed from
the device. Some Category I devices incorporate a local
control, while others may be operated by mechanical or
pneumatic controls.
Typical type l exposure devices use an S tube design within
the camera to minimize scatter radiation (Figure 6.3). Notice
that the source would come to rest within the center of the
S tube resulting in minimal radiation being emitted.
Surrounding the outside of the S tube is a thick layer of
depleted uranium for maximum shielding. The laws of physics
prevent the primary radiation beam from reaching the exit
 Cha pter 6 - Gamma Ray Radio graphy

~- :-r (radiation travels in straight paths), thus leading to the source). When equipment from one manufacturer is used
-~ectiveness of the S tube design. collectively, items joined should connect an<l disconnect easily.
No matter what equipment is used, it is very important to
read and understand the manufacnirer's maintenance and
operating procedures.

Table 6.1: Allowable dose rates for three camera types.

Shipping
p and
M F
Storage
Containers

200 mR/h 200 mR/h 200 mR/h 200 mR/h

Surface
µSv/h) (2000 µSv/h) (2000 µSv/h)
(2000 (2000 µSv/h)

Figure 6.2 (a) and (b): Cs-137 Category II Enclosure (Calibration SO mm (2 in.) SO mR/h 100 mR/h S mR/h
µSv/hl µSv/h} µSv/h)
N/A
Source Model 773) - Category II devices expose the source by a fro m surface (SOO (1000 (SO
shutter mechanism or rotating the source to an unshielded
position. 1 m (39.37 in.) 2 mR/h S mR/h 10 mR/h 10 mR/h
from surface µSv/h}
(20 (SO µSv/h) (100 µSv/h) (100 µSv/h)

Standard, crank-out devices generally weigh 50 lb to 60 lb

(22.7 kg to 27.2 kg) and most have the ability to hold 100 Ci
to 150 Ci (3700 GBq to 5550 GBq). The amount of curies or Daily Inspections
becqucrcls an exposure device may contain is directly related
to the amount Daily inspections are a integral part of a radiographer's duties
and quality of to en sure safety. Procedures should be set in place, written by
the shielding the RSO, to properly outline the steps that sh ould be taken
within. Devices while verifying equipment suitability. Equipment that fails to
utilizing meet the criteria set forth by the RSO should be removed
depleted from service and repaired or retired. The radiographer must
uranium pigs as pay close attention to the equipment <luring the daily
their primary inspection as changes may occur gradually and may not be
shielding immediately noticeable.
depend on the
amount of As the licensee, an employer is required to keep records of
depleted equipment problems and repairs fo r three years.
uranium which Figure 6.3: A transparent training device
equates to shows how a typical Category I exposure When conducting an equipment evaluation, the steps should
weight as well as device uses an S tube des ig n with in the be governed by the manufacturer and by t he representing
the quality of camera to minimize scatter radiation. RSO.
the material,
which in combination dictates the total amount of material Sample Daily Inspection Checklist
that can be stored within and still maintain the exterior Survey the exposure device with a working calibrated survey
surface limits. meter. Radiation levels on the surface should be comparable
to the results of past surveys or similar to the manufacturer's
Table 6. 1 illustrates the allowable dose rates at given distances recommendations. The outlet opening traditionally has the
fo r the three camera types: portable (class P), mobile highest obtainable reading. Readings should lie within the
(class M) and fixed (class F). limits of the camera classification.

Radiography equipment from different manufacturers is not
always compatible. Furthermore, the manufacturer of the
equipment has licensed the exposure device and associated
equipment as a set of components. Use of associated
equipment not covered by the license or not having their own
license may constitute a violation of the regulations and
moreover pose a risk of an incident (loss of control of th e
Perform a thorough check of the exposure device for signs of
wear and/or damage, such as worn or cracked bottoms. Check
that all applicable placards and labels are attached and legible.
Inspect the drive cable and drive cable connector for any signs
of wear or damage. The use of a no-go gage (Figure 6.4) is a
valuable tool when determining fitness for service. Take note

43
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety
of all the various equipment verifications t hat may be
performed by the use of this valuable tool.
~
Male ball
II
shank
diameter
Male ball
diameter ./
~
Male-fem~le
connection
a During the first exposure of the day, and every time the
Female slot
width
Figure 6.4: A no-go gage is a val uable tool when determining
fitness for service.
Approximately the first 18 in. (45.72 cm) of the drive cable is
most susceptible to damage. Crank out the cable to closely
inspect the condition. Loss of integral lubrication, signs of
corrosion, rust, kinks, inflexibility, or worse, broken strands,
are indications of the need for immediate maintenance and
should be brought to the RSO's attention.
Inspect the drive mechanism conduit and crank assembly.
C rimps and dents within the conduit may cause the drive
cable to rub, and in the presence of excessive dirt, may cause
the drive cable to stick or not retract to a fully shielded
position. Any crimps or dents must be inspected by an
experienced and trained individual. In most cases, dents are
cause for rejection and replacement of the conduit. W hen the
drive unit is not in use, a protective cap should be placed over
the connector end to p revent dirt contamination of the cable.
When a crank assembly is exposed to excessive dirt, several
mechanisms may be damaged. Incidents have occurred where
dirt collects in the drive mechanism causing it to jam. The
crank assembly should both expose and retract with case; dirt
is the main cause for malfunction. Crank assemblies may be
dismantled and repaired following the manufacturer's
recommendations.
Prior to hook-up, perform a misconnect test by attaching the
crank assembly to the exposure device wit hout attaching the
drive cable to the source pigtail. Attempt to disengage t he
\'Ou Tu~~"di1~~·:1)','<&1~ \.,'0)',~1\1'0""" :\,'),.~'0~'\:.).'t, ~'t,~\\.,'t,~ ~'0~~
)')'\)\ <>lh'D~ \'u't\<iJ\..\ Th't\..\i.2.'n\~Tu \~ i\~<\..'Y.1,1'1,"- \'Y. \\i.\~ '--<0'n~\\\<0'},_.
Any exposure device that does allow the lock to disengage
without the drive cable attached to the source pigtail should
be removed from service until repaired.
Inspection of the guide tubes should be routinely performed
to ensure damage has not occurred. Crimps and dents within
these areas are most critical. There is limited tolerance
between the inside diameter of the guide tube and the
diameter of the source assembly. Even small dents could
interfere with the retraction of the source back to the
exposure device. Furthermore, small dents could collapse the
spiral construction of the inner armor that could cause a
separation of the spiral and interference with the travel of the
source. Any dents, kinks and cuts must be inspected by a
trained and experienced technician before it is released for
use. As with the drive cable conduit, dents are typically cause
for rejection and replacement.
locking mechanism is used, check that the locking mechanism
functions properly.
1f areas of concern are noted, the RSO should be contacted
immediately and work halted until approval has been given to
proceed with radiographic operations.
Qyarterly Inspection and Maintenance
Qyarterly maintenance is generally performed by specially
trained personnel. Qyarterly checks include the radiographic
exposure device, source changers, all associated equipment,
transport and storage containers and survey instruments, all of
which must be inspected at intervals not to exceed three
months. Replacement components shall meet the design
specification for the specific equipment. Equipment found to
be in need of repair shall be taken out of service until
repaired.
Each licensee shall maintain records of equipment problems
found in daily checks and quarterly inspections of
radiographic exposure devices, transport and storage
containers, all associated equipment, source changers and
survey equipment and retain each record for three years.
Records kept must include:
t he date,
name of the inspector,
equipment involved,
problems fou nd,
type of repair, if any.
Storage Containers and Source Exchangers
T he definition of a storage container is "a container in which
",,'t,~'t,~ ",,~~'\"-~"" 'h'\~ ",,~<::..'\:.'\\'(,~ 'b_"},_~\,\.~'\~~:'"\""-\'(, ~"ci..\.~~~
~'h'}>~'>,~1'...~ r..~t...t:.. l..i...~\.t..<>. ht <>.t..0.1'...'<1..lf,e. C::..Q.Rt..\\.~Re.ts. \\.Rd. S.C\llt:c.e c.b..aJtl{,ers
arc 200 mR (2000 ~1Sv) per hour at any exterior surface and
10 mR per hour at 39.37 in. (100 µSv per hour at 1 m) from

any exterior surface with the scaled source in the shielded
position.
Each radiographic exposure device, sealed source storage
container and source changer must have a lock or outer locked
container designed to prevent unauthorized or accidental
removal of the sealed source from its shielded position. The
exposure device and/or its container must be kept locked (and
if a keyed lock, with the key removed at all times) when not
under the direct surveillance of a radiograph er or a
radiographer's assistant except at permanent radiographic
installations.
The licensee may not use a source changer or a container to
store licensed material unless the source changer or the
storage con tainer has securely attached to it a durable, legible
and clearly visible label bearing the standard trefoil radiation
caution symbol in the conventional colors of magenta, purple
or black on a yellow background, having a minimum diameter
of25 mm (0.98 in.) and the wording:
CAUTION*
RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
NOTIFY CIVIL AUTHORITIES (or "NAME OF
COMPANY")
*_____ or "DANGER"
Locked radiographic exposure devices and storage containers
must be physically secured to prevent tampering or removal
by unauthorized personnel. The licensee shall store licensed
material in a manner which will minimize danger from
explosion or fire.
Primarily source exchangers are used in the maintenance
process; other benefits include being able to ship a source in,
exchange the new source for the old, reload the exposure
device and minimi:&e company downtime. Source exchangers
may also be used in cases of emergencies. A source may be
exposed but not retracted to a fully shielded position; the
source exchanger may then be brought in, hooked to the end
of the guide tube and stored in a fully shielded position.
Radioactive Material Inventory, Leak Tests
and Repairs
Radioactive material (RAM) inventory provides the basic
necessities to ensure adequate security and control of licensed
radioactive material. The extent of RAl\1 securi ty and control
measures required by 10 CFR 20.1801 and 20.1802, as
implemented by the licensee, should be commensurate with
the degree of potential risk associated with the loss of
materials (20. 1801). The licensee shall secure from
unauthorized removal or access licensed materials that are
>tored in con trolled or unrestricted areas (20.1802). The
Chapter 6 - Gamma Ray Radiography
licensee shall control and maintain constant surveillance of
licensed material that is in a controlled or unrestricted area
and that is not in storage. All licensees and licensee employees
should take part in abiding by the regulations an<l grounds for
the safekeeping of radioactive materials.
Leak testing, as discussed in Chapter 4 Radiation Detection
Equipment, is a mandatory periodic check (not to exceed six
months for the source and not to exceed 12 months for the
DU shielding) that ensures no unwanted radioactive
contamination has been released. The licensee shall keep a
record of leak test results in units of microcuries and retain
the record for inspection by the NRC for three years after the
leak test has been performed.
The wipe of a sealed source must be performed using a leak
test kit or method approved by the NRC or an Agreement
State. The wipe sample must be taken from the nearest
accessible point to the sealed source where contamination
might accumulate. T he wipe sample must be analyzed for
radioactive contam ination. The analysis must be capable of
detecting the presence of 0.005 ~tCi (185 Bq) of radioactive
material on the test sample and must be performed by a
person approved by the N RC or an Agreement State to
perform the analysis.
If the test conducted reveals the pn:scnce of 0.005 µCi
(185 Bq) or more of removable radioactive material, the
licensee shall remove the scaled source from service
immediately and have it decontaminated, repaired, or disposed
of by an N RC or Agreement State licensee that is authorized
to perform these fu nctions. T he licensee shall check the
equipment associated with the leaking source for radioactive
contamination and, if contam inated, have it decontaminated
or disposed of by an NRC or Agreement State licensee that is
authorized to perform these functions.
The licensee shall submit a report to the appropriate NRC
Regional Office within five days of receiving the test results.
The report must describe the equipment involved in the leak,
the test results, any contamination which resulted from t he
leaking source and the corrective actions taken up to the time
the report is made.
Regulations
Licensing/Registration Requirements
A person may file a request for the use of sealed sources in
industrial radiography, provided the provisions set forth in
10 CFR part 30.32 have been satisfied. Licenses for
byproduct material are of two types: general and specific. The
NRC issues a specific license to a named person who has filed
an application for the license. A general license is provided by
regulation, grants authority to a person for certain activities
involving byproduct material and is effective without the
filing of an applicati on with the NRC or the issuance of a
45
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety
licensing document to a particular person. However,
registration with the NRC may be required by the particular
general license. The NRC may at any time after the filing of
the original application, and before the expiration of the
license, require further statements in order to enable the
Commission to determine whether the application should be
granted or denied or whether a license should be modified or
revoked.
General Requirements for Issuance of Specific Licenses
(a) An application for a specific license will be approved if:
(1) The application is for a purpose authorized by the
Atomic Energy Act of 1954;
(2) The applicant's proposed equipment and facilities are
adequate to protect health and minimize danger to
life or property;
(3) The applicant is qualified by training and experience
to use the material for the purpose requested in such
manner as to protect health and minimize danger to
life or property;
(4) The applicant satisfies any special requirements
contained in parts 32 through 36 and 39; and
(5) In the case of an application for a license to receive
and possess byproduct material for the conduct of
any activity which the Commission determines will
significantly affect the quality of the environment,
the Director, Office of Federal and State Materials
and Environmental Management Program or his or
her designee, before commencement of construction
of the plant or facility in which the activity wiU be
conducted, has concluded, after weighing the
environmental, economic, technical and other
benefits against environmental costs and considering
available alternatives, that the action called for is the
issuance of the proposed license, with any appropriate
conditions to protect environmental values.
Commencement of construction prior to such
~""'~~.:."'~""' %~""""'-- ~""~""'~"",~,.__ ~"-"""'~ ~' "<>.~~""'""~'-"'
receive and possess byproduct material in such plant
or facility. As used in this paragraph, the term
"commcncemen't o\ i::on'i>'tmt\11:>'1\ 'ffi~'d'\\'$ 'dn--y t\~h1\l\'l,
of land, excavation or other substantial action that
would adversely affect the environment of a site. The
term docs not mean site exploration, necessary roads
for site exploration, borings to determine foundation
conditions or other preconstruction monitoring or
testing to establish background information related
to the suitability of the site or the protection of
environmental values.
(b) Upon a determination that an application meets the
requ'1rements of tne l\c.t and tbe regu\:at'10ns 0£ tne
Commission, the Commission will issue a specific license
authorizing the possession and use of byproduct material
(Form NRC 374, "Byproduct Material License").
Reports
Immediate Report
Each licensee shall notify the NRC as soon as possible but
not later than 4 h after the discovery of an event that prevents
immediate protective actions necessary to avoid exposures to
radiation or radioactive materials that could exceed regulatory
\imi.t'<> m: reka'<ic'<> of li.c.en'<ied materi.al that could exceed
regulatory limits (events may include fires, explosions, toxic
gas releases, etc.).
Twenty-four Hour Report
Each licensee shall notify the NRC within 24 h after the
discovery of any of the following events involving licensed
material:
l. An unplanned contamination event.
2. An event in which equipment is disabled or fails to
function as designed.
3. An event that requires unplanned medical treatment at a
medical facility of an individual with spreadable
radioactive contamination on the individual's clothing or
body.
4. An unplanned fire or explosion damaging any licensed
material or any device, container or equipment containing
licensed material.
Records
Each person who receives byproduct material pursuant to a
license issued pursuant to the regulations shall keep records
showing the receipt, transfer and disposal of the byproduct
material as follows:
1. The licensee shall retain each record of receipt of
byproduct material as long as the material is possessed
and for three years following transfer or disposal of the
material.
2. The licensee who transferred the material shall retain
each record of transfer for three years after each transfer
~~"-"'"' "<>."-"X"'-~~'s....'~"'-"-~"-~'-'-~ "<>.~<::.'-~'<..'<.. "l""-''-<::.(_'-~"­
regulation dictates otherwise.
3. The licensee who disposed of the material shall rto
~·<1z.~ '-~"-<:>'-~ ~( ~\.<;,}><:>"'-o..\. ~( "1n'-~<i~<:.t m.-i.tu\.-i.l ~nt\.l t... =:.
commission terminates each license that authorize-
disposal of the material.
If a retention period is not otherwise specified by a re~~-­
or license condition, the record must be retained until L.~
NRC terminates each license that authorizes the acti\i0
is subject to the record keeping requirement. Records \•
must be maintained may be the original or a reproduce-.
or microform if such reproduced copy or microform i'
aut'nent\CateO. 'D'j aut'nati."Le<l. \)e:1:'i>anne\ and. t'nc mi.cto ; ..-
capable of producing a clear and legible copy after sto:-C!
the period specified by NRC regulations. The record :-u:->
be stored in electronic media with the capability for
producing legible, accurate and complete records duri~
required retention period. Records such as letters, dra'

and specifications must include all pertinent information such
as stamps, initials and signatures. The licensee shall maintain
adequate safeguards against tampering with and loss of
records.
:\Totifications and Reports to Individuals
Radiation exposure data for an individual, and the results of
any measurements, analyses and calculations of radioactive
material deposited in or retained in the body of an individual,
shall be reported to the individual. The information reported
shall include data and results obtained pursuant to NRC
regulations, orders or license conditions, as shown in records
maintained by the licensee pursuant to commission
regulations.
Each notification and report shall: be in writing; include
appropriate identifying data, such as the name of the licensee,
the name of the individual and the individual's social security
number; include the individual's exposure information; and
contain the following statement:
This report is furnished to you under the provisions
of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulation
10 CFR Part 19. You should preserve this report for
further reference.
Each licensee shall make dose information available to
workers as shown in records maintained by the licensee
under the provisions of 10 CFR 20.2106. The licensee
shall provide an annual report to each individual
monitored under 10 CFR 20.1502 of the dose received in
that monitoring year if:
l. The individual's occupational dose exceeds 100 mR
(1 mSv) TEDE or 100 mR (1 mSv) to any individual
organ or tissue; or
2. The individual requests his or her annual dose report.
3. At the request of a worker formerly engaged in licensed
activities controlled by the licensee, each licensee shall
furnish to the worker a report of the worker's exposure to
radi ation and/or to radioactive material:
As shown in records maintained by the licensee
pursuant to § 20.2106 for each year the worker was
required to be monitored under the provisions of
§ 20.1502 and
For each year the worker was required to be
monitored under the monitoring requirements in
effect prior to January 1, 1994.
This report must be furnished within 30 days from the time
the request is made or within 30 days after the exposure of
the individual has been determined by the licensee, whichever
is later. This report must cover the period of time that the
worker's activities involved exposure to radiation from
radioactive material licensed by the commission and must
include the dates and locations of licensed activities in which
the worker participated during this period.
Chapter 6 - Gamma Ray Radiography
When a licensee is required to report to the NRC any
exposure of an individual to radiation or radioactive material,
the licensee shall also provide the individual a report on his or
her exposure data included in the report to the NRC. This
report must be transmitted no later than the transmittal to
the N RC.
At the request of a worker who is terminating employment
with the licensee that involved exposure to radiation or
radioactive materials, during the current calendar quarter or
the current year, each licensee shall provide at termination to
each worker, or to the worker's designee, a written report
regarding the radiation dose received by that worker from
operations of the licensee during the current year or fraction
thereof. If the most recent individual monitoring results are
not available at that time, a written estimate of the dose must
be provided together with a clear indication that this is an
estimate.
Posting of Notices
As required, each licensee shall post current copies of the
following documents:
1. The regulations set forth in Part 19 and in Part 20;
2. The license, license conditions, or documents
incorporated into a license by reference, and amendments
thereto;
3. The operating procedures applicable to licensed activities;
<
60°
J_
-IA H
I --1 I- A/2
1. ISA---1
I
Figure 6.5: Caution signs should include the standard three-bladed
radiation symbol. A is the radius of the inside circle and determines
other dimensions of the symbol. Each blade is 60° and the
dimens ions are in relation to the radius of the inner circle A.
47
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety

4. Any notice of violation involving radiological working indicate that the container no longer contains radioactive
conditions, proposed imposition of civil penalty and any materials.
response from the licensee;
5. And each applicant for a standard design certification Boundaries and Posting Requirements
under subpart B of Part 52 shall prominently post NRC
Form 3, "Notice to Employees," dated August 1997. Boundaries and posting requirements can be fou nd in
Later versions of NRC Form 3 that supersede the August 10 CFR Part 20.1902.
1997 version shall replace the previously posted version. A radiation area is considered any area with
6. Documents, notices or forms posted under this section concentrations of 0.005 rem (0.05 mSv) in any hour or
shall appear in a sufficient number of places to permit greater. The licensee shall post radiation areas with a
individuals engaged in NRC-licensed or regulated conspicuous sign or signs bearing the radiation symbol
activities to observe them on the way to or from any and the words "CAUTION, RADIATION AREA."
particular licensed or regulated activity location to which Posting areas considered as being high radiation areas
the document applies, shall be conspicuous and shall be (0.1 rem [1 mSv] or greater in any hour) shall have a
replaced if defaced or altered. conspicuous sign or signs bearing the radiation symbol
and the words "CAUTION, HIGH RA.DlA.TlON
Labeling AREA'.' or "DANGER, HIGH RADIATION AREA."
Posting areas of very high radiation [500 R/h or greater
Unless otherwise authorized by the Commission, the symbol at a distance of 1 m (5000 mSv)J shall have a conspicuous
for caution signs prescribed by this part shall use the colors sign or signs bearing the radiation symbol and the words
magenta, purple or black on a yellow background. The symbol "GRAVE DANGER, VERY HIGH RADIATION
prescribed by this part is the three-bladed design (Figure 6.5). AREA." Very high radiation areas are exempt from
A specific design criterion is outlined within the 10 CFR posting for industrial radiography per 10 CFR 34.53.
Part 20.1901. Permissible levels of radiation in unrestricted areas shall
CAU not exceed 2 mrem (20 µSv) in any hour or 0.1 rem
The licensee shall ensure that (1 mSv) per calendar year, exclusive of the dose
each container of licensed RADIOACTIVE contributions from background radiation.
material bears a durable, clearly MATERIAL The definition of a restricted area is an area in which access
visible label bearing the
radiation symbol and the words
"CAUTION,
RADIOACTIVE
•••• has been limited by the licensee or registrant for the purpose
of protecting individuals against undue risks from exposure to
sources of radiation. The industrial radiography industry
continues to delineate that area adjacent to the restricted area
MATERIAL'' or "DANGER, Figure 6.6: A radiation for the purpose of posting and control. (See Figure 6.8.)
RADIOACTIVE caution sign, such as this one,
MATERIAL" (Figures 6.6 and should have a red radiation
6.7). The label must also symbol on a yellow
background.
provide sufficient information
(such as the radionuclide[s]
present, an estimate of the
quantity of radioactivity, the
date for which the activity is
estimated, radiation levels,
kinds of materials and mass
enrichment) to permit
individuals handling or using
the containers, or working in
the vicinity of the containers, to
take precautions to avoid and
minimize exposures. Figure 6.8: A radiographer checks the perimeter of a radiation area.

Each licensee shall, i;>rior to Personnel T rainin{f,Reo..._uit:em.ents

disposal of any empty
uncontaminated containers to
unrestricted areas, remove or
deface the radioactive material
label or otherwise clearly
't\guTe bJ: I\ c.ontameT o\
licensed material must have a
As outlined in 10 CFR Part 34.43, the licensee may not
clearly visible label indicating
it contains radioactive permit any individual to act as a radiographer until the
materials. individual has met the following criteria:

1. Training in the following areas:
Fundamentals of radiation safety;
Characteristics of gamma radiation;
Units of radiation dose and quantity of radioactivity;
Hazards of exposure to radiation;
Levels of radiation from licensed material;
Methods of controlling radiation dose;
Radiation detection instruments;
The use, operation, calibration and limitations of
radiation survey instruments;
Survey techniques;
Use of personnel monitoring equipment;
Operation and control of radiographic exposure
equipment, remote handling equipment and storage
containers, including pictures or models of source
assemblies;
Storage, control and disposal of licensed materials;
Inspection and maintenance of equipment;
The requirements of pertinent Federal regulations;
and
Case histories of accidents in radiography.
2. A minimum of two months of on the job training; and
3. I las been certified through a radiographer certification
program.
In addition to the above,
4. Received copies and instruction in the requirements
described in the NRC regulation, 10 CFR 34 Parts 30.7
(employee protection), 30.9 (completeness and accuracy
of information), 30.10 (deliberate misconduct), 10 CFR
Part 19 (notices, instructions and reports to workers;
inspection and investigations), 10 CFR Part 20
(standards for protection against radiation), 10 CFR
Part 71 (packaging and transportation of radioactive
materials), and the licensee's operating and emergency
procedures.
5. Has demonstrated an understanding of the licensee's
license and operating and emergency procedures by a
successful completion of a written or oral examination
covering this material.
6. Has received training in the use of the licensee's
radiographic exposure devices, sealed sources, in the daily
inspection of devices and associated equipment, and in
the use of radiation survey instruments.
7. Has demonstrated understanding of the use of
radiographic exposure devices, sources, survey instruments
and associated equipment described by successful
completion of a practical examination covering this
material.
The licensee may not permit any individual to act as a
radiographer's assistant until the individual has met the
following criteria:
1. Received copies and instruction in the requirements
described in the NRC regulation, 10 CFR Parts 30.7
(employee protection), 30.9 (completeness and accuracy
Chapter 6 - Gamma Ray Radiography
of information), 30.10 (deliberate misconduct), Parts 19
(notices, instructions and reports to workers; inspection
and investigations), Parts 20 (standards for protection
against radiation), Parts 71 (packaging and transportation
of radioactive materials) and the licensee's operating and
emergency procedures.
2. Has developed competence to use, under the personal
supervision of the radiographer, the radiographic
exposure devices, sealed sources, associated equipment
and radiation survey instruments that the assistant will
use; and
3. Has demonstrated understanding of the instructions
provided within this section by successfully completing a
written test on the subjects covered and has demonstrated
competence in the use of hardware described within this
section by successful completion of a practical
examination on the use of such hardware.
The licensee shall provide annual refresher safety training
for each radiographer and radiographer's assistant at
intervals not to exceed 12 months.
The RSO or dcsignec shall conduct an inspection
program of the job performance of each radiographer and
radiographer's assistant to ensure that the Commission's
regulations, license requirements and the applicant's
operating and emergency procedures arc followed.
The inspection program must:
1. Include observation of the performance of each
radiographer and radiographer's assistant during an actual
industrial radiographic operation, at intervals not to
exceed six months; and
2. Provide that, if a radiographer or a radiographer's
assistant has not participated in an industrial radiographic
operation for more than six months since the last
inspection, the radiographer must demonstrate knowledge
of the training requirements in the use of the licensee's
radiographic exposure devices, sealed sources, daily
inspection of devices and associated equipment, and in
the use of radiation survey equipment; the radiographer's
assistant must re-demonstrate knowledge and competence
to use, under the personal supervision of the radiographer,
the radiographic exposure devices, sealed sources,
associated equipment and radiation survey instruments by
a practical examination before these individuals may
participate in a radiographic operation.
3. The Commission may consider alternatives in those
situations where the individual serves as both
radiographer and RSO.
4. In those operations where a single individual serves as
both radiographer and RSO, and performs all radiography
operations, an inspection program is not required.
49
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety
Records ofTraining and Certification
Each licensee shall maintain the following records for three
years after the document has been produced.
1. Records of training for each radiographer and each
radiographer's assistant must include the radiographer's
certification documents and verification of certification
starus, copies of written tests, dates of oral and practical
examinations, and names of individuals conducting and
receiving the oral and practical examinations; and
2. Records of annual refresher safety training and
semiannual inspections of job performance for each
radiographer and each radiographer's assistant. The
records must list the topics discussed during the refresher
safety training, the dates the annual refresher safety
training was conducted, and names of the instructors and
attendees. For inspections of job performance, the records
must also include a list showing the items checked and
any noncompliance observed by the RSO or his
designated representative.
Radiation Safety Officer Required Training
The radiation safety officer's (RSO) main role in industrial
radiography is to ensure that radiation safety activities are
being performed in accordance with approved procedures and
regulatory requirements in the daily operations of the
licensee's program.
The minimum requirements for training and experience to
become an RSO are as follows:
1. Complete the same training and testing requirements as
an industrial radiographer.
2. 2000 h of hands-on experience as a qualified
radiographer in industrial radiographic operations; and
3. I lave completed formal training in the establishment and
maintenance of a radiation protection program.
Specific Duties and Authorities Associated with the RSO
1. Establish and oversee all operating and ALARA
procedures as required by 10 CFR Part 20 Standards for
Protection Against Radiation and review them regularly to
ensure that all procedures conform to the current 10 CFR
Part 20, other NRC regulations and to the licensee's
conditions.
2. Ovem:e and approve all phases of the training program
for radiographic personnel, ensuring that appropriate and
effective radiation protection practices are taught.
3. Ensure that required radiation surveys and leak tests are
performed and documented in accordance with the
regulations, including any corrective measures when
radiation levels exceed that of the established limits.
4. Ensure that personnel monitoring devices are calibrated
and used properly by occupationally exposed personnel,
that records are kept of the monitoring results and that
timely notifications are made.
5. Ensure that operations are conducted safely and to
assume control for instituting corrective actions including
stopping of operations when necessary.
Transportation Requirements
The transportation of radioactive materials is highly
regulated. The radiographer will be involved with regulated
transportation of radioactive materials every time the camera
is taken out into the field.
The United States Department ofTransportation regulates
the transportation of radioactive materials between states. The
Nuclear Regulatory Commission and Agreement States also
regulate the transportation of radioactive materials. NRC
regulations (10 CFR Section 71.5) and state regulations
require that some Department of Transportation regulations
be met, so certain DOT regulations must be met whether the
shipment crosses a state line or not.
The Department of Transportation regulations for transport
of radiography sources arc DOT I Iazardous Materials
Regulations, Parts 171 through 179 of Title 49 of the Code of
Federal Regulations (49 CFR Parts 171- 179). An employer's
procedures for transporting radiography sources arc written to
be consistent with federal and state regulations.
Packaging
Radiography sources must be properly packaged for
transportation. The proper packaging depends on the amount
of radioactivity involved and the form of the material: special
form or normal form .
Special Form and Normal Form
{49 CFR Section 173.389(a) and Section 173.398{a}}
Special form packaging means the radioactive material is
contained in a leak-proof, escape-proof capsule to prevent the
spread of radioactive contamination. Radiography sources arc
special form. A radiography source is encapsulated in a
high-strength metal such as stainless steel.
Normal form radioactive materials are those in a form that
does not give as much protection against escape of the
radioactive materials and that docs not qualify as special form.
Examples of normal form material are glass or plastic vials of
radiopharmaceuticals and radioactive waste material such as
contaminated towels in plastic bags. The remainder of this
chapter deals only with special form materials because
radiography sources arc special form.
Amount ofRadioactivity in Packages
{49 CFR Section 173.389}
There are two special kinds of transporting packaging
depending on the amount of radioactive material that they are
allowed to contain: Type A and Type B. For special form
materials, the radiation activity limits are listed in Table 6.2.
 Chapter 6 - Gamma Ray Radiography

-able 6.2: Transporting packaging for radioactive dose rate in milliroentgen per hour at 39.37 in. (1 m) from
-aterials. the package. If the highest dose rate at 39.37 in. (1 m) is
5 mR/h (50 µSv), the transport index is 5. The transport
Packaging Type Max. Activity index is always rounded to the next highest tenth, for
example, a reading of 3.23 mR/h (32.3 µSv/ h) would be
Type-A Ci/GBq expressed as a transport index of 3.3.
lr-192 27Ci/999 GBq
I Warning Labels
~ Co-60 10.8 Ci/399.6 GBq Packages containing
radioactive materials must
Type-8 GBq/Ci be labeled on two opposite
sides with warning labels.
lr-192 Greater than Type-A
I These labels tell the type

I Co-60 Greater than Type-A and quantity of radioactive

material in the package and
the radiation dose rates
.\lost radiography sources will require Type B packaging. Old near the package. There are
sources being shipped away for disposal could often be three types of warning
' hipped in Type A packaging. labels, depending on the
Figure 6.9: Radiographic White I
dose rates.
label.
Type B Packaging {49 CFR Section 173.394(b)j
To ship any quantity greater than the amount specified for If the surface dose rate is
Type A of special form material, Type B packaging is 0.5 mR/h (5 µSv/h) or less,
required. Type B packaging is designed to withstand certain Radioactive White I labels
accident conditions without significant loss of shielding (Figure 6. 9) arc used [49
capability. Type B packaging must pass these tests: CFR Section 172.436].
1. A 30 ft (9.14 m) drop onto a hard surface, such as
concrete. Radioactive Yellow II
2. A 40 in. (101.6 cm) drop onto a 6 in. (15.24 cm) labels (Figure 6.10) are
diameter steel pin. used if the surface dose
3. A fire of 1475 °F (801.67 °C) for 30 min. rate does not exceed
50 mR/h (0.5 mSv/h) and
Most radiography cameras meet the requirements for Type B the dose rate at 39.37 in.
packaging. However, some cameras need additional packaging (1 m), the transport index,
Figure 6. 10: Radiographic
to meet the requirements for Type B packaging. These does not exceed 1 mR/h
Yellow II label.
cameras must be shipped in a shipping container provided by (0.01 mSv/h) [49 CFR
the manufacturer that has been designed and tested for the Section 172.438).
specific make and model exposure device. Additionally an
over-pack may be used as a convenience box to consolidate Radioactive Yellow III
packages or to lower surface radiation dose rates. No labels (Figure 6.11) are
radiography source in Type B packaging has ever become used for all packages with
unshielded because of a transportation accident. Type B a surface dose rate greater
packaging is designed to resist hypothetical transportation than 50 mR/h (0.5 mSv/h)
accident conditions. Radiography sources in Type B packaging or dose rate at 39.37 in.
have not proven to be hazardous in transportation. (1 m), transport index,
greater than 1 mR/h
Radiation Limits for Packages (0.01 mSv/h) and less than
Even though the packages for transporting radiography 200 mR/h (2 mSv/h) on
sources contain shields, some gamma radiation will penetrate contact and 10 mR/h
Figure 6. 11: Radiographic
the package shielding. (0.1 mSv/h) at 39.37 in.
Yellow Ill label.
(1 m) [49 CFR Section
In addition to the requirements on how the packaging is 172.440].
made, the Department of Transportation regulations have
limits on the dose rate at the surface of a package and the For portable lr-192 cameras with new sources, the dose rate
dose rate at 39.37 in. (1 m) from the package. The transport at the surface usually exceeds 50 mR/h (0.5 mSv/ h).
index is a dimensionless number equivalent to the highest Therefore, the camera will require the Radioactive Yellow III
 ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety
label while being shipped if no outer container is used. As the
source decays, the dose rate at the surface will eventually drop
below 50 mR/h (0.5 mSv/h) and a Radioactive Yellow II label
would be acceptable. There is no need to worry about the
exact moment when the transition occurs. H owever, as long as
the Radioactive Yellow III label is used during transportation,
all the precautions required for this label, such as vehicle
placarding, are necessary.
Trucks carrying radiography sources often have special boxes
that the camera is locked in (Figure 6.12). If the dose rate on
the surface of the box is less than 50 mR/h (0.5 mSv/ h) and is
less than 1 mR/h (0.01 ~1Sv/h) at 1 m (39.37 in. ), a
Radioactive Yellow II label can be used.
Figure 6. 12: A mobile radiography truck source locker.
Cameras containing no source are still radioactive if they use
depleted uranium for shielding. Dose rates at the surface are
about 0.5 mR/h (0.005 mSv/h). Therefore, either a
Radioactive White I label or the Radioactive Yellow II label
may be appropriate depending on the dose rate.
Moving the Source to the Work Site
If a package requires a Yellow III label, the vehicle in which it
is carried must have placards [49 CFR Section 172.504]. A
placard is a sign to show that the vehicle is carrying
radioactive material. Placards must be put on all four sides of
the vehicle. Placards cannot be closer than 3 in. (7.62 cm) to
any advertising or other signage that may be confused with
the placard information. In addition to placards, the driver
must have a Commercial Drivers License (CDL), the
company must be registered as a registered shipper and the
company must have an in-depth security plan for
transportation of hazardous materials. Depending upon the
quantity of material being transported, the vehicle may be
restricted to specific routes or require an escort. Vehicles
carrying only White I or Yellow II labeled packages do not
need placards.
Placarded trucks carrying radiography cameras should travel
to the work site by the quickest route [49 CFR Section
177.825(a)].
The radiography cameras must be blocked and braced against
movement inside the truck [49 CFR Section 177.834]. If the
camera is braced inside a box and the dose rate at the surface
of the box is less than 50 mR/h (0.5 mSv/h) and less than
1 mR/h (0.01 mSv/ h) at 39.37 in. (1 m), the box may use a
Radioactive Yellow II label. If this box is other than the
approved shipping container, the exposure device must be
properly labeled and the convenience box must also be
labeled. No placards are needed on the truck nor arc there
special routing requirements. The box is best located near the
rear of the truck to minimize the driver's radiation dose. A
typical camera must be located at least 1 ft (0.3 m) from
where the driver or passengers will be sitting [49 CFR
Section 177.842(b)]. Transport index is assumed to be less
than 1. Transport indexes greater than 1 would require
Radioactive Yellow III labels and radiography licensees will
generally utilize a convenience box or additional shielding to
reduce label requirements to Radioactive Yellow II whenever
possible. I Iigher transport indexes would require greater
separation distances.
If the vehicle is left for some reason (for example, a coffee
break), the camera must be locked inside the vehicle to
prevent it from being taken, and the truck alarm armed
[10 CFR Section 20.1802 an<l Section 34.23). An alternative
would require the vehicle (source) to remain under constant
direct surveillance of the radiographer or radiographer's
assistant.
The radiation dose rate outside the truck should be measured.
The dose rates allowed by Department of Transportation
regulations outside the truck arc higher than would be
encountered with a radiography source properly shielded
within a camera. But if the truck will be used as a storage area
when working in the field, the area outside the truck must
meet Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulations for
unrestricted areas. Dose rates in unrestricted areas must be
below 2 mR in any 1 h (0.02 mSv in any 1 h) or 0.01 mR/h
(0.1 µSv/h) if the truck will be in one place for a long time, tc
meet the 100 mrem (0.1 mSv) in a year [10 CFR Section
20.1301].
A transportation checklist must be completed before starting
the trip. Many employers combine this list with the source
utilization log required by the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission [10 CFR Section 34.71] because the
information required for each is almost identical.
If involved in a traffic accident the radiographer should make
an immediate radiation survey if at all possible. If radiation
levels are above those expected, follow emergency procedure,.
The company may be required to report the accident to the

~..'nired States Department of Transportation [49 CFR
'ecrion 177.861).
Receiving and Shipping Sources
Receiving a Source
Radiography sources shipped to a company must be picked up
from rhe carrier when it is offered for delivery, or
expeditiously when notified the package is at the carrier's
terminal. [10 CFR Section 20.1906). This is to ensure the
.::arrier's employees are not needlessly exposed to radiation by
keeping the source and to reduce the risk that someone might
take the source out of its shielding. It is usually assumed the
radiography source requires Type B packaging and will be
shipped by a common carrier in a vehicle that will carry many
different packages from different shippers. The Department
of Transportation calls this a nonexclusive use vehicle.
After the source is picked up from the carrier, the licensee
shall perform radiation surveys as soon as practical after
receipt of the package (Figure 6.13), but not later than 3 h
after the package is received at the licensee's facility if it is
received during the licensee's normal working hours, or not
later than 3 h from the beginning of the next working day if
it is received after working hours.
Figure 6.13: A radiation survey is performed on a container holding
radioactive materials.
A radiation survey must be made to verify levels do not
exceed 200 mR/h (2 mSv/h) at the surface [10 CFR Section
20.1906). A record of the survey must be made [10 CFR
Section 20.1906). Most companies will have a standard form
for recording the receipt of a source. The form will usually ask
for the source serial number, model number, isotope type and
activity. It will also ask for the serial number and model
number of the shipping container.
Chapter 6 - Gamma Ray Radiography
The dose rate must also be measured at 39.37 in. (1 m)
[Section 20.1906)). The dose rate measured should be about
the same as the transport index written on the package
warning label. The dose rate at 39.37 in. (1 m) cannot exceed
10 mR/h (0.1 mSv/h). A record of this survey must also be
made [10 CFR Section 20.1906).
Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulations do not require
wipe tests for contamination for packages received that
contain radiography sources because the sources are special
form material [10 CFR Section 20.1906).
If dose rates exceed 200 mR/h (2 mSv/h) at the surface or
10 mR/h (0.1 mSv/h) at 39.37 in. (1 m), the company must
immediately report this to the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission and the carrier [10 CFR Section 20.1906].
Shipping a Source
Before delivering a radiography source to a commercial
carrier, the most important thing to do is to make sure the
source is securely locked in the fully shielded position. To do
this, make a radiation survey of the shipping container and by
checking to see that the source is locked in the shielded
position. This will prevent cargo handlers and others from
being exposed to an intense beam of radiation from the
source.
The package must be surveyed and the lock checked to verify
the source is locked in the fully shielded position. The device
must be secured to prevent accidental loss, unauthorized
removal or tampering of the licensed material from the
transport vehicle.
Apply the proper warning labels to two sides of the package
[49 CFR Section 172.403([)]. Most spent (used) sources will
use a Radioactive Yellow II label because the surface dose
rates will be less than 50 mR/h (0.5 mSv/h) and the dose rate
at 39.37 in. (1 m) will be less than 1 mR/h (0.01 mSv/h) .
Remove any old warning labels from the package so that it
does not have confusing or contradictory labels. Mark the
outside of the package with the appropriate proper shipping
name and identification number from the Hazardous
Material Table [49 CFR Section 172.101). If the package
weighs more than 110 lbs (50 kg), write its weight on the
package [49 CFR Section 172.310(a)].
If a shipping container is packaged inside a crate or other
packaging, mark the outside package, "Inside container in
accordance with "(insert DOT Specification Number
or Type B Certificate Number). Also indicate the appropriate
type of package, Type B or Type A [49 CFR Section
172.310] and [49 CFR Section 173.393(a)].
Fill out the shipping papers. This will include:
Radioactive Material, Type B(U) package UN2916.
Type of radioactive material (Ir-192, Co-60, etc.).
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety
Special form.
Number ofbecquerel (curies).
Type of warning label (such as Radioactive Yellow II).
Transport index.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission identification number
or Department of Transportation specification number.
The radiographer must also certify that the shipment is
properly classified (such as Radioactive Yellow II),
described, packaged, marked and labeled [49 CFR
Section l 72.204(a)].
For air shipment, radiography sources can only be shipped on
cargo aircraft. Years ago radiography sources were permitted
on passenger aircraft. In 1974, a radiography camera was
sh ipped in a passenger aircraft with the source not fully
shielded. The receivers discovered and reported the condition,
but the passengers and crew on the aircraft were exposed to
radiation from the source. Because of this accident, Congress
banned the shipment of radiography sources on passenger
aircraft.
Air shipments must be labeled Cargo Aircraft Only [49 CFR
Section 172.402(b)J and the shipping papers must state, "This
shipment is within the limitations prescribed for cargo only
aircraft."
Operating and Emergency Procedures
Specific procedures vary from one company to another
depending on the scope of services that company may
provide. Set minimum guidelines have been established by the
NRC.
Operating and emergency procedures must include, at a
minimum, instructions in the following:
l. Appropriate handling and use oflicensed sealed sources
and radiographic exposure devices so that no person is
likely to be exposed to radiation doses in excess of the
limits established in 10 CFR Part 20 Standards for
Protection Against Radiation;
2. Methods and occasions for conducting radiation surveys;
3. Methods for controlling access to radiographic areas;
4. Methods and occasions for locking and securing
radiographic exposure devices, transport and storage
containers and sealed sources;
5. Personnel monitoring and the use of personnel
monitoring equipment;
6. Transporting sealed sources to field locations, including
packing of radiographic exposure devices and storage
containers in the vehicles, placarding of vehicles when
needed, and control of the sealed sources during
transportation;
7. The inspection, maintenance and operability checks of
radiographic exposure devices, survey instruments,
transport containers and storage containers;
8. Steps that must be taken immediately by radiography
personnel in the event a pocket dosimeter is found to be
off-scale or an alarm ratemeter alarms unexpectedly.
9. The procedure(s) for identifying and reporting defects
and noncompliance, as required by 10 CFR Part 21;
10. The procedure for notifying proper persons in the event
of an accident;
11. Minimizing exposure of persons in the event of an
accident;
12. Source recovery procedure if licensee will perform source
recovery;
13. Maintenance of records.
Each licensee shall maintain a copy of current operating and
emergency procedures until the Commission terminates the
license. Superseded material must be retained for three years
after a change has been made.
Each licensee shall also maintain copies of the following
documents and records sufficient to demonstrate compliance
at each applicable field station and each temporary job site:
l. The license authorizing the use of licensed material;
2. A copy of 10 CFR Parts 19, 20 and 34 of NRC
regulations;
3. Utilization records for each radiographic exposure device
dispatched from that location;
4. Records of equipment problems identified in daily checks
of equipment as required;
5. Records of alarm system and entrance control checks
required;
6. Records of direct reading dosimeters such as pocket
dosimeter and/or electronic personal dosimeter readings
as required;
7. Operating and emergency procedures;
8. Evidence of the latest calibration of the radiation survey
instruments in use at the site, as required;
9. Evidence of the latest calibrations of alarm rate-meters
and operability checks of pocket dosimeters and/or
electronic personal dosimeters as required;
10. Latest survey records;
11. The shipping papers for the transportation of radioactive
materials required; and
12. When operating under reciprocity, a copy of the
Agreement State license authorizing the use of licensed
materials.
Personnel Responsibilities
Personnel responsibilities arc a shared dedication to safety.
Radiographers are a direct extension of the RSO while out at
the jobsite. The certified radiographer must be capable of
ensuring that all regulatory requirements as well as license
conditions arc met by the radiographer and assistant
radiographers through their training and experience should
have the capabilities and knowledge to identify areas of
concern. Abnormal operating conditions must be identified
with the appropriate response as identified within the
company's operating and emergency procedures.
 Chapter 6 - Ga m ma Ray Radiography

Chapter 6 Review Questions

1. How many survey meters are required when conducting 5. Exposure devices are classified by categories I and II per
radiographic operations? the ANSI standard N432. What arc these categories?
a. 1 a. Category I: exposes the source through a shutter
b. 2 mechanism or rotation device in which t he source
c. 3 never leaves the device; Category II: source is
d. one for each radiographer and assistant exposed outside the sh ielded container by mechanical
e. a sufficient number of calibrated and operable survey means
meters b. Category I: exposes the source through a shutter
mechanism or rotation device in which the source
leaves the device; Category II: source is exposed
2. Radiation su rvey equipment shall be calibrated ou tside the shielded container by mechanical means
_ __ _ _ , and have an overall accuracy of c. Category I: source is exposed outside the shielded
container by mechanical means; Category II: exposes
a. annually; 10% the source through a shutter mechanism or rotation
b. semiannually; ±10% device in which the source never leaves the device
c. annually; ±20% d. Category II: source is exposed outside the shielded
d. semiannually; 20% container by mechanical means; Category I: exposes
e. semiannually; ±20% the source through a shutter mechanism or rotation
device in which the source leaves the device
e. exposure devices arc not classified in this manner
3. Which personnel monitoring devices are required prior
to perform ing radiography, excluding permanent
inst allations? 6. Caution signs used, unless otherwise authorized by the
a. d irect reading dosi meter, operating rate alarm, commission, shall be of a trefoil design using the colors:
personnel dosimeter a. magenta on a yellow background
b. direct reading dosimeter, film badge, survey meter, b. purple on a yellow background
operating rate alarm c. black on a yellow background
c. operating rate alarm, survey meter, dosimeter, film d . all of the above
badge/TLD
d. survey meter, dosimeter, film badge
7. Boundary and posting requirements arc as follows:
a. caution radiation area 2 mR/h (20 µ Sv/h);
-l. What are the three classifications of exposure devices? caution/danger high radiation area 100 mR/h
a. H - heavy; L - light; B - bolted (1 mSv/h); grave danger, very high radiation area
b. P - portable; M - mobile; F - fixed 500 mR/h (5 mSv/h)
c. P - plunger; M - mechanized; F - flap b. caution radiation area 5 mR/h (50 µSv/h);
d. H - heat treated; L - liquid; B - beryllium caution/danger high radiation area 100 mR/h
(1 mSv/h); grave danger, very high radiation area
500 R/h (5 Sv/h)
c. caution radiation area 2 mR/h (20 µSv/h);
caution/danger high radiation area 500 mR/h
(5 mSv/h); grave danger, very high radiation area
1 R/h (10 mSv/h)
d. caution radiation area 5 mR/h (50 µ Sv/h);
caution/danger high radiation area 500 mR/h
(5 mSv/h); grave danger, very high radiation area
1 R/h (10 mSv/h)
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety

8. Film badges must be replaced at intervals not to 10. Dosimetry reports received from the accredited NVLAP
exceed: personnel dosimeter processor must be maintained by
a. one month the licensee:
b. three months a. for one year
c. six months b. for three years
d. 12 months c. for the duration of the employee's employment
d . until the commission terminates the license

9. In the event of an off-scale pocket chamber, an

individual's film badge/TLD must be submitted for
processing within:
a. 24 h
b. 48 h
c. 72 h
d. at the end of the month
 Chapter 7

X-ray Radiography

X-ray Production burning up, to increase electron efficiency and to prevent

X-ray emitting devices arc manufactured electronic radiation
~enerators designed to produce high-energy electromagnetic
radiation (X-radiation). Like gamma radiation , X-radiation is
ionizing with identical biological effects on humans (rem).
There is a significant difference in their sources of origin and
how the radiation is produced. Gamma radiation is the
product of an isotope undergoing radioactive decay at a
discrete energy level that is characteristic to the radioactive
material. X-rays arc the product of high-speed electrons
, triking a target enclosed in a vacuum tube and producing a
spectrum of X-ray energies (Figure 7.1).
arcing between the cathode and the anode. The electrical
potential between the negatively charged cathode and the
positively charged anode pulls t he electrons from the cathode
and accelerates them as they are attracted toward the anode or
target (usually made of tungsten).
There are two phenomena that occur when accelerated free
electrons interact with the atomic structure of the target
material to produce X-rays: bremsstrahlung and characteristic.
Bremsstrahlung Radiation
Bremsstrahlung radiation or continuous spectrum X-rays
(Figure 7.2) are generated when a stream of accelerated

Target mounting
Bremsstrahlung
structure

Anode
(positive
charged)
- - - - - S~e~e~~~':_~: ~~·
::diotion Amlernted
:' .. · · - -._...... .....·. , (free) electron
- - - - - --;'- -J,~ -:" :....:~~- .... ~~ ', , '\:"- ........ 3

Accel~rate~· .< ...... ~.. \ ~

Glass envelope

....
- - - (free). elec:ron~G
~
.
"·
'
\
•..
.
c1e

....
\;

:'•:
.., \ . :. ~-
; ~
G

Figure 7 .1: Glass X-ray tube.

In a typical X-ray system a supply of electrons must be

Bremsstrahlung radiation
· .. .... __

.. ____ __ _ ..· _: \ :'

--~ 2
Accelerated
(free) electron

present; this is achieved by the passing of electric current

through a tungsten filament, which heats the filament to
several thousand degrees centigrade to create a source of free
electrons. A large electrical potential is established betvveen
the filament (negatively charged cathode) and a target
(positively charged anode). The cathode and the anode are
enclosed in a vacuum tube to prevent the filament from
Fig ure 7.2: Bremsstrahlung example. Free electron 1, stopped by
interaction with the nucleus, gives up all its energy as high energy
X-ray photons. Free electron 2, deflected by interaction with the
nucleus, gives up most of its energy as lower energy X-ray
photons. Free electron 3, deflected slightly by interaction with the
nucleus and electron shells, gives up a small amount of its energy
as low energy X-ray photons.

57
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety
electrons are caused to rapidly decelerate (brake) due to
interaction with other charged particles, primarily the nuclei
of the target material atoms. The spectrum of X-ray energies
is generated by the various degrees of interaction the free
electrons have with the target atoms. X-ray energies are
generated in a spectrum up to the greatest energy of the
voltage appl ied to the X-ray generator.
When a high-speed free electron is completely stopped by the
nucleus of a target atom, the total amount of energy
exchanged is emitted as an X-ray with the same energy as the
accelerating voltage. Lower energy X-rays are emitted
corresponding to the degree a nucleus causes deflection and
slowing of the accelerated electrons and the amount of energy
exchanged. The original accelerated electrons and any orbital
electrons ejected by electron interaction will continue to
interact with the target atoms emitting lower energy X-rays
until the energies fall into a lower portion of the
electromagnetic energy spectrum (ultraviolet, visible light,
heat).
Characteristic R adiation
C haracteristic X -rays are produced when low-energy orbital
electrons in the target material atoms are ejected when they
gain excess energy from the accelerated electrons. This occurs
primarily with the K-shell electrons having the lowest kinetic
energy. Higher energy electrons from the outer shells of the
target atoms drop into the lower energy orbits (shells)
releasing excess energy as an X -ray at a wavelength t hat is
characteristic to the target material (Figure 7.3).
Ejected electron
Incident
electrons with
energy g reater
than K-shell Characteristic X-ray from
binding energy L to Kelectron transition
Figure 7.3: Characteristic X-rays are created when a higher energy
electron falls to a lower energy position.
In general, X-rays of many energies arc emitted producing a
continuous X-ray spectrum often referred to as white
radiation.
W ithin X -ray tubes, only a small portion of the energy (less
than 5%) introduced to the target is converted to X -radiation.
The bulk of the energy is converted into heat which must be
dissipated by the target material itself to prevent tube failure
from overheating.
Effects of Kilovoltage
In different equipment, different methods are used to
accelerate the electrons. In the smaller X-ray generators, up to
and including two million electron volts units, acceleration is
accomplished with transformers to step up the incoming
power from the in-line voltage. Since the X-ray generators
operate at very high voltages, the designation kilovolts (kV) is
used. A s the kilovoltage (the source of acceleration) is
changed, the ki netic energy in the moving electrons is
changed, altering the energy of the resulting X-radiatio n. As
the kilovoltage is increased, the efficiency of converting the
electrical energy into X-rays is increased and the velocity of
the electrons striking the target fro m the cathode is also
increased. Therefore, when kilovoltage is increased, the
penetrating capabil ities of the radiation are also increased due
to a shorter wavelength (higher frequency) and the quality of
radiation is increased. Selection of kilovoltage is the most
important variable in industrial radiographic applications.
This can be equated to a gamma source's inherent energy
characteristics; as kilovoltage is increased it can be envisioned
as changing fro m one isotope to another, such as changing
fro m iridium-192 (357 kV) to cobalt-60 (l.33 M eV).
Effects of Milliamperes
M illiampere (mA) is a measure of the amount of electrical
current applied to the heated fila ment (cathode). It is also a
d irect measurement of the number of free electrons available
in the X-ray tube and is independent of variations in
kilovoltage. Thus the quantity ofX-radiation is in direct
relation to milliamperes. The milliamperes are measured with
a milliamp meter, usually located in the control panel. The
effect of milliampere on radiation output is shown in
Figure 7.4. As milliamperes increase, so docs intensity at a
Mil lia mperes
Figure 7.4: The effect of milliampere on radiation output.
 Chapter 7 - X-ray Radiography

proportional rate. This can be equated to a gamma source's Focal Spot

total activity. The higher the miUiamperes the more cu ries.
The focal spot is the area of the target that is bombarded by
Cathode and Anode Construction the electrons from the cathu<le. The shape and size of the
focusing cup of the cathode, the length and diameter of the
A cathode is a filament or coil of thoriated nmgsten wire filament, and the dimensions of the focusing cup in which the
which emits electrons when heated to a high temperature. But coil rests, all determine the size and shape of the focal spot.
because the filament gives off electrons in all directions, a The size of the focal spot has an effect on the quality of the
reflector or focusing cup (usually made of iron nickel) within X-ray image. The smaller the focal spot, the better the detail
the cathode structure focuses the electron beam much as light of the image. The electron stream from the filament is
is focused by a flashlight reflector. focused in a narrow
rectangle focal spot
As mentioned previously, there must be a target for the (Figure 7.6) . Thus, the
electron beam to strike before X-rays arc produced. In effective area of the Electron
radiographic tubes the target material is generally made of focal spot is only a beam
tungsten, also known as wolfram. The choice of tungsten as fraction of its actual
the target for industrial radiography is based on four material area. By using the
characteristics. X-rays that emerge at
1. High atomic number (74). The higher the atomic number this angle, a small focal
of a material, the more efficient the conversion from spot is created,
Projected area or effective
electrical energy into X-ray energy. improving radiographic focal spot size
2. High melting point of 6098 °F (3370 °C). Most of the definition. Because the
energy in the electrons bombarding the target is electron stream is spread
Figure 7.6: The electron stream from
dissipated in the form of heat. The extremely high over a greater area, the
the filament is focused in a narrow
melting point of tungsten permits operation of the target heat capacity of the rectangle focal spot.
at very high temperatures. anode is improved.
3. High thermal conductivity. Permits rapid removal of heat
from the target, allowing maximum energy input for a X-ray Tube
given area size.
4. Low vapor pressure. This reduces the amount of target The cathode and the anode structures are housed in a highly
material vaporized during operation. evacuated envelope. The high vacuum reduces the problem of
the electrons colliding with, and being absorbed by, molecules
The tungsten target material is usually imbedded into a of air. It also provides electrical insulation between the
massive vacuum cast copper rod. Copper is an excellent cathode and anode. For industrial radiography, metal ceramic
thermal conductor envelopes are used to house the cathode and anode as a
and is used to vacuum seal. The metal ceramic is usually reduced in
remove the heat thickness at the area of the X-ray tube window to reduce
from the target for absorption (Figure 7.7).
dissipation by air,
oil or water
cooling, depending
on tube design and
operation. The
target and its
copper support are
the anode. (See
Figure 7.5.) To
Figure 7.7: A glass vacuum X-ray tube.
produce X-rays it
must be a positive
potential with Inherent Filtration
respect to the
cathode in order Inherent filtration is the filtration or reduction in radiation
to attract the energies absorbed by the material necessary to provide the
electrons available vacuum, the electrical insulation and mechanical rigidity of
at the cathode. the X-ray tube. In construction of some glass X-ray tubes, the
Figure 7.5: Fundamentals of an X-ray tube.
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety
port is reduced in thickness to provide less inherent filtration.
In some other tubes the port is made of beryllium, which is a
light metal with a low atomic number and low absorption
factor. Because of tremendous pressures exerted by the
atmosphere on large evacuated containers, X-ray ports must
be designed with sufficient thickness to withstand these
pressures without implosion. In center-grounded X-ray
equipment, it is also necessary to provide oil and solid
insulation for electrical isolation of the X- ray tube. Excessive
inherent filtration reduces the X-ray output as well as the
radiographic contrast. In normal practice it is acceptable to
tolerate inherent filtration of 0.039 in. (1 mm) of aluminum
equivalent up to 100 kVp (kilovolts peak); 0.118 in. (3 mm)
of aluminum up to 175 kVp; 0.197 in. (5 mm) of aluminum
equivalent up to 250 kVp; and higher filtration in 1000 kVp
to 2000 kVp units. Inherent filtration above these tolerances
reduces contrast, and hence, sensitivity of radiographic
inspection, and as a result, limits the sensitivity of inspection
especially on thin sections and light alloys. For this reason,
during U.S. Air Force radiographic inspections for defects,
such as crack and corrosion detection using kilovoltage of 150
or less, the tube head shall be configured so that generated
radiation will travel from the target through a beryllium
window without passing through any media other than air or
insulating sulfur hexafluoride gas (SF6 ).
Cooling Requirements
The product of millampcres and kilovolts equals watts of
electrical energy in the electron beam striking the X-ray
target. One watt of electrical power is equal to 1 VA.
Therefore, in an X-ray tube operating at 10 mA and 140 kV,
1400 W of electrical energy are in the electron beam.
Only a very small amount of the energy in the electron beam
is converted into X-radiation. This ranges from about 0.05%
at 30 kV to approximately 30% in the million electron volts
energy range. The larger percentage of the electron beam
energy is converted into heat. This generation of heat in the
X-ray tube target material is one of the limiting factors in the
capabilities of the X-ray tube. It is necessary to remove this
heat from the target as rapidly as possible. Various techniques
are used for removal of heat. In some instances, the target is
comparatively thin, and a suitable oil is sprayed on the back
surface to remove heat. Others (where the anode is being
operated at ground potential) use ordinary tap water to
conduct heat away from the target. Most X-ray targets arc
mounted in copper, using the copper as a heat sink. Some
units have no external method of heat removal, but depend
upon heat dissipation by fins of a thermal radiator. Some
totally enclosed tubes depend upon the heat storage capacity
of the anode structure to absorb the heat generated. This heat
is then dissipated after the unit is turned off. These units
usually have a duty cycle as a limiting factor of operation
which is dependent upon the heat storage capacity of the
anode structure and the rate of heat dissipation by thermal
radiation. The rate of heat removal from the X-ray target is
the primary limiting factor in X-ray tube operation.
Types ofX-ray Equipment
X-ray equipment ranges from 5 kV or 10 kV to 32 MeV
generators. Various methods are used to accelerate the
electrons over this wide range of voltages. All of the
fundamentals previously discussed are appropriate for au the
types of equipment. X-ray generators, used for most industrial
radiographic applications, utilize transformers as a means of
supplying the necessary voltages for operation.
Transformer Theory
A transformer is an electromagnetic device for changing a
particular alternating voltage to either a higher or lower value.
Its operation is based on the principle that an electric current
can be generated by the action of a changing magnetic field
on a coil of wire. One coil, the primary, is connected to an
alternating current source. This alternating current flows
through the primary coil windings, first in one direction, then
in the other. The rapid changes in the alternating current
establish an alternating magnetic field about the coil
proportional to the current and the number of turns in the
coil.
It is important that the magnetic field of the primary coil be
concentrated so that a maximum number of the magnetic
lines of force interact with the second coil. This is usually
accomplished by winding the primary coil around an iron
core. The second coil of wire wound around the core is called
the secondary winding. This condition induces an electrical
potential across the secondary coil that is proportional to the
rate of the change of the magnetic field in the secondary and
is the same as that rate of change in the primary. Therefore,
the frequency of the alternating current used to energize the
primary coil is also induced into the secondary coil and
therefore the frequency remains unchanged.
Voltage Ratios in Transformers
If hysteresis losses are neglected, the voltages in the primary
and secondary coils are proportional to the number of turns in
each coil. The output voltage of a transformer is determined
by the ratio of the number of turns in the primary coil to the
number of turns in the secondary coil and the voltage applied
to the primary. As an example, if the secondary coil has 500
turns for each turn in the primary coil, the primary voltage
would be increased approximately 500 times at the output of
the secondary.
Types ofTransformers
Not all transformers are alike despite the similarity of basic
principles. Each type has a specific application. Only those
employed in X-ray will be discussed here. The types most

commonly used are the iron core transformer and the
resonant transformer. There are three types of iron core
transformers:
1. step-down transformer,
2. step- up transformer, and
3. autotransformer.
Step-down Transformer
The step-down transformer gets its name from the fact that
the voltage on the secondary is less than that on the primary.
This condition is caused by a larger number of turns in the
primary winding compared to those found in the secondary
coil. As a result of stepped-down voltage, this transformer is
ideal for supplying or "heating" the filament of the X-ray
tube.
Step-up Transformer
As its name implies, the step-up transformer is the opposite
of the step-down. This transformer has more turns in the
secondary than in the primary winding. Thus, its voltage
output is proportionately greater than the voltage input. In an
X-ray apparatus, the step-up transformer is used to supply
high voltage across the X- ray tube.
Autotransformer
The autotransformer uses a single winding, parts of which
serve as both primary and secondary. The winding betv,reen
the input terminals acts as the primary, and the winding
between the load terminals serves as the secondary. The
secondary coil of the autotransformer is variable and is
provided with a series of taps or a sliding arm contactor to
vary the number of turns. Thus, depending upon the position
of the selector switch cuntrolling the tap, the autotransformer
may serve as either a step-up or step-down device. The
autotransformer is used to select the voltage input to the
high-voltage transformer primary and thereby controls the
voltage across the X-ray tube.
Fundamental X-ray Circuits
The fundamental circuitry is similar in all X-ray generators. A
source of electrons and an accelerating potential must be
supplied. The simplest circuits are used in the tank-type
generators.
Tank-type X-ray Generators
Tank-type units are usually small and light in weight for ease
of portability. The entire high-voltage circuit is housed in a
single tank. This includes the X -ray tube, the high-voltage
transformer and the filament transformer. Electrical insulation
is usually by transformer oil or compressed insulating gas. The
control box is a separate unit that can be positioned at some
remote distance to protect the operator from radiation.
Different circuit designs are used in various tank-type
generators.
Chapter 7 - X-ray Radiography
Grounded-anode Generators
Grounded-anode X- ray generators have the same typical
circuitry as a tank- type with the exception of the high- tension
transformer design. A single winding is used as the secondary
in the high-tension transformer of which one end is passed
through the milliammeter and then to ground. The opposite
end of this winding supplies the high voltage to the cathode
side of the X-ray tube and the anode is operated at ground
potential. The advantage of this circuit is the fact that the
anode does not require electrical insulation and is often
cooled by circulating water. This circuit is also used for the
operation of rod-anode X-ray tubes. The disadvantage is that
the cathode portion must be electrically insulated for the
maximum operating voltage of the unit.
Grounded-cathode X-ray Units
Although not commonly used, it is possible to operate an
X -ray unit with the cathode side of the X-ray tube grounded.
The X-ray tube must be electrically insulated for the
maximum operating kilovoltage. In this case the anode end of
the X-ray tube must be electrically insulated for the maximum
operating kilovoltage. This circuit offers very few advantages
and is seldom used in X -ray units.
Self-rectified Circuit Operation
Most tank-type X -ray generators have been designed for one
of two basic purposes: they are either portable (requiring
small, lightweight units) or are designed to avoid transmission
of high voltage from the high-voltage transformer to the
X-ray tube by means of an insulated conductor. Most of these
units operate as self-rectified generators. The term
self-rectified indicates that the X-ray tube functions as the
rectifier in the circuit. Remember t hat the h igh-voltage
transformer is operating on alternating current. The voltage
starts at zero and rises to some peak value of one particular
polarity and returns to zero, this representing one-half of the
total cycle.
On the next half-cycle the voltage starts at zero, rises to a
peak voltage of the opposite polarity and reh1rns to zero
completing the foll cycle of alternating current voltages. This
is referred to as a sine wave (Figure 7 .8) .
1/60 sec.
+
<D
OJ
2 QF--~~~-+~~~~+-~~~--+~~~~-.---
~
- -. ;-.=-::.~~ -.-- _,
Time
Figure 7.8: Sine wave of 60 cycle alternating current.
61
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety
It is important to remember that the transformer does not
transform frequency. The potential created in the secondary
will be an alternating voltage of the same frequency as the
primary. This frequency is 60 cycles. Each cycle contains one
positive voltage hump and one negative hump.
Now consider the operation of the X-ray tube. For one-half
cycle, the anode will be at a high-positive charge in relation to
the heated cathode. This high-positive charge attracts the
negatively charged electrons across the evacuated space
between the cathode and the anode. The electrons bombard
the target and X- rays are produced.
On the next half-cycle, the anode becomes negative in
polarity but there is no source of electrons. Therefore, there is
no production of X-rays occurring on this half-cycle. The
current is rectified by the X-ray tube and current flows from
the cathode to the anode only. X-rays are produced only
during the positive half-cycle.
This type of operation has various limiting factors. During
current flow, the kilovoltage may rise to a particular peak
value. On the next half-cycle, when no electric current is
passing from the anode to the cathode, the kilovoltage applied
to the anode is higher because there is no voltage drop due to
current flow. On poorly designed transformers, this increase in
the inverse voltage applied to the anode may be 15% higher
than the cathode kilovoltage when current is conducted across
the X-ray tube. If the anode is allowed to become overheated
(by overloading or prolonged operation) and produces free
electrons, like a cathode, then electric current is conducted
from the anode and the cathode becomes the X-ray target.
Since the cathode structure is not a massive target, the
filament in the tube is usually damaged to the extent that the
tube is inoperable. This hazard limits the operation of
self-rectified generators.
Pulsed (or Flash) X-ray Units
High-speed pulsed X- ray units use a cold-cathode field
emission X-ray tube. These units operate as self-rectified
X-ray generators and can operate at very high voltages
(2 MeV) with very high currents for a very brief time.
Effectively, these units operate by charging a capacitor to the
desired kilovoltage and the quantity of electrical energy
compatible with the X- ray tube, then discharging this
electrical energy across the tube from the cathode (field
emitters) to the anode. The pulse duration is in the order of
40 ns and is capable of imaging very high-speed motions.
Even though these types of generators operate at high
currents and voltages, the 40 ns pulse duration is so brief that
a small amount ofX-radiation is generated. The limited
quantity of radiation often requires the use of fluorescent
screens and very high-speed films, and X-ray image quality
suffers as a result. Most of these units are constructed to
produce a sequence of pulses. Some very small, lightweight
portable units are available which are capable of X-raying
low-density materials.
Separate Component Units
Separate component units are those units where the
transformers are separated from the X-ray tube. The
high-voltage and filament connections are made between the
transformers and the X-ray tube through insulated cables.
These units offer the advantage of ease of positioning the
X-ray tube. The tube is contained in a protective housing with
adequate insulation for the high voltages to be applied to the
tube. These separate component units are usually in fixed
installations and the parts to be inspected are transported to
the X-ray equipment. The size or weight of this equipment is
not important because it is usually intended for radiography
in a shielded facility.
Full-wave Rectified X-ray Generators
Full-wave rectification of the high-voltage circuit is added to
increase the operating capacity of the X-ray tube. The
fundamental circuit appears very similar to the tank-type unit
using the center tap grounded circuit. An example of
full-wave rectification is shown in Figure 7.9.
1/60 s
+
Q)
Ol
_£gQ1--~~~-"-~~~--''--~~~~~~~--'-~
~ 1/120s
Time
Figure 7.9: Full-wave rectified; note the absence of the negative
attraction.
The tubes used for rectification are usually called valve tubes.
These rectifier tubes function like valves, allowing electrical
current to flow in one direction only. The use of full-wave
rectification has two major advantages in X-ray production.
First, the tubes prevent application of negative voltage to the
high-tension anode cable or the X-ray anode. Therefore, the
target can be heated to incandescence without the hazard of
electrical conduction from the anode to the cathode. The
operational ratings of a tube can be increased with safety. In
addition, the radiation is generated on each half-cycle of the
alternating current instead of every other half-cycle.
Therefore, to produce the same milliamperes for a given
period of time, the filament temperature can be lower.
Constant- potential X-ray Generators
Constant-potential generators have, in addition to
rectification, a typical tank circuit consisting of capacitors and
resistors whose purpose is to smooth the pulsating direct
 Chapter 7 - X-ray Radiography

current. The degree of success in smoothing out the

pulses is usually expressed as a percentage. Most of
these units operate with about a 5% ripple or within
5% of being a constant high voltage. These units are
somewhat more efficient in the generation of X-rays
because the voltage applied to the X-ray tube is
comparatively constant. In other types of X-ray units
(self-rectified and full-wave rectified) the kilovoltage Charge collection + Focusing accelerating
alternates continuously from zero to peak and point - - - · ,- : electrodes
returning to zero, generating radiations over this entire
spectrum of energies. The constant-potential
Insulated belt -
carrying charges I Porcelain
vacuum tube
generators still generate a wide spectrum of radiations;
however, the average energy of this spectrum will be Electrostatic _ _P_re..,ssure vessel
field rings
slightly higher with constant-potential applied to the
X-ray tube. In these units the high-tension Pressurized dry
Charge spray _ ~ ~-- nitrogen
transformer is usually housed in two separate tanks,
while still operating as a single transformer. There is a High voltage _I n 0
positive and a negative transformer. The negative charge supply I~
transformer can be used alone and operate grounded
anode X-ray tubes. Then by usi ng X-ray tubes
designed for the anode to operate with a high-positive
I Belt drive t----< _ _ _ Target

voltage and using the positive transformer to apply this

voltage, the operating voltage is doubled. These units
are very useful, permitting various types of tubes to be
Figure 7.10: Diagram of a Van de Graaff generator.
used and arc often capable of operating over ranges
from 25 kVcp to 400 kVcp by the choice of tubes.

High-voltage X-ray Generators

High-voltage units are used to generate very high voltage

radiations and most utilize some method other than typical
transformers for accelerating the electrons. By various
methods of electron acceleration, electron energies in the
range of 1 Me V to 32 MeV may be achieved for radiographic
purposes.

Van de GraaffX-ray Generators

Van de GraaffX-ray generators operate on the electrostatic
principle (Figure 7.10). Electrons are introduced on a belt
traveling at very high speeds. These electrons are transported
by the belt and collected on an insulated dome structure
which serves as an electron source, similar to the cathode in
an X-ray tube. Inside the tube is a small flat tungsten cathode
connected to a high-voltage electrode. The electrons emitted
by the cathode are accelerated by the differences in voltages
between the cathode and the anode, which is at ground
potential. The anode usually consists of a target approximately
the size and shape of a silver dollar (the size of the focal spot
being determined by an electromagnetic focusing coil).
Electrons are emitted through the target and exit from the
back to form the radiation beam.
Betatron Generators
The betatron is an X-ray generator capable of accelerating a
few thousand volts of electrons to energies of several million
electron volts (Figure 7.11 ). T he X-ray tube in the betatron is
Leads to ____
capacitor LI l
Magnetic field I
Figure 7. 11: Diagram of a betatron accelerator.
an annular or doughnut-shaped, glass or porcelain enclosure
with extremely high vacuum. The electrons are injected into
the annular tube with what is commonly called an electron
gun. T his is a heated filament and func tions as a cathode.
Because of a high frequency magnetic field induced by a coil,
the electrons circle around in the tube. Effectively, this coil
functions as the primary of a transformer and the electrons
inside of the annular tube function as the secondary. To
increase the magnetic field strength in the betatron tube, it is
placed between the poles of a very large magnet. The
electrons increase velocity and energy with each orbit. When

63
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety

the electrons have acquired the predetermined energy, the
magnetic field is changed to deflect the electrons and cause
them to strike the target and produce X-rays. This method of
X-ray generation is most effective in the range of 10 McV to
32 McV.
Linear Accelerators
A linear accelerator (Figure 7 .12) consists of a long, straight
tube with the electrons accelerated in a straight line from the
Oscillator
The massive anode functions as an absorber for those
radiations traveling into the anode. In most X-ray tubes, lead
is used as an absorbing material to reduce the radiation to a
field exiting from a window. The shielding reduces the
leakage radiation hazard to personnel and prevents additional
scattered radiation from surrounding materials and areas. In
some portable equipment, shielding of the X-ray rube has
been omitted to keep equipment lightweight. In some very
high energy units, such as betatrons and linear accelerators,
the target is comparatively thin and offers little absorption to
the very high energy radiation being generated. The radiation
beam from the front of the target is shielded to provide a
directional pattern, conical in shape.

Rod Anode X -ray Tubes

These tubes are designed to produce a radiation beam in a
Accelerating circular pattern. These tubes are used for circumferential
gaps
radiography, particularly weldments. By use of an absorbing
sleeve, the circular radiation pattern can be reduced to a
directional beam.

Heel Effect

increasing
length
II For simplicity's sake, most literature states that the intensity
of radiation of the primary beam is constant. This is not quite
correct. There is a variation in intensity due to the angle at
which the X-rays are emitted from the focal point. This is
called the heel effect. As shown in Figure 7.13, the intensity of
Figure 7.12: Diagram of a linear accelerator.
the beam diminishes fairly rapidly from the central ray toward
the anode side and increases slightly toward the cathode side.
electron gun to the target. Basically, the tube consists of a In general practice, with a target at a 20° inclination, the heel
series of cylinders of increasing lengths stretching from the effect is not evident, provided the maximum linear size of the
cathode to the anode with a gap between each cylinder.
Alternate cylinders are connected to one terminal of a high
frequency oscillator and the other terminal of the oscillator is
connected to the other cylinders. Thus, cylinders 1, 3, 5, etc.,
are connected to one terminal and 2, 4, 6, etc., are connected
to the other terminal. On any half-cycle of the oscillator the
odd numbered cylinders have a positive charge. Negative
electrons passing through the first cylinder receive no
acceleration, but upon reaching the gap between cylinders
there is a difference in voltage and they arc accelerated across
the gap. Therefore, they receive an accelerating impulse at
each gap as they pass from the cathode to the anode which is
positioned at the end of the last cylinder. In this type of
design, electrons may be accelerated to velocities approaching
the speed of light. The limiting factor is the tube length,
usually in the order of 1 ft for each MeV. Thus, a 10 MeV
unit requires a tube approximately 10 ft (3 m) long.

Tube Types Angle of

Directional Tubes
In directional X-ray tubes, the anode is set at an angle to the
electron beam. When the high-speed electrons strike the
target, X-radiation is generated in a solid spherical pattern.
Emission o• If if 12• 16° 20° 24° 28° 32° 36° 4(f
Approximate
Intensity% 31 56 73 85 95 100 103 104 105 102 95
Figure 7.13: The intensity of the X-ray beam diminishes from the
central ray toward the anode side.
 Chapter 7 - X-ray Radiography

object to be X-rayed is less than one-half the film focal Choice of Tube Type
distance. T he choice of a directional or a rod anode tube type should
depend on the type of radiographic inspection conducted.
Beam Coverage Circumferential specimens, such as pipe weldments, are
compatible with the rod anode radiation. It should be noted
The X-ray beam has an angle of coverage which is a function that scatter radiation is greater with rod anode radiation
of the X-ray target angle and the geometry of the focal spot generation and additional personnel protection is often
position and the X-ray port size except at extremely high necessary. The directional X-ray tubes restrain the radiation to
voltages. A coverage of 14 in. x 17 in. (35.6 cm x 43.2 cm) a lesser area and have a comparatively smaller focal spot
film at 24 in. (61 cm) with a field intensity of plus or minus resulting in better quality radiographic images.
10% is considered acceptable. The physical field size increases
directly with the distance from the target to the film . T he Choice of Window
intensity decreases proportionately with the square of the W hen test objects are low absorbing and require low-energy
distance. The greater the field size available from an X-ray radiations, the choice of a beryllium window X-ray tube
unit, the greater its radiographic inspection capacity. permits higher contrast due to the lower energies. The
beryllium window offers advantages up to 150 kVp. In the
Applications of Equipment ranges of kilovoltages above 150 kVp the typical glass window
should prove satisfactory. For this reason, during U.S. Air
Choice of Radiation Energy Force radiographic inspections for discontinuities, such as
The relation of X-ray voltage to the penetration for steel or cracks and corrosion using 150 kVp or less, the beryllium
other common materials depends on the density of the window X-ray tube shall be used.
material and the absorption characteristics of the material in
the X-ray beam. Table 7.1 may be used as a guide for applying Choice of Focal Spot Size
X-rays to inspection problems, assuming average radiographic X-ray tubes are available with different focal spot sizes. The
results are focal spot in an X-ray is the area of the target which produces
expected. Table 7.1: The relation of voltage t o the primary X-ray energy. The actual size of the focal spot is
steel pe netration.
determined by the electron bombardment pattern on the
It is necessary to target. The minimum size of this area is limited by the
kV Range Thickness (Steel) melting point of the target material and the concentration of
establish lower
limits as well as <0.3175 cm the bombarding electrons per unit area. Tungsten is most
upper limits on 5-50 kV often used as target material because of its high melting
(< 1/8 in. )
material thickness point, 6116 °F (3380 °C), and high efficiency of X-ray
because of lack of 0.3175 cm-1.9 cm production. An effort is made in X-ray tube design to achieve
50-150 kV the smallest possible focal spot consistent with voltage and
radiographic (1/8 in.-3/4 in. )
contrast at higher current required, melting temperature of the target material
voltages in the 0.635 cm-5.08 cm and field coverage needed. The smaller the focal spot size, the
100-250 kV
inspection of thin (1/4 in.-2 in.) sharper the radiographic image. It is normal to expect a focal
sections. spot size of the order of 0.08 in. to 0.4 in. (2 mm to 10 mm)
Production 1.9 cm-7.62 cm in the voltage range of 100 kVp to 2000 kVp. For special
200-400 kV
inspection (3/4 in.-3 in.) applications, equipment with focal spots less than 0.04 in.
techniques are (1 mm) in diameter arc available. X-ray tubes with dual focal
2.54 cm-12 .7 cm
based on normal 1000 kV spots arc often used so the operator can choose the focal spot
(1 in .-5 in .)
exposure times size and operational conditions compatible with the
with lead screens 5.08 cm-20.32 cm demands of inspection quality.
and fine-grain 2000-6000 kV
(2 in.-8 in .)
X-ray film for Effect of Focal Spot Size
good sensitivity. 7.62 cm-45.72 cm The area, or focal spot size, bombarded by the electrons
Laboratory 15-24 MeV affects the heat dissipation capabilities of the anode. This
(3 in.-18 in.)
techniques are limits the tube rating or the milliamperes at which the tube
based on calcium may be safely operated.
tungstate (fluorescent) screen and high-speed films.
Heat dissipation. The method of removing heat from the
Choice of Equipment X-ray tube anode affects the tube ratings. An X-ray tube
The equipment choice should depend on the circumstance dependent on convection cooling has a lower limit of
under which radiographic inspection is to be conducted and operation than the same tube where water or some other
the technique requirements. coolant is used to conduct heat away from the focal spot.

65
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety
Operational considerations. When a new X-ray tube is
put into operation, it requires a warm-up period. A new
tube may have been stored for a period of time and a
small amount of gas may have been released into the
vacuum. These gases can be driven back into the metal
components by operating the tube at low kilovoltages and
slowly heating the anode to high temperatures. The same
procedure should be used when a unit has not been
operated for 30 days or more.
Recalibration
Recalibration should be performed when either a new tube or
new components have been installed in an X-ray generator.
Quite often, technique charts need slight changes to
compensate for the new conditions. Differences in the
filtration of different windows in the X- ray tubes may cause
some small variations in radiation output. Due to the special
equipment required for recalibration, this procedure is not
normally performed at the field level. Recalibration is
desirable to ensure that X-ray htbe output falls within the
tolerances specified in the manufacturer's operations and
maintenance manual. Non- calibration may result in over or
under exposure of radiographs when following X-ray exposure
techniques.
Tube Ratings
Several variables affect the maximum rating of an X-ray tube.
These should be carefully inspected to ensure the X-ray tube
rating is not exceeded. Some of the more important variables
to be considered are listed below.
Focal spot size. The size of the focal spot usually dictates
the milliamperes that can safely be conducted across the
X-ray tube.
Method of cooling. The method of heat removal from
the anode affects the length of time the tube may be
operated under standard operating conditions. The
operation is extended by the use of an external coolant.
Type of circuit. The type of circuit design used in the
X-ray generator affects tube rating. Where self-rectified
circuitry is used, the inverse voltage applied to the X-ray
anode limits the operation of the tube. Usually, the
maximum operating conditions are much greater where
full-wave circuitry is used, in comparison to self-rectified
generators.
Radiation Safety Requirements for X-ray
Equipment
Warning Devices
Open beam configurations shall be provided with a readily
discernable indication of:
1. X-ray tube "on - off" status located near the radiation
source housing, if the primary beam is controlled in this
manner; and/or
2. shutter "open - closed" status located near each port on
the radiation source housing, if the primary beam is
controlled in this manner.
An easily visible warning light labeled with the words "X-ray
On," or words having a similar intent, shall be located "near
any switch that energizes an X-ray tube and shall be
illuminated only when energized."
Warning devices shall be labeled in such a manner so that
their purpose is easily identified.
In addition to the above requirements, a keyed interlock must
be present, such that while the operator is not present removal
of the key shall render the equipment inoperable.
Labeling
All X-ray equipment shall be labeled with a readily
discernable sign or signs bearing the radiation symbol and the
words:
1. "caution - high intensity X-ray beam," or words having a
similar intent on the X-ray source housing; and
2. "caution radiation - this equipment produces radiation
when energized," or words having a similar intent such as
"caution - X-rays are produced when energized," near any
switch that energizes an X-ray tube.
Area Requirements
Radiation Levels
The local components of an X- ray system shall be located and
arranged and shall include sufficient shielding or access
control such that no radiation levels exist in any area
surroundi ng the component group which could result in a
dose to an individual present there in excess of the given dose
limits. For systems utilizing X-ray tubes, these levels shall be
met at any specified tube rating.
Surveys
Radiation surveys shall be conducted to ensure the proper
radiation levels are observed and when:
1. upon installation of the equipment, and at least every
12 months thereafter;
2. following any change in the initial arrangement, number,
or type of local components in the system;
3. following any maintenance requiring the disassembly or
removal of a local component in the system;
4. during the performance of maintenance and alignment
procedures if the procedures require the presence of a
primary X-ray beam when any local component in the
system is disassembled or removed;
5. any time a visual inspection of a local component reveals
an abnormal condition; and
6. whenever personnel monitoring devices show a significant
increase over the previous monitoring period or the
readings are approaching the specified limits.

Posting
Each area or room containing X-ray equipment shall be
conspicuously posted with a sign or signs bearing the
radiation symbol and the words "caution - X-ray equipment,"
or words having a similar intent.
Operating Requirements
Procedures
Normal operating procedures shall be written and available to
all X-ray equipment workers. No individual shall be permitted
to operate X-ray equipment in any manner other than that
specified in the procedures unless such individual has
obtained written approval of the radiation safety officer.
Bypassing
No individual shall bypass a safety device or interlock unless
such individual has obtained the approval of the radiation
safety officer. Such approval shall be for a specified duration
of time. When a safety device or interlock has been bypassed,
a readily discernable sign bearing the words "safety device not
working," or words having similar intent, shall be placed on
the radiation source housing.
Repair or Modifications
No operation involving removal of covers, shielding materials,
tube housing , modifications to shutters, collimators, or beam
stops shall be performed without ascertaining that the tube is
off and will remain off until safe conditions have been
Chapter 7 - X-ray Radiography
restored. The main switch rather than interlocks, shall be used
for routine shutdown in preparation for repairs.
Personnel Requirements
No individual shall be p ermitted to operate or maintain any
X -ray equipment unless such individual has received
instruction in and demonstrated competence as to:
1. identification of radiation hazards associated with the use
of the equipment;
2. significance of the various radiation warnings, safety
devices, and interlocks incorporated into the equipment,
or the reasons they have not been installed on certain
pieces of equipment and the extra precautions required in
such cases;
3. proper operating procedures for the equipment;
4. recognition of symptoms of an acute localized exposure;
and
5. p roper procedures for reporting an actual or suspected
exposure.
Personnel Monitoring
Finger or wrist dosimetric devices shall be provided to and
shall be used by:
1. X-ray equipment workers using systems having an
open-beam configuration and not equipped with a safety
device; and
2. personnel maintaining X-ray equipment if the
maintenance procedures require the presence of a primary
X-ray beam when any local component in the X-ray
system is disassembled or removed.
67
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety

Chapter 7 Review Questions

1. X-radiation is produced when a supply of: 6. The high-vacuum envelope is used to reduce:
a. high-speed electrons are introduced from the a. scatter of t he radiation produced
cathode and strike the anode within a vacuum-scaled b. the problem of electrons colliding with, and being
envelope absorbed by, molecules of air
b. high-speed electrons are introduced from the anode c. the loss of energy within the filters
and strike the cathode within a vacuum-sealed d. the production of several X - radiation energies when
envelope striking the anode target
c. high-speed protons arc introduced from the cathode
and strike the anode within a vacuum-scaled
envelope 7. Van de Graaff generators obtain their electrons through:
d. high-speed protons are introduced from the anode a. the electrostatic principle
and strike the cathode within a vacuum-sealed b. accelerated electrons within an annular tube
envelope c. multiple straight alternating segments from cathode
to anode
d. a combination of all the above
2. Most of the energy used in producing X-rays converts
to:
a. photon fields 8. The expected penetrating power in steel of 50 kV to
b. heat 150 kV is:
c. X -ray production a. <l/8 in. (3.175 mm)
d. a phenomenon known as leakage fields b. 1/8 in. to 3/4 in. (3.1 75 mm to 19.05 mm)
c. 1/4 in. to 2 in. (6.35 mm to 50.8 mm)
d. 3/4 in. to 3 in. (19.05 mm to 76.2 mm)
3. In most cases, the standard anode material is:
a. beryllium
b. lead 9. In most X-ray tubes _ __ _ _ _ is used as an exit
c. tungsten port for the X- radiation energy.
d. titanium a. boron
b. tungsten
c. molybdenum
4. Raising the kilovolts on the control panel affects the: d . beryllium
a. penetrating capabilities of the X-rays produced
b. scatter ofhigh-spee<l electrons within the X-ray
generator 10. Increasing across the filament expends
c. residual radiation left within the part more free electrons, thereby increasing the number of
d. neutron bombardment of the clement within free electrons able to cross and strike the anode target
creating more X-radiarion.
a. alternating current
5. The structure known as the cathode serves as the b. direct current
_ __ _ _ source. c. kilovoltage
a. proton d. milliamperes
b. neutron
c. electron
d. photon
 ~--~-Chapter
Ethics are the rules of conduct of a group or the moral
principles of an individual, and are the cornerstone of a
person's character. Radiographers are faced with ethical
situations every day. \ \Then a person's ethics are called upon, it
is that person's ultimate character that is exposed, whether
good or bad. When situations arise one must have the ability
to do what is right.
The benefits of good moral character show throughout a
person's career. Companies encourage right over wrong and
the ability to identify problems within the work environment.
Situations arise constantly where it may be easier to ignore a
problem than to fix it.
The actions we take in life represent who we are and what we
stand for. Good character is built by years of follow-through
and is an invaluable trait all should strive for.
The work environment can be less than ideal; there are time
constraints, tight schedules, weather delays, customer demands
and more. Taking these factors into account, good ethics may
become less appealing, but must be adhered to the job at
hand. Bribery is another issue altogether in this line of work.
Though it is hoped a radiographer will never encounter that
situation, it is an all too common problem. When
circumstances arise, one must possess the ability to do what is
right, not what is easy. Doing what is right may not always be
popular, but the radiographer can carry on with self- respect
knowing that the right thing was done.
Everyone has to face issues with ethics and doing the right
thing at some time, whether at work or at home. A rational
thought process is essential in making the right decision when
faced with a predicament. At times though, the quick answer
will not be the right decision and will sooner or later catch up
to you.
8
Ethics
Humans have the ability to identify right from wrong;
sometimes a little lie can go awry and cause unforeseen
problems down the road. Lying is a black and w hite issue
everyone faces. It is impossible to say one will never lie; what
one must try to do is avoid situations where one feels the
need to lie.
The majority of the members of any workforce already know
lying, cheating, stealing and drug abuse arc wrong. Oftentimes
ethical decisions do not have clear-cut rules regarding when
or what to do when situations arise. One must have ethical
boundaries that must not be crossed. As a worker, manager, or
owner, the responsibility resides within the individual when
problem areas arc seen. Decisions may not be easy to make,
but must be addressed on some level.
Temptation is the root cause which draws moral and ethical
dilemmas into play - looking to save time and money, or
maybe it's just easier. We all face times of temptation and
must be upstanding and do the right thing to keep a clear
conscience and maintain self-respect.
A number of examples could be written for both work
dilemmas and life in general. One story of proper ethics may
not carry the same weight as another. To look back over
personal experiences may be more effective than to read out
of a book. When analyzing situations, apply your own life
experiences and common sense. Ethics and morality are the
weight in which an individual is judged. To uphold that
which one knows is right will always be better than taking the
easy way out.
Ethics in our industry, especially for radiographers and their
assistants, is so important that prior to undertaking the IRRSP
exam or state exam an acknowledgement from the examince
that he or she has read, understands and agrees to be bound
to the rules is required. Following arc the ASNT IRRSP
Rules of Conduct in effect at the time of this printing.
69
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety
IRRSP Rules of Conduct
l. Purpose and Scope
1.1. The following ASNT IRRSP Rules of Conduct
are applicable to those individuals who possess a
current ASNT lRRSP Certification. These rules
of conduct are considered necessary to protect
the health and safety of the ASNT IRRSP
certified individual, other workers, and the
general public from the effects of ionizing
radiation. These rules of conduct arc also
considered necessary to maintain the integrity of
the ASNT IRRSP Certification Program.
2. Rules of Conduct
The ASNT IRRSP certified individual agrees to:
2.1. Maintain high standards of skills and knowledge
of radiation safety and implement them in
accordance with the US RC or Agreement
State regulations for isotopes or appropriate
jurisdictional authority regulations for X-ray
devices and the employer's radiation safety
procedures.
2.2. Assume responsibility for radiation safety for the
radiation producing equipment, only after
completion of the required training and
experience as stated by the employer's radiation
safety procedures for the radiation producing
equipment used.
2.3. Promptly inform the employer and/or proper
authority of any activity that causes, or may
cause, the violation of the employer's radiation
safety procedures or the USNRC or Agreement
State regulations for isotopes or the appropriate
jurisdictional authority regulations for X- ray
devices.
2.4. Minimize and maintain radiation exposures as
low as reasonably achievable.
2.5. Wear and maintain personnel radiation
monitoring devices as required by the employer's
radiation safety procedures.
2.6. Maintain accurate knowledge of current
personal radiation exposure and not exceed the
required limits without written authorization
Figure 8.1: The ASNT IRRSP Rules of Con duct.
from the employer as permitted by the
regulations.
2.7. Accurately complete and maintain, in a timely
manner, the required radiation safety
documentation.
2.8. Always perform radiation surveys using the
required instrumentation, and properly identify,
control, and monitor the radiation areas and
high radiation areas in the manner stated by the
employer's radiation safety procedures.
2.9. Maintain current ASNT IRRSP Certification,
when required, and not represent one's self as
ASNT I RRSP certified without a current
ASNT IRRSP Certification for the radiation
producing equipment required to use.
2.10. Never misuse the ASNT IRRSP Certification.
2.11. Avoid conflicts of interest involving radiation
safety with his/her employer and promptly
disclose all such unavoidable circumstances to
the employer and the proper authorities.
2.12. Refuse to accept gratuities or bribes which are
associated with performance of radiation safety
duties.
2.13. Never falsify or misrepresent his/her, or any
other industrial radiography person's radiation
safety qualifications and never knowingly allow
others to falsify or misrepresent his/her radiation
safety qualifications.
2.14. Neither associate with or knowingly participate
in a fraudulent or dishonest radiation safety
venture and never perform radiation safety
duties in a fraudulent manner.
2.15. Refuse to falsify any radiation safety documents
and refuse to sign such documents for which
he/she does not have personal knowledge.
2. 16. Refuse to testify or issue statements or
arguments on radiation safety matters unless
they are founded on adequate knowledge of the
facts and technical competence.
2.17. Never operate radiation producing equipment or
perform radiation safety duties while under the
influe nce oflegal or illegal mood altering
substances.
 Review Questions

1. The symbol R means: 7. The initialism Qf stands for:

a. rem a. quantity factor
b. rad b. quality frequency
c. roentgen c. quality factor
d. radiation d. quality effective factor

2. The acronym rad means: 8. The quality factor for X- rays and gamma rays is:
a. radiation absorbed dose a. 1
b. roentgen absorbed dose b. 2
c. roentgen acquired dose c. 10
d. radiation at death d. 20

3. The roentgen (R) exposure is measured in: 9. The quality factor for alpha (ray) particles is:
a. tissue a. 1
b. water b. 2
c. a lab c. 10
d. air d. 20

-1. The symbol mR means: 10. Activity of radioactive material is measured in:
a. milliroentgcn a. curies
b. micro roentgen b. roentgens
c. megaroentgen c. sieverts
d. millirem d. grays

5. One roentgen or 1 R is equal to: 11. Becquerels and curies are units of measurement of:
a. 100 milliroentgen a. physical size of the source
b. 1000 milliroentgen b. gray per hour
c. 0.001 milliroentgen c. decay rate
cl. 1 millirocntgen d. roentgen per hour

6. The acronym rem stands for: 12. Atoms that have excess energy and are unstable arc
a. radiation equivalent man known as:
b. radiation effect man a. radioactive
c. roentgen effect m an b. radioactivity
d. roentgen equivalent man c . balanced
d. weighted

71
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety

13. Elementary particle units with a negative electrical 19. Survey meters must be calibrated at intervals not to
charge and a mass approximately equal to 1/1840 that of exceed:
a proton are: a. three months and/or after instrument servicing
a. electrons except for battery changes
b. protons b. six months and/or after instrument servicing except
c. neutrons for battery changes
d. valence shells c. annually and after instrument servicing except for
battery changes
d. daily and after instrument servicing except for
14. Positively charged elementary particles with a mass battery changes
approximately egual to 1840 times that of an electron, or
1 AMU, are known as:
a. electrons 20. A survey meter must be capable of measuring a range of:
b. protons a. 0 to 1000 mR/h (0 to 10 mSv/h)
c. neutrons b. 2 to 1000 R/h (0.02 to 10 Sv)
d. valence shells c. 0 to 1000 Rib (O to 10 Sv/h)
d. 2 to 1000 mR/h (0.02 to 10 mSv/h)

15. Unchanged elementary particles with a mass nearly

equal to that of a proton are called: 21. Becquerels and curies are units of measurement of:
a. electrons a. physical size of the source
b. protons b. activity
c. neutrons c. gray per hour
d. valence shells d. roentgen per hour

16. T he area known as the center of an atom is called the: 22. An analog survey meter must be calibrated on each scale
a. electron at two points approximately:
b. nucleus a. 33% and 66% of the scale's potential
c. proton b. 25% and 75% of the scale's potential
d. neutron c. through the full range of the scale's potential
d. at the midpoint of the scale's potential

17. Any byproduct material that is encased in a capsule

designed to prevent leakage or escape of the byproduct 23. The process that results in the removal of orbital
material is a: electrons from atoms resulting in the forma tion of ion
a. drum pairs is called:
b. pig a. excitation
c. sealed source b. radioactivity
d. container c. decay
d. io nization

18. A tube through which the radioactive source travels

when inside a radiographic exposure device is a/an: 24. The fact that gasses bombarded by ionizing radiation
a. port tube become conductors of electrical current make them
b. guide tube useful in:
c. S tube a. X- ray transformers
d. exit tube b. cathode tubes
c. detection equipment
d. gasses cannot conduct electrical charges
 Review Questions

25. A dosimeter must be capable of reading a range of: 32. A film badge!I'LD records what?
a. 0-100 mR (0-1 mSv) a. dose rate
b. 0-200 mR (0-2 mSv) b. exposure rate
c. 0-500 mR (0- 5 mSv) c. total dose h istory for the period worn
d. 0-1 R (0-10 mSv) d. daily dose

26. Pocket ion chambers must be capable of reading: 33. When performing radiography in a permanent
a. 100 mR (1 mSv) radiographic installation equipped with an area monitor,
b. 500 mR (5 mSv) the technician is not required to:
c. 200 mR (2 mSv) a. use a survey meter
d. 999 mR (9.99) b. wear a film badge or TLD
c. wear a rate alarm
d. wear a dosimeter
27. An exposure rate is measured by:
a. survey meter
b. a dos imeter 34. A direct reading ionization chamber, such as a
c. rate alarm dosimeter, has the advantage of providing an:
d . TLD/film badge a. accurate dose history for the month
b. immediate dose history since last time charged
c. accurate dose rate
28. What dosimeters (dosimetric devices) are least affected d. immediate dose rate
by moisture?
a. digital dosimeters
b. film badges 35. A radiographer's survey meter is showing 0 near the
c. TLDs source; it can safely be assumed that:
d. ion chambers a. there is no radiation present
b. the meter is inoperable and should be repaired when
the shift is over
29. Full deflection of a survey meter while on battery check e. the meter may be inoperable and a replacement
means: should be used immediately
a. meter is working properly and has good batteries d. the meter is in an inoperable state; the radiographer
b. meter may or may not be working properly should retreat from the source until an operational
c. meter is working properly and battery strength is not meter has replaced the suspect meter
an issue
d. meter is unusable
36. A radiographer reads 7.5 on the lOx scale of the survey
meter. What is the current dose rate at that position?
30. Dosimeters must be calibrated at intervals not to exceed: a. 7.5 mR/h
a. three months b. 75 mR/h
b. six months c. 750 mR/h
c. biannually d. 7.5 R/h
d. annually

37. After 6 half-value layers, what percentage of radiation

31. Rate alarms must be calibrated at intervals not to would be received?
exceed: a. 50%
a. yearly b. 25%
b. quarterly c. 8%
c. monthly d. 1.6%
d . biannually

73
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety

38 . Assuming a source has a half-life of 20 years, how old 45. The ball on a source assembly that prevents the source
would the source be in 3 half-lives? from exiting through the back of the camera is called:
a. 20 years a. stop ball
b. 40 years b. pigtail ball
c. 60 years c. safety stop ball
d. 120 years d. retraction inhibitor ball

39. If a radiographer has 60 mR (0.6 mSv) at the surface of 46. Emission of gamma rays, alpha rays and beta rays is
the exposure device, what would the reading be after considered what?
2 half-lives? a. characteristics of source decay
a. 15 mR (0.15 mSv) b. material is stable
b. 40 mR (0.4 mSv) c. material is unbalanced
c. 80 mR (0.8 mSv) d. leaking source
d. 10 mR (0.1 mSv)

47. To penetrate a thicker or denser material, you would

40. The use of 4 half-value layers will reduce the exposure need a source with:
by a factor of: a. more curies
a. 4 times b. more activity
b. 8 times c. more energy (shorter wavelength)
c. 16 times d. less energy (longer wavelength)
d. 32 times

48. An element's weight is the:

41. If a radiographer has 98 Ci of Ir-192, after 148 days a. A number
how many curies would be left? b. Z number
a. 49 Ci (1813 GBq) c. atomic number
b. 22 Ci (814 GBq) d. number of neutrons
c. 12 Ci (444 GBq)
d. 24.5 Ci (906.5 GBq)
49. An element is identified by the number of _ _ __ _
in its nucleus.
42. A sealed source emits what? a. electrons
a. alpha particles b. protons
b. beta particles c. neutrons
c. X-rays d. photons
d. gamma rays

50. The first indication of an extremity radiation

43. A cobalt source has decayed from its original activity overexposure is:
after 3 half-lives. Originally it was 88 Ci (3256 GBq). a. reddening of the skin
Its current activity is: b. hair loss
a. 44 Ci (1628 GBq) c. nausea
b. 22 Ci (814 GBq) d. blisters
c. 11 Ci (407 GBq)
d. 8 Ci (296 GBq)
51. Gamma radiation has a shorter wavelength than visible
light, therefore making it:
44. A cobalt source of 73 Ci is exposed for a full 60 min. a. less penetrating
Assume a 14.0 R/Ci factor, shooting through a b. more penetrating
3 half-value collimator. What would the restricted area c. brighter
be on the cold or collimated side of the collimator? d. less stable
a. 149 ft (45.42 m)
b. 162 ft (49.38 m)
c. 211 ft (64.31 m)
d. 253 ft (77.44 m)
74
 Review Questions

52. A radiation area is defined as "an area accessible to 58. You have 24 exposures to make. Your shot time is 5 min
individuals, in which they could receive .. ." per exposure and you're showing 30 mR/h (300 µSv/h).
a. 2 mR/h (20 µSv/h) What will be your total dose at the end of the shift?
b. 5 mR/h (50 µSv/h) a. 30 mR (300 µSv)
c. 50 mR/h (500 µSv/h) b. 60 mR (600 µSv)
d. 100 mR/h (1000 µSv/h) c. 120 mR (1200 µSv)
d. 240 mR (2400 µSv)

53. A high radiation area is defined as "an area accessible to

individuals, in which they could receive . .. " 59. A radiographer is receiving 100 mR (1000 µSv) at the
a. 2 mR/h (20 µSv/h) crank assembly. The crank assembly is 25 ft (7.62 m) in
b. 5 mR/h (50 µSv/h) length. Where would the "RADIATION ARE.A'.' sign
c. 50 mR/h (500 µSv/h) be posted?
d. 100 mR/h (1000 µSv/h) a. 111.8 ft (34.08 m)
b. 221.3 ft (67.45 m)
c. 343.7 ft (104.76 m)
54. A member of the public or unmonitored individual is d. 176.8 ft (53.89 m)
allowed to receive up to, but not to exceed:
a. 2 mR/h, 500 mR/year
(20 µSv/h, 5000 ~1Sv/year) 60. A radiographer is receiving 100 mR/h (1000 µSv/h) at
b. 2 mR/h, 100 mR/year the crank assembly. The crank assembly is 25 ft (7.62 m)
(20 µSv/h, 1000 µSv/year) in length. H ow long will it take for the radiographer to
c. 5 mR/h, 100 mR/year receive a total dose of 50 mR (500 µSv)?
(50 µSv/h, 1000 µSv/year) a. 30 min
d. 5 mR/h, 500 mR/year b. 60min
(50 µSv/h, 5000 µSv/year) c. 90 min
cl. 120 min

55. When performing radiography in the field, regulations

require the radiographer to post with physical barriers or 61. A non-declared pregnant radiographer or assistant may
signs the: receive no more than:
a. restricted area a. 0.5 rem per year (5 mSv)
b. radiation area b. 5000 rem per year (50 Sv)
c. high radiation area and radiation area c. 100 mR per year (1000 µSv)
d. restricted area and the high radiation area d. 5 R per year (50 mSv)

56. A restricted area is defined as an area: 62. A declared pregnant radiographer or assistant may
a. that is controlled and posted receive no more than_ _ fo r the entire pregnancy.
b. that must be posted and where an individual may a. 500 mR (5000 µSv)
receive up to 5 mR/h (50 ~1 Sv/h) b. 5000 mR (50 000 µSv)
c. that must be posted and where an individual may c. 100 mR (1000 µSv)
receive up to 100 mR/h (1000 µSv/h) d. 5 R (50 mSv)
d. to which access is restricted for the purpose of
controlling radiation exposure
63 . An un-born fetus may receive no more than _ _ for
the entire pregnancy.
57. A radiographer and assistant are standing in a 2 mR/h a. 100 mR (1000 µSv)
(20 µSv/h) field. What would the assistant's total dose b. 500 mR (5000 µSv)
be after 4 h? c. 5 R (50 mSv)
a. 2.0 mR (20 µSv) cl. 5000 mR (50 000 µSv)
b. 4.0 mR (40 µSv)
c. 6.0 mR (60 µSv)
d. 8.0 mR (80 ~1Sv)
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety

64. Your cobalt source of 61 Ci (2257 GBq) is exposed for 69. Assume that 0.19 in. (4.83 mm) oflead is 1 half-value
one single 30-min exposure. This is the only exposure layer. How many half-value layers would you have with a
that will be made that day. Assume a 14.0 R (140 mSv) sheet oflead 0.57 in. (14.48 mm) in thickness?
per curie factor, shooting through a 3 half-value a. 1 half-value layer
collimator. Standing at 100 ft (30.48 m), what will your b. 3 half-value layers
total exposure be? c. 5 half-value layers
a. 11.0 mR (110 µSv) d. 2 half-value layers
b. 5.3 mR (53 µSv)
c. 8.8 mR (88 µSv)
d. 4.4 mR (44 µSv) 70. Assume 0.19 in. (4.83 mm) of lead is 1 half-value layer,
and you have a total of 3 half-value layers of lead
between you and 100 mR (1000 µSv), what would your
65. Assuming you have 88 Ci oflr-192 (3256 GBq), where exposure rate be?
would you place your high radiation boundary? Assume a. 50 mR (500 µSv)
a R factor of 5.2 R (52 mSv). b. 25 mR (250 µSv)
a. 68 ft (20.73 m) c. 12.5 mR (125 µSv)
b. 96 ft (29.26 m) d. 33 mR (330 µSv)
c. 43 ft (13.l m)
d. 27 ft (8.23 m)
71. Assume 0.50 in. (12.7 mm) of steel equals 1 half-value
layer for Ir-192. How many half-value layers would you
66. A monitored person may receive up to 5000 mR have with 1.5 in. (38.1 mm) of steel?
(50 000 µSv) per year. What would be considered an a. 3.28 half-value layers
excessive amount of radiation exposure to that b. 3.0 half-value layers
individual? c. 3.05 half-value layers
a. exposures more than 100 mR (1000 µSv) in one d. 0.328 half-value layers
week
b. any exposure over 1250 mR (12 500 µSv) in a
quarter 72. Assuming 0.19 in. (4.83 mm) oflead is 1 half-value
c. any unnecessary exposure to radiation layer, a piece of lead 0.38 in. (9.65 mm) thick would
d. exposures of 500 mR/h (5000 µSv) reduce the exposure rate by:
a. 25%
b. 50%
67. The primary form of shielding provided by modern c. 75%
exposure devices is: d. 100%
a. steel
b. lead
c. depleted uranium (DU) 73. What is the maximum curie strength of a cobalt-60
d. water source in a type A exposure device?
a. 10.8 Ci (399.6 GBq)
b. 25.0 Ci (925 GBq)
68. A thickness of 0.19 in. (4.83 mm) of lead will reduce the c. 1.08 Ci (39.96 GBq)
exposure of Ir-192 to one-half its original intensity. This d. 45.0 Ci (1665 GBq)
is known as the:
a. half-layer value oflead for the energies associated
with Ir-192 74. What is the maximum curie strength of an iridium-192
b. half-life value of lead for the energies associated with source in a type A exposure device?
Ir-192 a. 10.8 Ci (399.6 GBg)
c. half-value layer of lead for the energies associated b. 27.0 Ci (999 GBq)
with Ir-192 c. 32.0 Ci (1184 GBq)
d. half-value of lead for the energies associated with d. 45.0 Ci (1665 GBq)
Ir-192
 Review Questions

75. A source is being transported with a surface reading of 82. According to the 49 CFRs, a shipping container labeled
25 mR and 3 mR at 39.37 in. (250 µSv and 30 µSv at as a Yellow II:
1 m) . Which transport label must be used> a. must have a surface reading of less than or equal to
a. White I 50 mR/h (500 µSv/h) and a transport index of 1
b. Yellow II b. must have a surface reading of less than or equal to
c. Yellow III 200 mR/h (2000 µSv/h) and a transport index of 1
d. Yellow II or III c. must have a surface reading of less than or equal to
200 mR/h (2000 µSv/h) and a transport index of 10
d. none of the above
76. A White transport label maximum transport index is:
a. 1
b. less than 0.5 83. Which government agency regulates transportation of
c. less than 3 Type A radioactive containers?
d. more than 1, but less than 2 a. NRC
b. NTSB
c. FAA
77. A Yellow II transport label maximum transport index is: d. DOT
a. 1
b. less than 0.5
c. less than 1 84. What is the maximum surface reading for a source
d. more than 1, but less than 2 changer?
a. 100 mR/h (1000 µSv/h)
b. 200 mR/h (2000 µSv/h)
78. A Yellow III transport label maximum transport c. 400 mR/h (4000 µSv/h)
index is: d. 500 mR/h (5000 µSv/h)
a. 1 but less than 2 measured at 39.3 7 in. (1 m)
b. 2 but less than 3 measured at 39.37 in. (1 m)
c. 5 but less than 10 measured at 39.37 in. (1 m) 85. Exposure devices must be maintained prior to use:
d. more than 1, but less than 10 measured at 39.37 in. a. and every three months
(1 m) b. and every six months
c. and annually
d. only
79. A shipping container is surveyed and found to be
3 mR/h at 39.37 in. (30 ~1Sv/h at 1 m). What label
would be required? 86. You have a source oflr-192 with 50 Ci (1850 GBq).
a. White I The surface reading is 50 mR/h (500 µSv/h). What
b. Yellow II would the surface reading be after 150 days?
c. Yellow III a. 20 mR/h (200 µSv/h)
d. the device may not be shipped b. 50 mR/h (500 ~1Sv/h)
c. 12.5 mR/h (125 µSv/h)
d. 25 mR/h (250 µSv/h)
80. What is the maximum surface reading for a Yellow II
labeled container?
a. 50 mR/h (500 µSv/h) 87. Your survey meter has become inoperable. You must:
b. 100 mR/h (1000 µSv/h) a. notify the RSO immediately
c. 200 mR/h (2000 µSv/h) b. follow company operating and emergency procedures
d. no maximum c. notify the state
d. cease work, expand your area and maintain
surveillance
81. What is the maximum surface reading for a Yellow III
labeled shipping container?
a. none as long as there is less than 200 mR/h at
39.37 in. (2000 µSv/h at 1 m)
b. 200 mR/h (2000 µSv/h)
c. 500 mR/h (5000 µSv/h)
d. unlimited

77
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety

88. Your dosimeter has been discharged beyond its useful 94. What documentation is required to conduct radiography
range. You must: in another state?
a. notify the RSO immediately a. "approved" reciprocity, regulations of the host state
b. follow company operating and emergency procedures and radioactive license
c. notify the state b. "approved" reciprocity, Title 17 and radioactive
d. cease work, expand your area and maintain license
surveillance c. transport log, Title 17 and notice to employees
d. Form 241, state regulations and "approved"
reciprocity
89. According to the NRC, who is approved to change out a
source?
a. the RSO, or any qualified radiographers designated 95. FJXed facilities, also known as shooting rooms, must be
in writing, as long as the licensee has been approved inspected at regular intervals to ensure that all visible
by the governing agency and audible warning signals are in place and operable.
b. the RSO, ARSO This is documented:
c. any radiographer a. biweekly
d. a trained and qualified person authorized by the b. daily prior to use
licensee c. quarterly
d. annually

90. Your source has become disconnected. You must:

a. expand your area 96. Licensees must report to the N RC lost, stolen or
b. call the RSO missing material:
c. attempt to retrieve the source a. immediately
d. follow your company's operating and emergency b. within 6 h
procedures c. within 24 h
d. within five days

91. Utilization logs must be kept for:

a. one year 97. Licensees must report to the NRC an exposure of more
b. three years than 5 rem:
c. five years a. immediately
d. for the life of the company or until the authorizing b. within 6 h
agency approves disposal c. within 24 h
d. within five days

92. A utilization log must include at a minimum:

a. make, model and serial number of the exposure 98. Licensees must report to the NRC an exposure of more
device than 25 rem:
b. radiographer's identity and signature a. immediately
c. date(s) and location(s) of use b. within 6 h
d. make, model and serial number of the exposure c. within 24 h
device, radiographer's identity and signature, date(s) d. within five days
of use and location(s)

99. Personnel radiation exposure records are maintained

93. Written emergency procedures are in place to handle: (kept) for a minimum of:
a. daily operations with radioactive material a. one year
b. normal operations and events in handling and b. three years
transporting radioactive material c. five years
c. special exposures d. for the life of the company or until the license is
d. abnormal events in handling and transporting terminated
radioactive material
 Review Questions

100. H ow often must sources be physically inventoried? 107. High-speed electrons striking a target produce primarily
a. quarterly what?
b. yearly a. gamma radiation
c. semiannually b. X-radiation
cl. monthly c. heat
d. alpha and beta particles

101. Maintenance must be performed on exposure devices at

intervals not to exceed: 108. X- ray machines work on the principle of bremsstrahlung
a. three months or braking. Which component is not required to produce
b. SL'i'. months this effect?
c. 12 months a. source of electrons
cl. monthly b. target
c. energy
cl. focusing cup
102. Leak test records must be kept for:
a. one year
b. three years 109. A control panel in an X-ray system must have clearly
e. five years visible which of the following statements?
cl. for the life of the company or until the license is a. caution: ionizing radiation emitted when energized
terminated b. caution: dangerous radiation emitted when energized
c. caution: X-rays produced when energized
d. danger: radiation producing device
103. Calibration records of survey instruments must be kept
for:
a. one year 110. What components are required to produce X-rays?
b. three years a. cathode, anode and electricity
c. five years b. a power source, free electrons and a target
cl. indefinitely c. focusing cup, current and an exit port
d. vacuum envelope, filament and target

104. When high-speed electrons strike a hard surface (target)

which is not a result? 111. The output equivalent to curies with an X-ray tube is
a. bremsstrahlung process or effect controlled by the:
b. produces X-radiation a. power switch
c. produces heat b. voltage rheostat
d. neutron beams c. amperage rheostat
d. On/Off control

105. What does the bremsstrahlung effect generate?

a. X-rays 112. Electrons are produced by which component of an X-ray
b. beta particles tube?
c. alpha particles a. anode
cl. X-rays and heat b. cathode
c. control panel
d. filament
106. The filament of an X-ray tube is energized by electrical
current. The difference in electrical potential draws the
free electrons to the . As they strike at such 113. Applied voltage in an X-ray tube has a direct bearing on
a high speed, X-rays are produced by the bremsstrahlung producing more or less:
process. a. penetration
a. focusing cup b. radiation
b. target c. electrons
e. anode d. heat
d. filament

79
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety

114. Applied amperage across the filament in an X-ray tube 120. You must notify the N RC in writing ___ after a
has a direct bearing on producing more or less: failed leak test has been determined.
a. radiation a. within one day
b. protons b. within three days
c. inherent shielding required c. within five days
d. penetration d. immediately

115. An X-ray cabinet must comply with unrestricted area 121. A source must be leak tested:
requirements. The maximum amount of radiation a. monthly
emitted from the cabinet at 1.97 in. (5 cm) shall not b. every three months
exceed: c. every six months
a. 1 mR/h (10 µSv/h) d. annually
b. 2 mR/h (20 µSv/h)
c. 5 mR/h (50 µSv/h)
d. 0.5 mR/h (5 µSv/h) 122. An exposure device using depleted uranium as shielding
must be leak tested every 12 months. T he maximum
amount of material found shall not exceed:
116. X-ray systems are required to have two visible indicators a. 001 ~1Ci
to show when X-rays are produced. One indicator may b. 005 µCi
be the milliampmeter, the other a red light. This light c. 0.001 µCi
must be labeled: d. 0.005 µCi
a. X-ray On
b. On
c. On/Off 123. The sealed sources used in industrial X-ray emit what
d. Power On type of radiation?
a. alpha particles, beta particles, X-rays
b. beta particles, alpha particles, gamma rays
117. While in a field setting, radiography is conducted using c. gamma rays
a 300 kV X-ray system. What minimum boundaries d. X-rays, gamma rays and alpha particles
must be set?
a. high radiation and radiation areas
b. very high radiation, high radiation and radiation 124. A survey instrument must be capable of an accuracy of:
areas a. ±10%
c. restricted, radiation and high radiation area b. ±20%
d. restricted area c. ±30%
d. as accurate as possible using NI ST standards for
calibration
118. At the completion of an X-ray exposure and turning the
system to standby:
a. you must wait for 60 s before approaching the tube 125. Sources being transported from storage to a field
head location must NOT be:
b. you should approach the rear of the tube head a. secured as far from the driver's compartment as
observing the meter constantly possible
c. you may approach the tube head immediately b. secured from movement
without fear of exposure. c. labeled properly
d. you must survey the tube assembly 360 degrees d left unattended in the transport vehicle with a
nonfunctioning alarm

119. Typically the exposure's duration is controlled by:

a. manually pressing the start/stop switches
b. automatically via an integrated timer
c. automatically via the voltage rheostat
d. automatically via the amperage rheostat

80

A alarming rate meter: A small electronic device, required to be
absorbed dose: The radiation dose or amount of radiation
that has been absorbed by a substance. Measured in
rads (grays).
absorption: The process whereby the particles or photons in a
beam of radiation are reduced in number or energy
as they pass through a medium.
activation: The process of bombarding stable atoms with
neutrons to make them radioactive.
activity: The activity of a radioisotope is the number of
disintegrations that occur for a given quantity of the
radioisotope during a given length of time. Activity
is measured in curies (becquerel).
acute radiation exposure: Exposure to a large dose or
radiation in a short period of time.
agreement state: A state with which the U.S. Nuclear
Regulatory Commission has entered into an effective
agreement under subsection 274.b of the Atomic
Energy Act of 1954, as amended (73 Stat. 689), or
has accepted regulatory authority over byproduct
material from the NRC.
MARA: The acronym for As Low As Reasonably Achievable
which means making every effort to maintain and
control exposures as far below the dose limits as is
practical. This concept comes out of the Code of
Federal Regulation 10 CFR Part 20 which says in
part: "ALARA means making a reasonable effort to
maintain exposure to radiation as far below the limits
as is practical. Taking into account the state of
technology, and the economics of improvements in
relation to benefits to the public health and safety."
Glossary_
worn by a radiographer, with an audible alarm set to
trigger at 500 mR/h (5000 µSv/ h).
alpha particle: A positive electrically charged particle of
radiation consisting of two protons and two neutrons
(same as a helium nucleus). Tt is emitted from the
nucleus of many radioactive materials during
radioactive decay.
attenuation: The reduction in the intensity of radiation as it
passes through a material.
atom: A unit of matter consisting of a nucleus (made up of
neutrons and protons) and electrons that surround
the nucleus. The smallest part of an atom that retains
the properties of the element.
atomic mass: The mass/weight of an atom, usually expressed
in atomic mass units (AMU).
atomic mass units: This unit is based on 1/ 16 of the weight
of an oxygen-16 atom. One neutron or one proton
weighs approximately 1 AMU.
atomic number: The total number of protons in an atom.
T he atomic number determines the element and its
chemical properties. It is also known as the Z
number.
atomic weight: The total mass of an atom. It is approximately
equal to the total number of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus of an atom and measured in atomic mass
units (AMU).
81
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety
B compound: A chemical combination of elements.
background radiation: Radiation that is emitted from
naturally occurring radioactive materials in the Earth
and from cosmic rays that bombard the Earth from
outer space.
becquerel (Bq): The SI unit of radiation activity that is equal
to one disintegration per second.
3.7 x 1010 Bq = 1 Ci.
bremsstrahlung: The electromagnetic radiation produced by
an electrically charged particle, such as an electron,
subjected to a change in velocity. It is the German
word meaning braking radiation.
beta particle: An electrically charged particle of radiation
emitted from the nucleus of many radioactive
materials during radioactive decay. A beta particle is
a fast-moving electron, sometimes moving close to
the speed of light.
c control drive mechanism: A device that enables the source
camera: See radiographic exposure device.
CDE: Initialism for committed dose equivalent.
CEDE: lnitialism for committed effective dose equivalent.
cell, radiography: Shielded room in which radiography
exposures are made. Sometimes called a permanent
radiographic installation in the NRC regulations.
chromosome: All the genetic material or genes contained in a
living cell. Chromosomes control the reproduction of
cells and the characteristics of the cells produced
from the original cell.
collimator: A radiation shield that is placed on the end of the
guide tube or directly onto a radiographic exposure
device to restrict the size of the radiation beam when
the sealed source is cranked into position to make a
radiographic exposure.
committed dose equivalent: Abbreviated as CDE. The dose
equivalent to organs or tissues of reference that will
be received from an intake of radioactive material
during the 50-year period following the intake. This
does not apply to the dose from X-rays and gamma
rays.
committed effective dose equivalent: Abbreviated as CEDE.
Applicable to the exposure of body organs or tissue.
It is the sum ofDDE, CDE and weighting factors.
This does not apply to the dose from X-ray and
gamma-ray exposure.
compton scatter: A process in which a photon transfers a
portion of its energy to an atom dislodging and
accelerating an orbital electron and a lower energy
photon is scattered at an angle to the original photon
path.
controlled area: An area, outside of a restricted area but
inside the site boundary, access to which can be
limited by the licensee for any reason.
control (drive) cable: The cable that is connected to the
source assembly and used to drive the source to and
from the exposure location.
coulomb/kilogram (C/kg): The SI unit of radiation exposure.
2.58 x 10-4 C/Kg = 1 R.
control cable: See drive cable.
assembly to be moved to and from the exposure
device.
crank: The handle used to manipulate the source in or out of
a crank-out type exposure device.
curie (Ci): The basic unit used to describe the intensity of
radioactivity (disintegration rate) of a radioisotope.
One curie represents a disintegration rate of 3. 7 x
10'0 events per second.
D
DDE: Initialism for deep-dose equivalent.
declared pregnant woman: A woman who has voluntarily
informed the licensee, in writing, of her pregnancy
and the estimated date of conception. The
declaration remains in effect until the declared
pregnant woman withdraws the declaration in
writing or is no longer pregnant.
deep-dose equivalent: Abbreviated as DDE. Applies to
external whole-body exposure such as exposure to
industrial X-rays and gamma rays.
delayed effects: Those effects caused by radiation that do not
become evident until years after exposure to
radiation. Some possible delayed effects of radiation
are cancer and genetic defects in offspring.
differentiation: Biology. The ability to develop into
specialized cells.

disintegration: The transformation of radioactive atoms into
a stable state resulting in energy (radiation) and
particle emission.
DNA: Intialism for deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA is the
hereditary material in humans and almost all other
organisms. A nucleic acid that carries the genetic
information in the cell and is capable of setf-
replication and synthesis of RNA.
dose: T he amount of radiation absorbed by an object or
individual. Dose is a product of intensity (dose rate)
multiplied by time.
dose equivalent: The product of the absorbed dose in tissue,
quality fac tor and all other necessary modifying
factors at the location of interest. The units of dose
equivalent are the roentgen equivalent man (rem)
and sievert.
dose rate: Dose per unit of time. Usually measured in
roentgen per hour (R/h) or sievert per hour (Sv/h).
drive cable: A spiral wound steel cable that pushes the source
out of or into a Category I exposure device.
electromagnetic radiation: Radiation consisting of electric
and magnetic waves that travel at the speed of light.
E Genetic defects are passed on to the descendants of
electron: An elementary particle with a negative electrical
charge and a mass approximately equal to 1/184th
that of a proton.
electron volt: Abbreviated cV, it is a unit of energy equal to
the amount of kinetic energy gained by an electron
when it is accelerated through a voltage difference of
1 volt in a vacuum. McV equals 1 million electron
volts.
element: A basic type of matter. Each element has distinct
chemical properties, and cannot be divided into
simpler substances by chemical means.
exposure device: A container with a shield inside to hold a
gamma radiography source. A means is provided to
take the source outside the shield or to remove part
of the shield to make radiographs.
exposure head (source stop): A device that locates the
gamma radiography sealed source in the selected
working position. Also known as a source stop.
exposure rate: The exposure per unit of time, such as
milliroentgen per hour (mR!h) or millisievert per
hour (mSv/h).
Glossary
external dose: That portion of the dose equivalent received
from radiation sources outside the body, such as fro m
industrial X-rays and gamma rays.
extremities: The hands, elbows, feet, knees or legs below the
knee.
F
film badge: A small holder containing a piece of film and
filters that measure the accumulative dose a person
receives according to the darkness of the film.
frequency: The number of cycles or wave motion passing a
given point in a given time interval.
G
gamma alarm: A radiation detector that sounds an alarm
when a preset level of radiation is detected.
gamma rays: High energy, short wavelength electromagnetic
radiation emitted during radioactive decay.
gene: A part of a living cell that controls the reproduction of
the cell and determines the characteristics that the
reproduced cells have.
genetic defect: A defect in a living organism caused by a
deficiency in the genes of the original reproductive
cells from which the organism was conceived.
the person with the defect.
gigabecquerel (GBq): The SI unit of radiation activity equal
to 109 Bq.
guide tube: A flexible or rigid tube (i.e.,] tube) for guiding
the source assembly and the attached control cable
from the exposure device to the exposure head. The
guide tube may also include the connections
necessary for attachment to the exposure device and
to the exposure head.
gray (Gy): The SI unit of absorbed dose. One gray is equal to
an absorbed dose of 1 joule/kilogram (100 rad).
H
half-life: The time required for one-half of the atoms in a
radioactive substance to disintegrate.
half-value layer (HVL): The thickness of a material that will
reduce the amount of radiation passing th rough a
material to one-half of its initial intensity.
83
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety
high radiation area: An area, accessible to individuals, in
which radiation levels from radiation sources external
to the body could result in an individual receiving a
dose equivalent in excess of0. 1 rem (1 mSv) in 1 h
at 11.8 in. (30 cm) from the radiation source or
11.8 in. (30 cm) from any surface that the radiation
penetrates.
I materials are not being released; exposure devices
internal dose: That portion of the dose equivalent received
from radioactive material taken into the body, such
as from airborne radiation.
inverse square law: A law of nature which describes the
relationship of radiation intensity to distance from
the source of radiation, stated mathematically as "the
intensity of radiation is inversely proportional to the
square of its distance from the source."
ion: An atom, group of atoms, molecules or particles that have
acquired or are regarded as having a net electric
charge.
ionization: Any source that disrupts the electrical balance of
an atom and results in the production of ions.
ionization chamber: An instrument similar to a geiger
counter, that is used to detect and measure radiation.
IRRSP: An initialism for ASNT's Indmtrial Radiography
Radiation Safety Personnel program. Established in
1989, this program provides independent
certification of industrial radiographers as required
by 10 CFR Part 34.
isotope: Atoms having the same number of protons but a
different number of neutrons in the nuclei. Atoms
with the same atomic number (the same chemical
element) but different atomic weights.
L (0.001) of a roentgen.
label, radioactive white I: A warning label for packages
where the dose rate at the surface is less than
0.5 mR/h (5 µSv/h).
label, radioactive yellow II: A warning label for packages
with a dose rate at the surface of less than 50 mR/h
(0.5 mSv/h) and less than 1 mR/h (10 µSv/h) at
39.37 in. (1 m).
label, radioactive yellow III: A warning label for packages
with a dose rate of more than 50 mR/h (0.5 mSv/h)
at the surface and more than 1 mR/h (10 µSv/h) at
39.37 in. (1 m).
LDE: Initialism for eye {fens) dose equivalent, which applies to
the external exposure to the lens of the eye. Eye dose
applies to shallow dose exposures that are not
common to industrial radiography energy ranges. An
exposure to some form of airborne radioactive
material to the eyes is applicable.
leak test: A test on sealed sources to ensure radioactive
utilizing depleted uranium are also tested in this
manner.
licensee: The company or person authorized to use
radioactive materials under a license issued by the
NRC or Agreement State.
licensed material: Source material, special nuclear material ,
or byproduct material received, possessed, used or
transferred under a general or special license issued
by the NRC or an Agreement State.
locking ball: A ball-shaped piece of metal crimped on to the
pigtail that prevents the source from being pulled out
the back of the exposure devices. It is used to secure
the source into the safe position by most automatic
securing mechanisms. Also known as a safety stop
ball.
locking mechanism: The part of the exposure device that
automatically locks the source in the shielded
position when it is fully retracted.
M
median lethal dose: The radiation dose that would result in
the death of 50% of the people exposed to that dose.
This dose is approximately 400 to 500 rem delivered
to the whole body within a few hours or a few days.
milli (m): Indicates one one-thousandth (10-3) of a unit. For
example, a milliroentgen is one one-thousandth
molecule: The simplest structural unit that displays the
characteristic physical and chemical p roperties of a
compound.
mutation: In a cell, a change in the genes of genetic material
of the cell. In humans, people who have genetic
changes in all their cells. Mutation due to radiation
exposure is not a positive change.

N PSE: Initialism for planned special exposure.
neutron: An unchanged elementary particle with a mass
nearly cgual to that of a proton. A neutron is stable
when bound in an atomic nucleus and has a mass
approximately egual to 1840 times that of an
electron.
nonionizing radiation: Radiation that does not have enough
energy to create ions, such as visible light, radio
waves and microwaves.
nucleus: The positively charged central region of an atom
made up of protons and neutrons.
0 quality: The quality factor (Q2 or relative effectiveness of a
occupational dose: The dose received by an individual in a
restricted area or in the course of employment in
which the individual's assigned duties involve
exposure to radiation and to radioactive material.
Does not include exposure from background
radiation and medical practices.
operating procedures: A set of instructions supplied by the
company to ensure that all radiography personnel
follow the same set of rules. Procedures help
companies control how the work is performed,
control the way the equipment is handled, ensure the
sources are transported safely and establish
consistency during normal operations.
p ionizing radiation in any material in terms of the
pair production: A process by which electromagnetic
radiation of 1.02 Me V or greater transforms its
energy into an electron-positron pair during its
interaction with an atom.
permanent radiographic installation: An enclosed shielded
room not located at a temporary jobsite in which
radiography is performed.
photoelectric effect: A process by which electromagnetic
radiation is absorbed completely when it interacts
with matter.
pig: A depleted uranium casting used as the primary
shielding in an exposure device or source changer.
pigtail: The radiography source assembly containing the
source capsule, locking ball and connector. See source
assembly.
planned special exposure: An infrequent exposure to
radiation, separate from and in addition to the
annual dose limits. Abbreviated PSE. Note the
exposure limit for each PSE is 5 rem - no more
than 25 rem per lifetime.
Glossary
primary radiation: Radiation that is part of the original beam
coming from the X-ray machine or radioisotope.
prompt effects: The harmful health effects of radiation that
appear within a day to a few weeks after exposure to
radiation.
proton: A positively charged elementary particle with a mass
approximately equal to 1840 times that of an
electron, or 1 AMU.
Q
factor given a kind of ionizing radiation in producing
a biological response form an absorbed dose. The Q
for X-rays, gamma rays and beta particles is 1.
R
rad: Initialism for radiation absorbed dose. One rad is the dose
corresponding to the absorption of 100 ergs per
gram or 0.01 Gy.
radiation: The emission or propagation of waves
(X-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet, etc.) or fast-moving
particles (alpha or beta particles, neutrons, etc.)
through matter or space.
radiation absorbed dose: A measure of the dose of any
energy absorbed per unit mass of the material.
Abbreviated rad. One rad is the dose corresponding
to the absorption of 100 ergs per gram of material.
radiation area: An area, accessible to individuals, in which
radiation levels could result in an individual receiving
a dose equivalent in excess of 0.005 rem (0.05 mSv)
in 1hat11.8 in. (30 cm) from the radiation source
or from any surface that the radiation penetrates.
radioactive: A state in which atoms have excess energy and
are unstable. T he nucleus disintegrates in the process
of becoming stable. This disintegration results in the
emission of radiation.
radioactive contamination: Material which is radioactive and
uncontrolled (out of containment). It may soil
surrounding areas and/or become airborne.
radioisotope: An unstable isotope of an element that
disintegrates spontaneously, emitting radiation.
85
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety
radiographer: Any individual who performs or who, in
attendance at the site where the scaled source or
sources are being used, personally supervises
industrial radiographic operations and who is
responsible to the licensee for ensuring compliance
with the requirements of the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission's regulations and the conditions of the
license.
radiographer's assistant: An individual under direct
supervision of a radiographer while using exposure
devices, scaled sources and any related associated
equipment.
radiographic exposure device: Any instrument containing a
scaled source fastened or contained therein, in which
the sealed source or shielding thereof may be moved,
or oth erwise changed, from a shielded to unshielded
position fo r purposes of making a radiographic
exposure. Also called a camera or a projector.
radiographic operations: All activities associated with the
presence of radioactive sources in a radiographic
exposure device during use of the device or transport
(except when being transported by a common or
contract transport), to include surveys to confirm the
adequacy of boundaries, setting up equipment and
any activity inside restricted area boundaries.
reciprocity: The recognition of a radioactive material's license
issued by a regulatory authority in one jurisdiction,
by a regulatory authority in another jurisdiction,
usually for a limited period of time.
rem: The acronym for roentgen equivalent man. A unit of
radiation dose equal to 0.01 Sv.
restricted area: An area, access to which is limited by the
licensee for the purpose of protecting individuals
against undue risk from exposure to radiation and
radioactive materials. Restricted area does not
i ncludc areas used as residential quarters, but
separate rooms in a residential building may be set
apart as a restricted area.
roentgen (R): The amount ofX-radiation or gamma
radiation that will produce one electrostatic unit of
charge in 1 cm3 of dry air at 320 °F (160 °C) and
standard atmospheric pressure.
roentgen equivalent man: Abbreviated rem. The special unit
of any of the quantities expressed as dose equivalent.
It is a measure of the dose of any ionizing radiation
to body tissues in terms of its estimated biological
effect relative to the exposure. The dose equivalent in
rem is equal to the absorbed dose in rad multiplied
by the quality factor (Q2.
RSO: lnitialism for radiation safety officer. An individual with
the responsibility for the licensee's overall radiation
safety program and who meets the requirements of
10 CFR Part 34.42.
s
S tube: A tube through which the radioactive source travels
when inside a radiographic exposure device.
safety plug: A plug put into the outlet end of the S tube to
keep dirt out and to prevent the source from coming
out during transport.
scatter radiation: Radiation that results from changes in a
particle's or photon's trajectory due to its interaction
with atoms, nuclei or other particles.
scintillation counter: An instrument th at detects minute
radiation by counting small flashes of light
(scintillations) the radiation produces when it hits
certain crystals.
SDE: The initialism for shallow dose equivalent.
sealed source: Any byproduct material that is encased in a
capsule designed to prevent leakage or escape of the
byproduct mater.ial.
secondary radiation: Any radiation other than primary
radiation.
shallow dose equivalent: Applicable for types of radiation
that have very low tissue-penetrating capabilities and
the maximum dose achieved from exposure is at the
skin surface. This does not apply to th e dose
achieved from X-ray and
gamma-ray exposure.
shielded position: The location within the radiographic
exposure device or source changer where the scaled
source is secured and restricted from movement.
sievert: The SI unit of any of the quantities expressed as dose
equivalent. The dose equivalent in sieverts is equal to
the absorbed dose in grays multiplied by the quality
factor (1 Sv = 100 rem).

source assembly (pigtail): A length of cable containing a
connector, locking ball and sealed source.
source changer: A device designed and used for replacement
of sealed sources in radiographic exposure devices,
including those also used for transporting and
storage of sealed sources.
special form radioactive material: A single solid piece of
radioactive material or radioactive materials
contained in a sealed capsule.
specific activity: The activity per unit of weight, such as
becquercls or curies per gram.
storage area: Any location, facility or vehicle used to store or
secure a radiographic exposure device, a storage
container or a sealed source when not in use. A
storage area is locked or has a physical barrier to
prevent accidental exposure, tampering with or
unauthorized removal of the device, container or
source.
storage container: A container in which sealed sources are
secured and stored.
T wavelength: The linear distance a wave must travel to
TEDE: The acronym for total effective dose equivalent.
temporary job site: A location where radiographic operations
are conducted and where licensed material may be
stored other than those location(s) of use authorized
on the license.
tenth-value layer (TVL): The thickness of a material that
will reduce the amount of radiation passing through
a material to 1/10 of its original intensity.
TODE: The acronym for total organ dose equivalent. Does not
apply exclusively to industrial radiographic exposures.
total dose equivalent: The sum of deep-dose equivalent
(external exposure) and the committed effective dose
equivalent (internal exposure) to the organ receiving
the highest dose.
Glossary
total effective dose equivalent: The sum of deep-dose
equivalent (external exposures) and the committed
effective dose equivalent (internal exposure) .
transport index (TI): The dose rate in milliroentgen per hour
(millisievert per hour) at 39.37 in. (1 m) from the
surface of a radioactive materials package. Transport
indexes are measured rounded up to the nearest
tenth.
u
unrestricted area: Any area to which access is neither limited
nor controlled by the licensee or registrant.
v
velocity: Distance traveled in a specified amount of time.
very high radiation: An area, accessible to individuals, in
which radiation levels from radiation sources external
to the body could result in an individual receiving an
absorbed dose in excess of 500 rad (5 gray) in 1 h at
1 m (39.37 in.) from a radiation source or 1 m
(39.37 in.) from any surface that the radiation
penetrates.
w
complete one cycle. The measure of linear distance
for a wave of electromagnetic energy from peak to
peak.
whole body: The head and trunk (including male gonads),
arms above the elbow and legs above the knees.
wipe test: See leak test. A check for the presence of radioactive
material that has escaped from a sealed source.
Required every six months on each source in
possession of a licensee; required yearly for each
exposure device utilizing depleted uranium as its
primary shielding.
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ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety
Answers to Review Questions
Chapter 1
1. d. All the above
All of the above contributed to
overexposures in the early years of industrial
radiography. But through the efforts and
experience of those pioneers we have
learned our lessons. Equipment design and
construction, operating and emergency
procedures, and our general and specific
understanding and knowledge of radiation
and its effects have come a long way. All of
which, through improvement, have helped
in reducing the risks associated with
radiographic operations.
2. d. late in 1898
It was near the end of 1898 that l\1arie
and Pierre discovered what they called
polonium in pitchblende, but even at that
point they knew that something else was
responsible for the high readings they were
observing. Upon further processing they
were able to isolate the clement they called
radium.
3. a. Madame Marie Curie and Pierre
Curie
Madame Curie and Pierre Curie, after
discovering polonium and radium, coint:d
the word radioactivity.
4. c. 3 in. (7.62 cm)
In the early years of radiography a
maximum thickness of 3 in. (7.62 cm) of
steel was all the X- ray nibcs of the time
could penetrate. Radium sources were
capable of penetrating up to 10 in.
(25 .4 cm) of steel.
5. d. all of the above
Throughout history, it was proven that
conducting a survey incorrectly or not at all,
the source left out in the exposed position,
or the source not trapped or locked in the
shielded position and usually a combination
of the above, have caused the overexposures
in our industry.
6. a. the radiographer
The radiographer is the ultimate
responsible person on the job site, it is his
responsibility to ensure that all regulations,
license cond itions and company policies are
being adhered to and followed.
7. c. Ernest Rutherford
Ernest Rutherford, by applying a
magnetic field across the exposed beam,
found that the negatively charged beta
particles were repelled, the positively
charged alpha particles were attracted, and
more baffling, one ray was unaffected. Thus
he discovered alpha particles, beta particles
and a ray that he named gamma.
8. d. Massachusetts General
Within just months of the discovery of
X-rays, the medical profession found their
use at Massachusetts General Hospital.
9. a. true
10. b. their program's radiation safety
officer (RSO)
11. b. Wilhelm Rontgen
Chapter2
1. c. particulate and electromagnetic
Radiation is broken down to two types:
particulate radiation, such as alpha and beta
particles, and electromagnetic, such as
X-rays and gamma rays.
2. b. at the speed of light without regard to
pressure, temperature or magnetic fields
Electromagnetic radiation travels in a
wavelike motion at the speed of light, in
straight lines and is not affected by
magnetic fields .
3. b. 186 000 miles/s (299 338 km/s)
Gamma rays travel at the speed of light
which is about 186 000 miles per second.
4. a. true
Energy cannot be destroyed; it can be
converted or changed from one form to
another. Matter can be converted to energy,
such as wood that is consumed by fire, and
the matter is converted to radiant thermal
energy.
5. a. two protons and two neutrons
The alpha particle is literally two
protons and two neutrons, which happens to
be the exact same configuration as that of a
helium atom without the electrons.
6. a. positive charge
Alpha particles consist of two protons
an<l two neutrons. As neutrons arc neutral
and protons arc positive, an alpha particle is
also known as a positive ion.
7. b. negative charge
Beta particles, also known as positrons,
are essentially high -speed electrons. As
electrons have a negative charge, a beta
particle is negatively charged.
8. d. much less than t1tat of an aJpha
particle
As beta particles arc essentially high-
speed electrons, and electrons are 1/1840 the
size in mass of a proton, it is easy to sec
how much smaller they arc than a proton .
As an alpha particle is two protons and two
neutrons, you can imagine how much less
mass a beta particle would have than an
alpha particle.
9. c. they travel at sub-light speeds and as
such are easily contained or shielded
As most industrial radiography uses
manufacni red sources (Ir-192 and Co-60)
encapsulated in a stainless steel capsule, it
would be impossible for an alpha or beta
particle to escape as they do not have the
energy to penetrate the steel capsule, let
alone their physical mass can't migrate
through the steel's strucrure.
10. d. high-voltage direct current across
the cathode of a vacuum tube
As low voltage is applied to a filame nt
of the X- ray tube, free electrons are ejected
as the filament heats up. It is the e..xtremely
high electrical difference in potential
between the anode and cathode that causes
those free electrons to flow from one to the
other at high speeds (near the speed of
light). So the high voltage across the
cathode will in essence drive the electrons to
the anode (target) to produce the
bremsstrahlung effect.
11. c. passage of electrons across the tube
striking the target
As the electrons are driven to the anode
of an X-ray tube to strike the target at the
speed oflight, bremsstrahlung creates
X-radiation.
12. b. nonionizing radiation
All three waveforms are nonionizing as
they do not have the energy needed to eject
an electron from an atom.
13. a. 1 A.l'1U
Protons and neutrons both have mass,
each nearly equal and represent 1 atomic
mass unit, while electrons are much smaller
at 1/1840 their size.
14. a. primary beams have greater
penetrability than secondary beams
Primary beams are more penetrating
due to their higher energy state, which
means their frequency is higher and their

wavelength is shorter. Secondary beams, or
scatter radiation, is created by primary
beams striking an object in which the
photon has struck an atom and undergoing
pair production, compton scattering and
ultimately photoelectric effect. As the
primary beam has lost energy at each of
these stages, the resulting secondary beam is
lower in energy, lower in frequency and thus
the wavelength is longer in comparison to
the primary beam.
15. c. electrons
Protons (positive) and neutrons (neutral)
each weigh 1 atomic mass unit. An electron
(negative) is 1/1840 the size of a proton.
16. d. A number
The A number is the atomic weight
(protons and neutrons), the Z number is the
number of protons, which defines the type
of element the atom is. So an atom with 8
electrons, 8 neutrons and 8 protons is an
oxygen atom. This never changes, even when
an atom is bombarded with excessive
neutrons to activate it. The number of
protons stays the same, only the atomic
weight changes, so the element is still the
same. Iridium-191 is still iridium even when
an extra neutron is added to the total weight
making it iridium-192.
17. b. false
Only alpha and beta particles are
affected by magnetic fields because alpha
particles hold a positive charge and beta
particles a negative charge. Gamma rays and
X-rays, having no physical mass and no
charge, cannot be affected by magnetic
fields.
18. b. false
Once an isotope has decayed,
theoretically at some point the material
would be completely stable and thus not
radioactive. This would be theoretical only
as it would never truly reach absolute zero.
19.c.2
The half-life of iridium-192 is
essentially 74.3 days, 148 days divided by
74.3 is basically 2 or 2 half-lives.
20. c. excess neutrons
By bombarding atoms with neutrons we
can impose extra neutrons into the nucleus
of an atom, thus making it physically
unstable and and radioactive. This process is
known as activation.
21. a. protons
Protons define the type of element the
atom is. So an atom with 8 electrons, 8
neutrons and 8 protons is an oxygen atom.
This never changes, even when an atom is
bombarded with excessive neutrons to
activate it. The number of protons stays the
same, only the atomic weight changes, so
the element is still the same.
22. b. more penetrating
Higher frequency means a shorter
wavelength, the shorter the wavelength the
greater the penetration.
Chapter3
1. d. all of the above
Overexposures to ionizing radiation can
cause everything from reddening of the skin
to death, including cancer and genetic
damage to DNA that would be passed on to
unborn children.
2. b. false
As radiation encompasses everything
from radio waves to cosmic waves, it is
obvious that some forms of radiation do not
damage the human body, let alone cause
death.
3. d. all of the above
Radiant energy high enough to ionize
matter is more than enough energy to pass
through the human body, and as such the
damaging ionization.
4. d. all of the above
Effects of an overexposure can manifest
themselves relatively rapidly in the
destruction of white blood cells, reddening
of the skin, nausea and fatigue are all
prompt effects.
5. c. only one radiographer is known to
have died in the world
It is believed that only one radiographer
has died by radiation exposure, though
others have died due to radiation poisoning
and overexposures. In reality our job as
radiographers is safe as long as we adhere to
our operating and emergency procedures,
and our proper surveys.
6. d. as low as reasonably achievable
7. b. 5 rem per year
Currently in the United States an adult
radiographer's maximum allowable exposure
in a year's time is set at 5 rem.
8. d. all of the above
Each of the above are true. A minor is
allowed a dosage 10% of that of an adult's
exposure, which can be stated as 500 mR in
a year's time, or one-half of a rem. Using SI
units it is 5 mSv.
9. c. more damaging than the gamma ray
The rem is a measurement of radiation's
exposure/effect on the human body. It is a
product of the exposure rad multiplied by
the quality facto r (formerly known as the
relative biological effectiveness) of the type
of radiation. As some types of radiation are
Answers to Review Questions
more damaging to the human body than
others, the quality factor is different for each
type . The alpha particle is the most
damaging with a quality factor of 20, so
1 rad x 20 would equal a total exposure to a
human of 20 rem.
10.d.20
The alpha particle is the most energetic
with a quality factor of 20, the fast neutron
a quality factor of 10, thermal neutrons are
5, beta particles, gamma rays and X -rays are
1. So 1 rad of X-ray or gamma ray times the
quality factor of 1 would be 1. It is for this
reason that industrial radiographers
interchangeably consider 1 rad = 1 rem =
1 R.
Chapter4
1. b. false
The human senses (sight, feel, taste,
smell and hearing) cannot detect the
presence of ionizing radiation, which is why
it is so important that radiographers use a
survey meter at all times. A survey meter is
the only instrument that can immediately
tell us if there is ionizing radiation present
and if so at what exposure rate.
2. f. all of the above
Each item in the list above works on the
principle that ionizing radiation will interact
with known properties, properties that we
can measure. In the case of a film badge, the
film will be exposed; with a TLD, we can
capture and store the energy for
measurement later; an ion chamber will
have its electrometer's charge reduced by
ionizing radiation. Survey meters and rate
alarms detect the ionizing radiation and give
us a reading, or in the case of the rate alarm,
an alarm will go off once a preset limit is
found.
3. a. geiger-miiller tube
Geiger- muller tubes are considered the
better choice in most industrial radiography
work as they respond well to lower amounts
of radiation and they are rugged.
4. b. 2 mR/h through 1 R/h (20 µSv/h
through 10 mSv/h)
Survey meters used in industrial
radiography must be capable of reading a
dose rate between 2 mR per hour and
1000 mR (1 R) per hour.
5. c. zero at 25 ft (7.62 m) away
Once a source has been returned to the
shielded position it would read zero on the
meter. As the radiographer approaches the
exposure device, it would still read zero as
the source is shielded. It is extremely
important that we conduct our surveys each
and every time the source has been returned
to ensure the source is in fact in the fully
89
 ASNT Studr. Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety
shielded position. An exposure device will
read an exposure rate not to exceed 200 mR
per hour at the surface of the exposure
device or 50 mR per hour 6 in. from the
exposure device to hold a Type B rating.
6.c. 20%
A survey meter should be accurate
within 20% of the true reading. This is true
for rate alarms as well.
7. d. dose received since the last time it was
charged
The dosimeter, when used properly, will
record your personal exposure since the last
time you zeroed or charged it. It is
important that you follow procedures and
regulations by charging your dosimeter prior
to each work shift so that you will have a
recording of your exposure history that you
can read onsite. Your pocket ion chamber is
also referred to as a direct reading dosimeter,
meaning you read the current dose history
as often as you like without any external
equipment. This makes it a very important
tool in a radiographer's toolbox as it is the
only item that will give im mediate results on
how much exposure he or she has received.
8. a. 500 mR/h (5000 µSv/h)
A rare alarm must give an audible signal
at 500 mR per hour with an accuracy of
±20%, which means it is not uncommon for
a rate alarm to sound off at a lower level.
Typically a rate alarm will start
intermittently sounding at a reading as low
as 400 mR per hour and a solid continuous
alarm at 500 mR.
9. c.12 months
Dosimeters and rate alarms are both
calibrated at 12-month intervals.
10. c. ion chamber is a direct reading
instrument and the TLD/film badges must
be processed by a National Voluntary
Laboratory Accreditation Program
(NVLAP)lab
T he TLD and film badges are both
considered in-direct reading dosimeters;
both must be sent to a National Voluntary
Laboratory Accreditation Program
(NVLAP) lab for processing. Both record a
dose history by the wearer for the time
period worn. Most programs are set up at
one-month intervals, but can be extended to
three months.
11. d. six months
Industrial sources must be checked for
leakage every six months. Typically the
initial leak test is recorded and documented
on the decay chart supplied by the source
manufacturer. An iridium source reaches the
six-month mark around 20 Ci. It is the
material user's responsibility to ensure that
the source is checked at the six-month
mark.
12. a. one year
Exposure devices using depleted
uranium (DU) as the primary form of
shielding must be tested for leakage
annually or once a year. This test is to verify
that the S tube has not been worn through
and pushing DU out of the exposure device
thus contaminating our environment.
13. c. 0.005 µCi (185 Bq)
In either case, source material or DU
wipe, 0.005 µCi (185 Bq) or greater would
be considered an indication ofleakage. The
main concern is that we are putting
radioactive material in an uncontrolled state
and thus it would be considered
contamination .
14. b. immediately remove it from service
and have it decontaminated or disposed of
Should a source or exposure device
return a leak test of more than 0.005 µCi
(185 Bq), the licensee must immediately
remove the equipment from service and
have it decontaminated, repaired or
disposed of by a licensee that is authorized
by the NRC or Agreement State.
15. a. day prior to use
Gamma alarms must be inspected and
documented every three months, but must
also be tested every day prior to use. Should
the area alarm be broken, the system must
be tagged fo r repair and the area may be
used under the same conditions of a field
site, i.e. two radiographers, 100 %
surveillance, boundaries, etc.
Chapter 5
1. c. shielding, time, distance
The three basic forms of protecting
ourselves from ion izing radiation is to spend
as little time in the field of radiation, be as
far from the source of radiation as we can,
and use as much shielding as we can, thus
time, distance and shielding.
2. d. all of the above
The formula to calculate total exposure
is Dose = Intensity (dose rate) x Time
(exposure time) or D = Ix T Standing in a
100 mR per hour field would mean th at by
multiplying the total time spent in the field,
let's say 30 min, by the dose rate of 100 mR
per hour would be 100 mR x 1/2 hour=
50 mR of total exposure.
3. d. 60 mR (600 µSv)
The rate of exposure is measured on
most industrial survey meters as
milliroentgen per hour. Dose rate is also
expressed as milliroentgen or roentgen per
hour. Your exposure is your total
accumulated exposure. So to answer the
question above, if you stand in a 60 mR per
hour field for the entire hour, you would
receive a total exposure of 60 mR.
Remember we measure dose rates, we record
total exposure.
4. d. 14 R/Ci at 1 ft (140 mSv/Ci at 1 ft)
Materials have a specific activity
associated with them expressed as roentgen
per curie at 1 fr, or if using SI units,
millisieverts per hour at 1 ft. In the case
above, Co-60 has a gamma constant of
14 R/Ci at 1 ft (140 mSv/Ci at 1 fr).
5. d. 5.2 R/h/Ci at 1 ft (52 mSv/h/Ci at
lft)
Materials have a specific activity
associated with them expressed as roentgen
per curie at 1 ft, or if using SI units,
millisieverts per hour at 1 ft. In the case
above, Ir-192 has a gamma constant of
5.2 R per curie at 1 ft (52 mSv/h/Ci at 1 ft) .
6. a. dose rate per curie at a specific
distance
Remember that gamma constants are
stated as a constant output or rate at a
specified distance. In the United States, this
is stated as roentgen per curie at 1 ft, or if
using SI units, millisieverts per hour at 1 ft.
As an example, lr-192 is 5.2 R per curie at
1 ft (52 mSv/h/Ci at 1 ft).
7. b. the intensity is indirectly proportional
to the distance squared
The inverse square law is a
mathematical law that tells us that radiant
energy, such as ionizing radiation, is
inversely proportional to the distance
squared. Simply put, every time you double
your distance from the source, you will
reduce the exposure rate by 0.25. A nd
should you half the distance, you would
increase the exposure by a factor of four. So
standing 4 ft from the source you receive
100 mR per hour. Move to 8 ft and you
would divide by 4 and end up with an
exposure rate of 25 mR per hour. You
quickly see how putting more distance
between you and the source quickly reduces
your exposure. M ove closer to the source, for
example, moving from 4 ft to 2 ft is a
multiple of 4, so 100 mR per hour x 4
equals 400 mR per hour. You can see that
getting closer to the source is not such a
good idea.
8. c. 11! Ji = D12/D22
The inverse square law is stated
mathematically that intensity one (the first
or known intensity) divided by intensity two
(the second, or the unknown intensity) is
equal to the square of distance one (the first
known distance) divided by the square of
the distance two (the second known
distance). I 11lz = D 12/Di.
=-~~~--~- ~~~ =;-~-
9. a. I 2 = (I1 x D 12)/Di2
You can look at the inverse square law
another way mathematically, in this case
solving for the unknown intensity (I2). You
can multiply the known intensity by the first
known distance (I1 x D 12) and divide that
by the square of the second known distance
Di. So, h = (I1 x D 12 )1D22.
10. c. D 2 = v'[(I1 x D 12 )1fi]
You can look at the inverse square law
in the same manner to determine the
unknown distance by re-arranging the
inverse square law to read: the unknown
distance (D2) is equal to the square root of
the first intensity (I1 ) multiplied by the
square of the first known distance (D12)
divided by the second known intensity (I2 )
So, D2 = Y[(J1 x D 12 )1I2] .
11. a. 1 half-value layer
We use a couple expressions when
discussing shielding. One is the half-value
layer also written as HVL, which is the
amount of shielding required to reduce the
original exposure rate to one-half (100 mR
ll HVLI = 50 mR). The other is the
tenth-value layer or TVL, which is the
amount of shielding that will reduce the
original exposure rate to 1/10 the original
value. (100 mR I1 TVL I = 10 mR)
12. d. lead
Lead would be the better shielding as its
atomic density is far greater than paper,
plastic or wood. As a material's atomic
density increases, it takes less material to
shield as there are more protons and
electrons. Of course you could use 0.200 in.
of lead to reduce lr- 192's exposure rate by
one-half, or you could use about 30 ft of
plastic.
13. a. 0.200 in.
The generaDy accepted HVL for lead
when dealing with the energies associated
with Ir-192 is about 0.200 in., so for every
0.200 in. of lead between you and the
source, you reduce the exposure one-half,
0.600 in. of lead would be 3 half-values so,
500 mR/2 (1 HVL) = 250 mR/2;
(2 HVL) = 125 mR/2; (3 HVL) = 62.5.
14. b. 66. 7 mR
Remember Dose = Intensity x Time. If
the intensity is 100 mR per hour, as your
total exposure is four 10-min shots or a total
of 40 min, which is less than an hour, an
easy way to calculate your total dose would
be to convert your exposure rate to minutes.
So, 100 mR per hour divided by 60 min
means you receive an exposure of 1.6 mR
per minute; 1.6 mR x 40 min equals 66.7
mR of total exposure. Keep in mind this is
your total exposure, not the rate of exposure.
15. b. 156 R per hour
Gamma constants are written in the
United States as intensity per curie at 1 ft.
So multiply your constant of 5.2 R by the
number of curies (5.2 Rx 30 Ci), which
will equa.l 156 R at 1 ft. Remember, the
5.2 R gamma constant for iridium is based
at 1 ft. This will not change. So if you know
the number of curies, you can always
calculate your first known intensity at the
firs t known distance, in this case 156 R =
(11) at 1 ft (D1 ).
16. d. 255.5 Rat 2 ft
73 Ci of cobalt with a gamma constant
of 14 R per curie would mean you have
1022 R at 1 ft (73 Ci x 14 R per curie at
1 ft). If you move to 2 ft, thus doubling your
original distance, you would receive 1/4 the
exposure, 1022 R/4 = 255.5 Rat the new
distance of 2 ft. Work the equation as
Ji= [11(1022 R) x D 1 2 (1 ft2)]!Dz2 (2 ft2) .
Type the following in on a calculator
73 x 14 x l (X2)/2(X2)=
17. d. 4 times
Keep in mind, moving closer to the
source will increase your exposure rate;
moving to one-half the original distance
will mean the exposure rate is multiplied by
a factor of 4 times. So 50 mR at 100 ft
would increase 4 times by moving to 50 ft,
so, 50 mR x 4 = 200 mR. Again, you can
run the math. 50 mR is your first known
intensity (11) multiplied by your first known
distance of 100 ft2 divided by the second
known distance of 50 ft2. So ! 2 =
[!1 (50 mR) x D 12 (100 ft2)]1Di2 (50 ft2).
Type the following in on a calculator
50 x 100(X2)/50(X2) =
18. b. 12.5 mR per hour
Intensity 1 will be 100 mR, your first
distance will be 25 ft, your second known
distance is 50 ft. Remember to square your
distances and account for your shielding. So
100 mR moving from 25 ft to 50 ft means
you have doubled your distance, which also
means that your original intensity is reduced
to 1/4. So 100 mR/4 = 25 mR per hour.
Factor in 1 half-value layer of shielding and
25 mR divided by 2 equals 12.5 mR per
hour.
19. d.4
There are four types of installations:
protective, enclosed, unattended and open.
20.a.open
The open instaDation is the typical field
site, where we keep the area under constant
surveillance with a restricted area/controlled
area, and a high radiation area.
- --=---
Answers to Review Questions
Chapter6
1. e. a sufficient number of calibrated and
operable survey meters
As stated in 10 CFR Part 34.25, the
licensee shall keep sufficient, calibrated and
operable radiation survey equipment at each
location where radioactive materials are
present.
2. e. semiannually; :t20%
As stated in 10 CFR Part 34.25,
radiation survey equipment shaD be
calibrated semiannuaDy and have an overall
accuracy of :t20%.
3. a. direct reading dosimeter, operating
rate alarm, personnel dosimeter
As stated in 10 CFR Part 34.47, the
licensee shall not permit any individual to
act as a radiographer or an assistant unless,
at aD times during radiographic operations
each individual wears, 1. direct reading
dosimeter, 2. personnel dosimeter, 3.
operating rate alarm.
4. b. P - portable; M - mobile; F - fixed
5. a. Category I: exposes the source
through a shutter mechanism or rotation
device in which the source never leaves the
device; Category II: source is exposed
outside the shielded container by
mechanical means.
6. d. all of the above
Specific design criteria may be found in
10 CFR Part 20.1901 stating dimensions
and proper colors of magenta, purple or
black on a yellow background.
7. b. caution radiation area 5 mR/h
(50 mSv/h); caution/danger high radiation
area 100 mR/h (1 mSv/h); grave danger,
very high radiation area 500 R/h (5 Sv/h)
As stated in 10 CFR Part 20. 1902, the
following posting requirements apply:
caution radiation area (5 mR);
caution/danger high radiation area
(100 mR); grave danger, very high radiation
area (500 R).
8. a. one month
As stated in 10 CFR Part 34.47, film
badges shall be replaced at intervals not to
exceed one month, other personnel
dosimeters such as TLDs may be worn up
to, but not to exceed, three months.
9. a.24h
As stated in 10 CFR Part 34.47, if an
individual's pocket chamber is found to be
off-sea.le, the individual's personnel
dosimeter must be sent in for processing
within 24 h.
91
ASNT Study Guide: Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety

10. d. until the commission terminates the 5. c. electron 23.d 75. c

license The structure known as the cathode 24. c 76. b
As stated in 10 CFR Part 34.47, serves as the electron source. X-ray 25.b 77. a
dosimetry reports received from the machines generally use thoriated tungsten 26.c 78.c
accredited NVLAP personnel dosimeter wire, which is heated to produce these 27. a 79.c
processor must be maintained by the electrons. 28.c 80. c
licensee until the commission terminates the 29.b 81. b
license. 6. b. the problem of electrons colliding 30. d 82.a
with, and being absorbed by, molecules of 31. a 83.d
Chapter 7 air 32.c 84. b
1. a. high-speed electrons are introduced The high-vacuum envelope, generally 33.c 85.a
from the cathode and strike the anode made of glass, is used to reduce the problem 34.b 86.c
within a vacuum-sealed envelope of electrons colliding with, and being 87.b
35.d
There are three basic requirements absorbed by, molecules of air. It also 88.b
36. b
when trying to achieve the production of provides electrical insulation between the 89.d
37.d
X-radiation: cathode and anode. 90.d
38.c
1. A supply of high-speed electrons must
39. a 91. b
be present. T his is achieved by simply 7. a. the electrostatic principle
40.c 92.d
raising the temperature of the cathode. Van de Graaff generators operate on the
41. d 93. d
2. The movement of these electrons to the electrostatic principle. Electrons are
42. d 94. a
target material (anode) is considered the introduced upon a belt traveling at high
43.c 95. b
second step. This is brought about by speeds and then collected on a dome
structure, which serves as the electron source. 44.d 96. a
the repelling and attracting forces
inherent in electrical forces. 45.a 97.c
3. Finally with the agitated electrons 8. b. 1/8 in. to 3/4 in. (3.175 mm to 46.a 98.a
striking the target material within a 19.05 mm) 47. c 99.d
vacuum-sealed envelope X-rays arc The maximum thickness e.."Xpected to be 48.b 100.a
produced. obtainable with 150 Kv is equal to that of 49.b 101. a
about 3/4 in. 50. a 102. b
2. b. heat 51. b 103.b
Within X-ray tubes, only a small 9. d. beryllium 52.b 104.d
portion of the energy used converts to Most X-ray rubes utilize beryllium 53. d 105 . d
X-rays. The bulk of the energy converts to windows due to their near-transparent effect 54. b 106. b
heat, which the target material must on X-ray energies, i.e. low atomic number. 55.c 107. c
dissipate it. 56.d 108. d
10. d. milliamperes 57.d 109. c
3. c. nmgsten In general terms, think of milliamperes 58.b 110. b
X-ray target (anode) materials are as the amount of curies within a given 59.a 111. c
generally made of tungsten due to its high source, kilovoltage as the type of source you 60. a 112. d
atomic density and high melting point. would be working with. 61. d 113.a
62.a 114. a
4. a. penetrating capabilities of the X-rays Additional Review Questions 63.b 115. d
produced 1. c 12.a 64. b 116. a
As the kilovoltage is changed, the 2.a 13. a 65. a 117. a
kinetic energy in the electrons is changed, 3. d 14. b 66.c 118. c
altering the energy of the resulting X-rays 4.a 67. c 119. b
15.c
being produced. As the kilovoltage is 5.b 120.c
16.c 68.c
increased, the efficiency of converting the 6. d 69.b 121. c
17.b
energy to X-radiation increases. Therefore, 122.d
7. c 18.c 70. c
where kilovoltage is changed, the 123. c
8.a 19. b 71. b
penetrating capability of the radiation 124. b
9.d 20.d 72.c
generated is changed.
IO.a 21. d 73.a 125.d
11. c 22.a 74. b
The American Society for Catalog No: 2300
Nondestructive Testing ISBN-13: 978- 1-57 117- 195-5