ACH TO WAT SEWERAGE PROBLEMS PREGOMAWANTLY HiGH DENSITY) LN ZI NNAGWE ‘ . UL SIGH AVE Bi) ALIVE 10 ee ae this Report was produced by O'DONNELL AND PARTNERS: LARD GOLQUHOUN, HUGH in conjunction with MLS LS eR HOUSING DEVELOPMENT SERVICES (einTSTRY OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT AND HOUSING} Prepared by A, VAN DER SCHYFF, BSe(CivEng) » MBAs CEng, MICE MICE, HZwelE, MIasthE Mins tHe LT. WALL, a5e(Teeh}, CEng, Pp. ANDREWS, CEng, MICE, MZwelE, 3 uw, HECKS, CEng, MIMunE, MIPHE10 WATE (her wonn 51H _ZIMBABIE, 1S 1GH_ APEROAC BU Alive TU A ileAg comment This Report was produced by } figtAty COLQUIIOUN, HUGH 0" CONNELL AND PARTNERS: in conjunction with = HOUSING OEVELOPHENT SERVICES IMINESTRY OF LOCAL GOVERRMENT AND HOUSING) Prepared by MICE pSe(Civeng), MBA, CEnge CEng, MICE, HZwelE, Ming the MZwel€, MInsthe A, VAN DER SCHYFF, T, HALL, O3e(Teeh). g.P, ANDREWS, CEng, MICE, RW. HICKS, CEng, MiMunE, MIPHE JANUARY 1982 Jets ianeesie ens eeerorcwarn Piatsine fies) over alte yoors, rafincd 1¢o SPre using. servicing of Jow income in inflation and the ever incr ns to the level of servicing tive uptio This repart attempts alter altern required. tives and approach ta the guidelines to the design implement Housing policy to date has required all ervicing to be contractor built. anging in and 5 The so have all been fully serviced plots F 200m? and 400% zaom® in extent. Housing solutions have ranged from low cost, bedroom dwelling units The level of = to extrenely low cost revi most cases waterborne units. mater provision and in has been provided. aun supply contractor built approach he luxury of innovat yuntered in less spee The mox! planners and designers t few of the problems encor Solutions thet ¥: range fr 200m? plots to a variety of service Ll “on-site” The ultimate level tated primarily by economic considerations but by peoples’ aspirations and geographic loca However with the casing demand for housing. to ratianalise alternatives g 8 major prograsne of house construction. housing solutions with the largest proportion being towards cing has been fully reticulated ill have to be considered in the roture @ om the site and services approach on fully evels including each to the ince will be the des ge J give sone for use fn lutions offered size between two and threc two bedroom sanitation has enabled ive design with dy developments serviced sanitation methods on larger plots. ¢ of servicing and plot size will be dic- in addition tion. It would ¢ to consider very small plots in the service be unrealis centres located in communal lands, wheress smoller plots d be considered essential in the larger municdpel oreas. coul dt is not the intention of this report to influedde policy ist in preparing the engincering rationale but rather to a behind any possible policy direction. Ihis report is designed to be read in conjunction with the “Standard Conditions of Gontract and Specifications for Givil Engineering Works in High Density Housing Contracts” as prepared by Housing Vevelopment Services Brench end is one of three reports dealing with engineering and plenning considerations. The other two reports ere: Design Approach to Roads and Stormwater Problens relative to High Density Housing Developments in Zimbabwe. Principles of Planning and Layout Design for Low Income Housing Developments in Zimbabre.AOUREVIATIONS_ANO_DEFINLTLEES ALC. Asbestos Cement Blair Blair Rescarch Laboratory: Gali sbury ~B.0,0. Biochemical Oxygen Hemend (8.0.0, ) B.P. Black Polythene Blair Research Laboratory B.S. British Standards e., Capy Copita/Persen . Constart used in pipe flow/pond design formulas C.A.S. Gentrel African Standards Cle Cast Iron ¢.0.0. Chemical Oxygen Demand 0 Pipe diameter (either nominal or actual internal diameter) 4 day . o.v.C. pouble Veult Composting Toilet OW.Fs Dry Weather Flow external Houses/hursyourside serviced SFeee G.1./6-5- Galvanised I¢on/Galvenised steel hae Hectare (10 000m") H.M.S.06 Her Majesty's Stationery Office, Landon hut Informal or traditional dwelling in rural (= areas hr. Hour i Hydravlic Gradient/Head losses (n/m) E.0. Internal Diamater (pipe) | Internal Houses/hure within serviced 4rae kgs + Kilogramme oO Ke Kilonenton kPa Kilopascal Kraal Family grouping of huts in rural areas (a kev, Effective roughness factor (ms) . } Litre Litres per day ia Litres per capita per day Litres per second WWE X (Continued) Housing Vensity Population Densities Woter Human Wate Collection, Treat and Disposal 1 Tee 6.0 GENERAL CONCLUSION 7.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSAPPENDIS TIT APPENDIX _1¥ APPENDIX v APPENDIX VI APPENDIX MIL AFPENOIX. vill APPENDIX 1x APPENDIX _X APPENDIX XI APPENOIX XIE APPENDIX XIIT APPENDIX XIV . APPENDIX XV APPENDIX XVI APPENDIX XVI vice population and House Oseupeney Water Bomand peak Hactors’ for Hater Flow water Quelity - Stendards for water Treatment Water Treatment Process Chart Flow/friction Chart - Weter pipes - Moteriels snd Classifications Pipework Fittings - Water Thrust Blocks for Pressure Pipelines Sanitation Options Sewage Flow/Gradient/Pipe Chart ewer Pipeline Fittings Manhole Construction o ca Design of Ponds Water (Effluent and Weste Water Stondards) Requlations, 1977 The Public Health (Effluent) Reg- ulations, 1972 References mg/d ML. yd NPS He ANURIVIATIONS, AND ULEINTTIONS (Cont*d) Metres, square meter, cuble motre Mi Lligeanme Milligramses per litre Mega litre » Mega litres per day (1 000 m'/d) ' Millimetre « Metres per second Newton Net Positive Suction Head Pond Effluent 8.0.0. Pascal (1 Pa = N/m?) Pour Flush Toilet - Maximum Pond Strength in 0.0.0. Pond Influent 8.0.0. Parts per million (p.p.m = mg/l) Flow, discharge, quantity through pipes etc. (Mid, 1/s, m'/hr) Retention in ponds (days of flow) Reticulated (water or senerage) Reed Qdourless Earth Closet Standards Association of Australia Standpipe Septic Tank United Nations Unplasticised Polyvinyl Chloride Ventilated Improved Double Pit Letrine Ventilated Improved Pit Latring Document used for design of sewage tre! ment Ponds World Health Organisation2.0 INnecX FOREWORD ABBREVIATIONS AND DC! INTRODUGTION 1.1. Terms of Reference 1.2 Local Government Structures 4.3 Urbanisation Patterns 1.4 Housing Density Classification 1.5 Rurel Villages POPULATION ANO OCCUPATION 2.1 High & Medium Density Housing Areas 2.2 Low Oensity Housing Areas 2.3 Rural Villages WATER SUPPLY 3.1 Water Oemand and Usage 3.2 Water Sources & Methods of Abstraction 3.3 Water Quality 3.4 Water Treatment 3-5 Water Storage 3.6 Water Reticulation HUMAN WASTE COLLECTION, TREATMENT & OLSPOSAL 4.1 Domestic Sewage Contribution 4.2 Sanitation Options 4.3 Reticulated Sewerage 4.4 House Connections 4.5 Raw Sewage Pumping 4.6 Sewage Treatment 4.7 Sewage Effluent Foue Nee 10 16 19 24 27 40 40 42 59 mn 73 78 PEPPERS ~ = ay @_1ikODUET ION are a report to rationalise the design approach Lo pre and lormilate basic design parameters in respect af complete water and sewerage schemes to serve high’ den- an development and further to investigate end supplies and sonitetion options in the nity ul sennd water growth centres. Local Government Structures ihe present system of Local Gavernment can be sub-divided into the following categories in respect of administration: Municipalities a. b. Town Councils ¢. Town Boards d. Rural Councils e. District Councils. Urbanisation Patterns ‘ Principally divisions of urbanisetion could be encountered in the future, as follows: 1. Cities with Municipal Status Towns, administered by Town Couneil or Town Board Rural Council Villages - Administered by Rural Councils 4. District Service Centres 5. Local Service Centres 6. Rural Villages. Types 4,5 and 6 would be located within Communal Lands and be administered by District Councils.1.5 gq Density Clas general, where development exists or is planned y contain houses of varying standards. residential areas m These standards will be reflected in sizes of plots or densities of hous ons, tapographi« fe ers? preferences will Snevitobly cause varistians ngs Site lava and pl in densities used. evelopment Services the following guidelines have been In a report prepared by Hausing _@ recommended: Density ‘ s Effective Men- Characteristic ptsad sie. pity Range Nigh Oonsity less thon 400m” = Above 14/ha Medium Density 400m2 — 1 000u7 7 - ld/ho Low Uensity 1 000m? + less than 7/ha. It should be noted that the effective densities quoted make pllowance for local streets, public open spaces. amenities etc. For further clarification reference should be made to the report “Principles of Planning and Layout Design for Low Income Housing Developments in Zimbabwe" prepared by Housing Development Services Branch. n iu Rural Villeges Ih rural areas new development properly planned, as in ser- vice centres, will tend to follow the guidelines given in 1.4. In villages, however, formal housing will generally be of @ Standard similar to that quoted above for “high density” although in practice plot sizes may be considerably "lerger. Other properties within villages would inelude Anformal dwellings in huts or kraals. ° EELE m= 2.0 MOPULALION AND OCCUPATION High and fects ui i song Ar have been carried out, in Considerable investigati various parts of the country, to ascertain the average eccupancy of hauschelds. Same results are given in 1 = these give averages ranging from 7 to 10, Append i : United Nations in-depth investigations in Salisbury end Que Que revealed that the numbers of people having the right to occupancy of individual houses often totalled 16 to 18. These figures included family members and friends who would normally be living elsewhere, such es children (at boarding school), men working ewey from hone, relatives normally based elsewhere etc. The average num- ber of peaple sleeping in the hauses per night was found to be between 7 and 8. Far design purposes, average occupancy of high and medium density houses can be taken as 7 peaple per dwelling unit, Low Density Housing Areas This type of development is, in numbers of units, low in relation ta the other types mentioned. It will not have @ significant impact on the overall demands for weter con- sumption or human waste dispasal, Little research has been carried out in relation to the number of people g areas and con- occupying households in low density hou siderable variations can be expected for different locations. Fram casual observation however, it is noted that on aver- age a design Figure of 6 persons per house would be reasonable. Rural Villages Current development in rural areas includes both formal and informal canstruetion. Formal dwellings are similarWATER SUPTLY 2.3 (Cont'd) to those described above in high density housing areas with average occupancies of 7 people per dwelling wit. Infor- al construction consists primarily of the traslitional er _Vemand and Usage wily cluster or “Kraal". Relatively detailed investiga- at cas Kraals may have Requirements ‘ : 3.1.1 Basie Mu tions have revealed that, on aver Wily group may consist of 10 people but in sone ae . If only ta cotisfy his thirst and replace his body man could survive on just a few litres This quantity would make no several family groups. It has been found that in general there are approximately three people per living hut. fluid loss af water per day. allowances for washing clothes, person, pots, etc., or for use in cooking, toilet flushing or garden The quantity of water required for these PEGG CET EE EEE Living huts ere the lerger huts within a Kraal - they include dormitories and kitchens but exclude stores, gran- watering functions is flexible - it can vary according to several factors including type of housing (and facilities provided), distance from water supply aries, shelters, etc. Service centres in rural erens may eabrace 611 housing types referred to obove. point, traditional customs/social behaviour, clin- atic environment, availability of water and costs btaining it. of 3.l.2 Water Demand by Housing Categories After considerable studies involving besic theories from first principles, site measurements and obser- vations, water meter records and detailed analyses. (see Appendix I1) basic design parameters have been evolved, These porameters are based upon the provi- sion that, for individually connected properties, supplies will be metered and the tariff structure will provide for a basic minimum quantity et a fixed rate before application of @ chorge per m> censuned per month, Records indicate thet in high density housing areas where a tariff structure operates, everage There is usage is restricted by the basic minimu evidence of only limited garden watering in these areas. In other areas (e.g. mines housing), where water i% available in any quantity without further cherge, actual usage is considerably higher.3.1.2 (Cont'd) a In many oreas the basic minimum quantity is approximately 1m*/month (equivalent to 66 Ipend at 7 cap/house). show that although water usage eas the tariff structure, average cons! ponds to approximately G00 T/stand/day (0 This is ft pparted by & The data quoted in Appendix TI restricted by uumpt ion ear Ipepd x 7 persons). theoretical calculation given in the same s;pen ~ Recent developments in urban ereas within Zimbabre have been of a high standard and houses hava been provided with individual water connections und Financial restrictions could andpipe supplies waterborne sewerage. limit future development so that st may be provided and alternative senitation methods may be adopted (see Section 4.7). Water demand will end upen the supply and sanitation methods srlec- dep tially adopted ted but where a lower standard is in consideration should be given to any potential upgrading. In development within major cities and towns (urban areas) where reticuloted water and sewerage systems are provided the assessed water demand per capita is 85, 200 and 300 litres per day for high, medis 1a =~ and low density housing respectively or 600, litres per stand per day. Where loner of supply and/or sanitation are provided only high and nedium density housing will be effec: ted, For individuel supplies where sanitation is not waterborne demand ig assessed at 60 Ipepd (420 Litres/stand) and for standpipe supplies 40 Ipcpd (280 litres/stand). and 1 800 standards luding growth aad Development in rural areas, ir service centres, may take place where there are informal construction existing kraals and huts of housing are ascecsed Whereas demands for farmal 3 1.2 (Cont'd) on the 5 basis as for urban areas, spocial ec: eration t be given to inform#l properties. those sitwated within the area being develo; und within 100m of a standpipe, per capita der. in Sufurmal housing are assessed at 40 litre. , - day. ln addition there will be people living outside the developed area (external) who will walk in to the nearest standpipe (distances fanging from 100m to approximately Ska.). Demand for external prop: tics is assessed at 20 litres per capita per dey. Qemand figures per living hut ere: - internal 120 end external 60 litres per day. Note + Living huts are those which are used as dormitories or kitchens - approximately half the totel number of huts within any one kraal. Stores, granaries and animal or fowl shelters are not considered to be living huts. Recommended water demand design figures ere summarised in Section 5. Water Demand for Other Properties : Separate consideration should be made of water requirements for other properties. These could institutions (sehools, hotels, hospitals, service camps, etc.}, administrative includ, prisons offices, commercial premises and industries. With Institutions the water users may be either daily visitors or residents as in the cases of day and boarding schools. Osily visitors will generally have been included in the total water requirement figures (if they live within the area under con- sideration) but allowance should be made for some consumption at the institutional premises end for full usage by people in residence there.3.201 3.2.2 or Soure 10. _of Abstraction 1 supply Water may be obtained from one or more of n variety of sources in Zimbabwe ineluding: 8. Natural lakes b. Artificial lakes, dams, impounding reservoir c. Rivers, streams, etc. d, River beds e. Naturally occurring springs f. Subterranean water (wells, adits, boreholes) g- Precipitation (rain, slect, snow, hail} PRRGGGG le roisture naturally retained Other sources could inclu in the air, soils and vegetation but these cannot be sidered suiteble. for practical exploitation tn provi water supplies for @ developed community. Methods of Abstraction The ideal method of abstraction is one where, for little or no capital expenditure water can be extrac ted of sufficient pressure to obviate the need for & power input. and either high capital investment is required in the majority of cases, tt is necessary to provide a power input. In the simplest of cases the power inPut may be human exertion in lifting, pumping oF carrying water and for bigger projects pumps may be required driven by electric motors or internal combugs tion engines, lakes, dans or rivers = With surface water sources - These moy intake structures are usually required. supports In smaller consist of permanent structures housing or pumps and necessary oncillary eav pment. schemes the intakes may be based on floating er Normally this situation is not egy C6 or. At; 4.2.2 (Contd) a abatraction) the source(s) may be tapped end fl. diverted to common cumps before pumping. for underground water, after verifying the sourer, #t , shafts or boreholes the cases of springs or river beds (sand yy be necessary to sink well In theso cases pumping may be by or drive adits. submerged electrical pump units or, where electricity is not available by shaft driven submerged pumps with belt drives from dicsel powered motors. Lisits of Abstraction the emaunt of water evaileble Many factors may limit Inflow to surface water sources will from a source. be affected by rainfall variations, areas of catchment, topography, geology, soil types, vegetetion and the effect of other sources within the area, Potential yield from the source will be subject to inflow limit- ations and losses by evaporation, seepage, leakage. flow beyond intake and requirements for miniaum downstream flows, water levels etc. Seasonal end ennuel variations in climate and other fectors must be comprehensively studied in critical cases. Subterranean sources depnnd upon the ability of the soils ar rocks to store or permit movement of water. Any given well ar borehole will hove a safe reliable yield which may be affected considerably if adjacent sources are used (including other wells and boreholes). Leaal Requirements In connection with water supply schemes the direct provision and requirements legally enacted are set 1976, With regard to public water supply systams they include the following out in tht Water Act relevant topics3.2.4 (Cont'd) 3.2.6 1a. a. Rights to Public Water b. Control of Underground Water e. Servitudes in Respect of Water d. Water Pollution Control e. Safety of Dams, etly Other provisions end requiremants may be dir or indirectly applied by other legislation. Water Pumping Where water has to be moved and it cannat flow there naturally (by gravity) or where water in w sysvem hao insufficient pressure it is necessary to provide on input of power. In the simplest cases this may invelve manually carrying the nater but generully some form of pump will be required. Pumping rates (rate of discharge) relate to or may be restricted by yield or demand. In general raw water, and treated water to storage will be pumped at a rate of not less than peek daily (1,5 x average) rate. There will be occasions, however, when the above rate of pumping must be exceeded. In perticular, where treatment works are designed to oper ate for less than 24 hours per day, depending upon 6 on-site storage, rates of water flow to and fron the toe «@ works should be sufficient to permit oparation at the designed rates. (See Section 3.4.2). Water Pumping Equipment The simplest forms of pump can be operated by man or powered by animals. In most cases these will not be considered for public water supply schemes (except possibly the manuel form for standby emergency use ‘* im = e im MW im nm im i= 1s. 3.2.6 (Cont'd) in rural areas). Where significant quantitios, distances or pressures aro required mechanically powered pumps arc used, Where evailable, elect- rical power is gencrally the most efficient and economical to use. In the absence of electrical power diesel, petrol of gas powered engines may be employed (diesel is generally more economical than petrol or gas). For water supply schemes two basic types of pump are usually eaployed = the submersible units end “dry” installations. - Submersible Pumps ® In general submersible units will be used in bore- holes, wells, shafts ond sumps. Electrically driven units will have close coupled electric submersible motors and the pumps themselves will be single. or. more commonly, multi-stage centrifugal pumps. Diesel powered submersible pumps will either be centrifugal (vertical axis) pumps er positive dis- placement rotary pumps with hardened steel impellers in rubber stators, In each case vertical shafts within the discharge pipeline (riser) will be coup- led to the pumps and connected to the prime sover . with suitably selected pulleys and belts. = Centrifugal Pumps In dry installations centrifugal pumps should be used. The high-output units should have horizontel split-casings. Preferably the axis of the pump i will be lower than the water to be pumped in order to give a “flooded suction", Where this 18 not practical eare should be taken to ensure that the Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) characteristics of che pump, in all possible operating situations2.6 (60 yA. v) will permit each dustalletion without ts cavitoti Lf-prining rining If the pumps thys selected ores provision should be made for manual pipeline sare uscd ty imere ) these will normally be The Low pressures (booster pumps a) units installed ‘in line’. t lower thon pump centri fug pressure pipeline (pressure * NFSH requirement) will be connected to the pump e mber. guction direct without entering @ tank or Pump Arrangements Tt de standard practice to install standby pumping for small schemes - 2 pumps; 1 duty. equipment 1.0. schemes Ll standby. With electric motors on eritice! or where power failures arc likely it 13 good practic to install 0 standby electric generator driven by @ diesel engine or diesel driven pump. elly pumps end electric motors will be mounted Gener pled tagether. on 8 common boseplate close-cou - Pump Selection Pumps should be se and head conditions and where multi-pump © tions are to be used pipeline systems curves sho ate selection. lected on the basis of discharge onfigura- be produced in order ta facilit Motors or engines shauld be selected to adequately meet the maximum power to be absorbed by the pumps as installed. The sbove notes relate to both raw water and treated The rates of discharge water pusping configurations. Tetel pumping and pumping heads must be colculated. head is the sum of the following a. = (@ | (@ 3.2.6 (Cont'd) - Static difference between top water level ot discharge end bottom water level et suction, {Not in some cases this could,bo negative t.e. when pumping down- hall.) calculated ss set out in Section 3.6.1, B - Friction lead = = on allowance for bends, fittings etc. ~ either calculeted or taken as 9 proportion of friction head. - Other Losses _ Pressure at discharge point - if applicoble. Sereening In many situations it may be necessary to screen woters before pumping. This perticulorly refers to rew water (untreated). At surfece water intakes on small scheme intake pipes may be fitted with bellmouths protected Larger schemes may have intake by fixed screens. chaabers with removable screens fitted ecross the inflow channels or apertures. Where boreholes ere situated in soils or rocks of an alluvial nature casing and screening of the boreholes In these cases it is recommended th: may be required. gravel packing be used around the areas of casing screens.16. Water Quality Possible Types of Cont nation Any naturally occurring water is likely to contoin impurities. Tn general these will consist of one, or a combination of the following: a. Suspended inorganic matter 6 b. Dissolved inorganic matter c. Micro-organisns. In each case there could be matter which ta hormful 4f consumed. Suspended inorganic matter could include dirt, sands, clays, sediments, ete. Any dissolved matter could include a range of chesical elements or compounds. Generally river waters are more likely to contain suspended matter which are particularly noticeable during periods of turbulent flow. Waters from dams or lekes may still contain suspended matter whereas. in most cases Subterranean water from sand abstrac= tion units, wells, shefts and boreholes, after satisfactory construction end development will be gf relatively free of suspended matter. Water from a surface saurce is usually relatively soft, with less chemical impurities than subterraneon Where an aquifier is situated in limestone suelly very water. (or ather calcereous rack) the water ts u hard. In some areas ground "aters have high saline content. Surface Waters are more Likely to have bactertolo contamination (micro-organisms) than groun affected by iajudictous waters. Either source cen be easily disposal of human or animal excreta. gical PEER T EEE EEE EE) iW, Standords for Potable Water Juters In order te be suitable for human consumption (potable) water in public cupply systema must be Iree of microbiological contamination and have lin- ited suspended or dissolved impurities. The United Nations World Health Organisation (W.1.0.) has published its recommended stenderds for public water supply - these are summarised in Appendix IV. Special Standards Since the W.H.0, standords were devised further research has indicated that other chemicel factors are undesirable in potable water - these include phosphates and nitrates. Nitrates in particuler can cause serious medical conditions within & com munity end as such should be guerded against. This is of porticular importance where the source of water supply may be downstream of the point source pollu- tion caused by pit latrine discharges. Recommended limits far nitrates end phosphates are also given in Appendix 1¥. Control of these impuri- ties may best be exercised in the selection of suitable sanitation or sewage treatment systems. Water Quakity Control Samples af raw water should be taken and enalysed to determine the concentrations of those items refer- red to above. These samples should, if possible. be taken at different times in order to determine the extent of seasonal effects.49. 3.3.4 (Cont'd) water for hove secoptablo fluorides and ideally not vo no coliforms, , plic supply should I ¢ _Treatuent Processes more thon the reconmanded chunteal concentration though, in some cases the permissible concentrations In nost cases the treatment of water will be u in Appendix 1V. taken by the Ministry of Naturol Resources ™ d ater may be renched. These are giv Regular monitering of raw and treated water quality fovolopnant, the respective Local Authority oF Hine. should be carricd out. é the notes below are basic guidelines for use whare (@ treatment has to be provided. The processes used in water treatment are designed to remove ar reduce impurities sufficiently to ren= der the water potable (drinkable) - soe Section 3.3. The majority of water treatment works will utilise one or several of the following processes: a. Pre-treatment b. Flocculation c. Clarification d. Filtration e. Disinfection f. Sludge removal. Other processes not listed above. are unlikely to be incorporated in the majority of schemes. These «@ could include: desalination, water softening, deodourising and special chemical techniques. The a basic arrangement for water source and treatment processes is given in Appendix V. Selection of Suitable Tresimm. 34.4.2 Selection of Suitable Treatment | In selecting suitable processes and methods to be enployed in a water treatment works the fallowiag factors should be carefully examined:B.A. (Cont'd) a, Quantity and quality of raw water, b. Quantity and quality of treated water required. ©. Seasonal variations in #. and by d. fasis processes required in treatment. e. Equipment or structures for plant processes. f. Gosts of Construction. g. Costs of maintenance. h. Case of operation in relation to the skills or limitations of potential operatives. 4. Flexibility of layout and design. j- Suitability for future extensions. € k. Local availability ef equipment and spares. 1. Foreign exchange requirements for construction and operation. mn. Availability, cost and foreign exchange requirements of materials or chemicals used in the treatment process. In most cases, within Zimbabwe, complicated or soph- isticated works will not be required. Surface waters can be treated using flocculation/clarification, filtration and disinfection. Waters of low turbidity may be filtered (with or without a flocculating agent) and disinfected. Gorehole waters are often pure enough to require no treatment although precautionary chlorination is recommended for disinfection. Waters from river beds via sand abstraction can be reasonably but cere should be exercised in design to allow for variations in raw water quality relating to river flows. + pure and may need only filtration and chlorination Tt is common practice te allow for treatment processes :” te operate for approximately 14 hours per day ot average flows. This gives an operation for approximately 21 hours per day at peak deily flows and still provide Mode (Contd) Bhie - works maintenance, filter snl) margin of time fo le pumping retes should Where appliceb: treatment rates. a j, ele. clea bo adjusted to suit rn small however, it may be viable to conaitler sizing works for average operation of spprox- urs (one shift) thereby obviating the scheses, imately & ho 4 for shift work and reducing operating costs. nee Flocculation/Clari fication Gencrally the floceulation/elarification stage mitt t of a small flow splitting chamber and upward The chamber will be designed to maintain turbulence within the water and split ement tanks in proportions related to their capacities. At the chamber a coaguleting agent will be edainistered, suitable agents include polyelectralytes or mare comsonly Lied alum) possibly in conjunction with lime or & The agent should be in solution, constantly fed at the desired rate. consis ee emi flow settlement tanks, flows to the settl iron salts, silica, aluminium eulphate (sometines incorrectly ce oda ash. The settlement tanks are traditionally square in ples with 60° pyramidal hopper bottoms. Alternative set- tlement tanks include rectangular horizontal flow adiel flow units with variations intro~ a a Pr od PE ETE and circular, mi ducing specialist mechanical equipment. Filtration Rapid gravity filters are most commonly used in Zisbabwe. These consist of sand and gravel filter media through which water under treatment flows downwards. They have to be regularly cleared by3.4.4 (Cont'd) 2. backneshing with clear water. In this respect it 4s normal to include high level storage or backrs pumps within the (rcatment works site, Tonks or pumps should be designed to supply clearwater for backwashing at a rate of approximately O,Gm/minute for approximately S minutes per Filter. Im mary cases wir may be delivered through the media, to assist backwashing at @ pressure of 20 to SO kPa. These filters are usually designed on a@ peak dail flow rate of Sm3/m@/haur. In rural situations it may be practical to install pressure filters or slow sand filters (rated at 0, 15m, & n2/hour). With slow sand filters @ suitable area should be prepared with @ concrete slab for sand washing. Slow sand filters are simpler to operate nel and are thus more suitable where trained pers are not ovailable. In addition they require reletivel large areas of land thus for average flows exceeding say 1 000 to 2 G00m/day they may nat bo economically vieble. Disinfection This process is designed to kill the micro-organisms (bacteria) within water. Earlier stages of et will have reduced these to low proportions. Chlorine ozone and ultra-violet radiation are effective - the most popular method being chlorination, because it 6% leave a residual capable of inhibiting the growth of bacteria within a reticulation network. Ideally chlorine should be administered in gas [0/m with an electric/mechanical device. Alternatively a simple gravity drip-feed chlorinator can be £00" structed to administer a hypochlorite compound im ~ S.A.8 (Cont td) erate elution, Where chlorine gas is used, prevision Td he Tudiag: geod ven lu for adequate safety preceutions» ation, breathing apparatys I, pansibly, emergency resuscitation equipment. Other processes which can be used in water treatment but are not described within this text include: a, Pre-treatment b. Oe nalination c. Ueodourisation d, Softening. In addition there are other methods of carrying out the stages described above. Special ceses should be referred ta the Division of Water Development or the Municipality concerned.Water Storage ments Storege Requ 1t is necessary in oll cases to provide sufficient storage of treated water. This will give flexibility to @ scheme in order to cater for the fluctuations in demand, with peak factors exceeding the rate of inflow and provide standby potentiol for when a supply sourc or treatment works may be temporarily out of commission, Total storage on a scheme should be edequete to provide reserves during the time required to re-start © supply system in the event af breakdown or stappage. Con- sideration should be given to the potential user In rural villages where Ancor venience if supplies cease. residents may be eble to use alternative supplics total storage of 24 hours at average demand should bo adequete. In urban ereas, however, at leest 48 hours total storage at average demand should be provided. A proportion of total storage should be retained at sufficient altitude (high level) to give the required residual pressures throughout the reticulated erea. Ideally 12 hours high level storage should be provided but there may be instances where the provision of less high level storage (minimum 3 hours) and increased pumping rates will be required. (See Section 3.5.4.) In most cases water stored at a higher level will be held in elevated reservoirs. The balance of the total storage will be held at ground level to be subsequently transferred by pumping. In situations where ground level storage 1s sited to give positive gravitational supplies to all sreas but where restdual pressures would be less than the ¢ in @ 3.5.1 (Cont'd) 3.5.2 desirable minimum,consideratien could be given to the use of booster pumps in lieu of high level storage. Wherever possible use should be nade of ground level storage. In general reservoirs should be constructed of reinforced concrete or brickwork designed in accor~ dance with the relevant codes of practice for water retaining structures. The reservoirs should be com- pletely enclosed with access for maintenance and provided with scour facilities and edequate overflow In addition the reservoirs should the flow of air during Filling All permanent openings should epertures or drains. be ventilated to permit end emptying operations. be screened with mosquita netting to prevent insects entering and breeding in the water. Inlet pipes may be fitted with ball-valves (depending on the type of controls}. All reservoirs should be fitted with suit- oble depth/water level indicators which can be read externally. Elevated Storage The notes above for Ground Level Storage cen be equally applied to elevated storage. The mejor dif- ferences will be the necessity to mount the tank (reservoir) on piers or legs. Extra care should be taken in foundation design and due consideration should be given as to where over- flow and scour waters are discharged in order to prevent softening of the ground and possible differ- ential movement within the foundations.a a7. c= Water, It J Rational Besign Approach = + 1 Pinel Trancfer of water fren geaund te elevated storage ehauld be vt a rate ef not less then peak daily where 12 hours elevated storage Pipelines are used to convey water fros its source storage reservoirs to (1,5 * average) ro through treatment works » ce pipelines may be rising mains. ovided. -With less storage Id ba inereased to at least (at evorage detand) consumers. The: corrying pumped flows, or gravity sains- the rate of transfer peak hourly (3,0 x average) rate. FERRET EEEES => = Rising mains and trunk gravity mains should take the most direct prectical routes to the point or points where they connect with other works. Retie-~ ulation pipework should be designed at pook hourly rates (3.0 x overage) to serve all properties with In general layouts should econeny and flexibility. ks with major (usually consist of a series of networ larger diameter) pipes providing rings oF spines fran which the sinor pipes will extend. In areas of undulating topography it ay be practical to zone reticulation networks within Each zone may be subjected arbitrarycontour bands. by its to a different static pressure head es given respective supply reservoir, The selection of sizes will depend on flows and head conditions. ra a eS pressures, usually expressed in terns of heed of water, aust be calculated for all pipes: Pressures at supply paints should bet = Urban areas with 2 storey development 15m - 208 ingle storey development 10m - 15" 5m - Lom. _ Urban areas with § | ural areas with single storey development ta sone instances maxinun (static) pressures up to sOn head of water moy be tolerated but higher pres- ures should be avoided. If revised reticulation |pa, 3.6.1 (Cont'd) and storage configurations are not ceenonically fensible (including reduced pumping ests) pressure valves should be strategically instolled. reduc by reducing pressures, pipe costs may be reduced ure class) and losses by wastage. from faulty domestic fittings, pipe (loner pr leakage and bursts, clc., will bo less. Static pressure is the difference in altitude bet ~ HEE ETRE REESE ween the water level in the service reservoir sup plying a particular point and the level of ther) point, This eituation will occur in conditions of zero flow. hourly flows ore calculated {sec Section 3.1.5) end from them frictional losses in pipelines can be For reticulation systems, the peak determined. Where local sections of a reticulation network may become deficient of pressure during period of peak flow it may be viable to consider installing booster pumps. In these situations the booster pumps (see Section 3.2.6) should be rated ot not less than pesk hourly flows (3,0 x average)- ed can be based Calculation of the pipe size requir Alternatively upon the chart given in Appendix VI. date sheets supplied by the various pipe manufac- € e used or suitable formulae such as those s turers may > « prepared by Messrs. Hazen-Williams, and Scimeni (os below): Hozen-Williams Formula (metricated) 1 = 12,03 x 10? gh? cl e82 p87 Befost (eont ty (for A.C. pipes only) Seinen i= YIG,O x soreots 708 z pied a . whe Le Mydraulie gradient/head loss (n/m) 1 Flow in 1/s Pipe internal diameter (mm) Constant relating to pipe type and condition (usually between 100 and 150) . Other acceptable formulae not given here were rs. Manning and Colebrook-White, prepared by Mi ror lowest pressure situations, maxinum flows in all seetions must be considered. In networks where water may flow in alternative ways, 8 speciel analysis Like that devised by Professar Herdy-Cross may be used. Where proposed reticulation networks are complex and precise designs are required, computerised analyses may be utilised. In such cases, however, where a low level of service is initially provided, due consideration should be given to the future positioning of strategic pipes to boost supplies in the event of subsequent upgrading or increased demand. For local distributor branch pipes (without looping), an acceptable “rule of thumb" guide can be used ¢ - Up to 40 pairs high density houses on a 60mm distributor and up to 80 pairs high density houses an a 7Sam distributor.3.6.1 (Cont*d) In gencral major pipelines should have their own ion networks th 1c boundaries of servitudes and in reticul lines will be adjacent to the roar property stands, one metre frou the boundary om dine). the higher side (oppasite side to the sever Water Hanmer One aspect of pipeline design that is frequently ignored {5 surge or water hammer. This phenomenon stoppage of water os when the is caused by the sudden valves close rapidly or pumps stop instantly. effect of water hammer is higher where pipelines are long and/or when velocities are high. Severe! techniques can be enployed to deal with surge depen- ding on various parameters including pipeline Each schene should be separately considered profile. and where necessary pipelines should be designed to withstand surge pressures in addition to the normal operating pressures. Water hammer is generally not a problem where there are several potential outlets of flow es with retic- Calculations for water ‘hammer will ulation systems. noreally only be considered on sajor supply piffell or rising mains. Pipeline Materials Acceptable pipeline materials for water supply schemes are: = asbestos-cement - galvanised tron - stesl unplasticised polyviayl chloride (uPVC), > e@ ~ % (Genta) Suitable sizes of pipelines for use in retdculetion ure given in the table below together w! (Weation (*) of material availability.(sec Appendix VII " me teva k for further details.) : non STECL = yrve 50 si : . ao 75 : : a 100 7 7 : : 180 : a ‘ é P00 : e : 2 250 - - 7 - 300 . - * pe for each pipe material the correct grade of pipe should be used to suit working and test pressures Steel pipes tend to be expensive need internal and/or external protective for the pipeline, and usually order coatings in to prevent corrosion from aggres- ive water, acid soils or electrolytic action. high loading or elevated sections of pipelines. It These would only be used in high pressure should be noted that some pipe products ere classi- fied by the manufacturers in terms of external di eter; thus nominal internal diameters may be consider- ably less. Black polyethylene(8-P.) pipes may be used for house provided they are to 8 minimum of Type 2 9 (CAS 177) because of potential weaknesses in the pipe walls. connection Cla The use of black polyethylene pipes should be conditional upon the production of satis- factory .test certificates by the manufacturers end strict testing during installation.3.6.4 Cover to Buried Pipeline It is standard practice to install most pipelines ra belew ground level, Exceptions would include water works sites. pipe bridyes (to cros# very Jow ground, rivers, etc.) and difficult ground (solid rock). Under normal conditions pipes will be laid with o minimum cover of 750mn in gardens (400m for service ) connections) and 1,0m under roads and verges. Cow may be increased, however, in order that high a igh end © @ J low points are avoided wherever possible. Trenches should be wide enough to enable 0 pipelayer to bed and joint pipes. An acceptable trench width dst = 500mm more than the pipe diameter, but not less than 550mm overall. Bedding and thrust block designs are based upon ractor elects to vary these widths. Where @ con trench widths to suit excavating machinery he would normally be required to allow within his rates for additional use of materials in bedding, concrete, etc., or increasing trench widths to accommodate works brought about by such variatioy € Buried pipelines must be adequately supported in order to prevent localised overloading from soils and traffic above. There are detailed recommenda- tions for pipeline bedding set out in Central African Standard Code of Practice No. CA4:1964 (Australian Standard CA33:1962). Alternatively the “Simplified Tables ‘of External Loads on Buried Pipelines” by Young and Smith, 1970 published by H.M.5.0, Landon, may be used. 6b (Gout) Under most pipes could be bed with additional excov raunded with Suit with flexible ist be given to bedding 6m rmation end potential Lien mu to eliminate excessive defo Connect Pipe conn rigid pipelines except for diameter steel or galvanis Other include special junctions (te flange adaptors, reducer perforation of the pip reference should be made to the pips manufactur specifications for laying. with most pipes. J the same materials. pipes junctions and bends may be made ections shauld generally synthetic pipes will a by suitable solvents. end caps. ALL fittings the pipeline design pressures. Valves valves are used thr 1 of flows and pressures. ~Standart for Civil Engineering Sketches the contro fer thet valves are given in Contract and Specificatt Works in! of stand cireumst 33. ances floxibly 59 laid an a carefully Pp ation at jo ly gelected and ¢ pipes ¢-g- os. In these aunerions and Bends some € or ma: fittings likely to be used § es ani should be suitable fo ons gh Density Housing Con! d installations are giv upvc, consider, d haunching in order In the case of asbe of cast iron. be flexible for levated or smell oughout water supply sch Specifications d Conditions of inted cigtd repared trench ints, and sur- compacted fil) - able otten- circumstances unetions and bends are made of stos-cement ed iron pipelines. lly be welded or fused n pipelines d crosses). ers* blank 5, saddles. etc- 7 opereting at emes rracts™. en in Appendix for vill.3.6.7 (Cont'd) 3.6.8 surface ine reservoir (or praseures ino pipe- lino) by restriction of flow into er out of the reservoir (or pipe)+ _ Other valves are generally dorivatives of those mentioned above. Stop velves (taps OF cocks) and bib taps are smaller versions oF variations of the gato valves, Ball valves ere essentially smaller flouk valves. ‘Thelargervgate-end nonsestooe valves are after equipped with small valved by-passes- Meters Meters are used to measure and record flows or rates of flow. monitor tatal water production and flow through major ALL systems should have bulk meters TO pipelines serving particular sreas of supply should be seperately metered, This will enable the sources of any hidden leaks in a system to be detected. In addition individual service connections should” be metered go that water usage of each plumbed pro- perty can be monitored and charges_can be levied for water consumption. Fire Hydrants These ere relativaly expensive [45 f!ng* requiring large flows in order to be effective. They should be placed in areas where fire damage ts most prob- able or where Fires would cause the mast damage e.g. near institutions or in commercial end indus- eiiaviersass Speckiie tive hydcant allocations are: 3.6.10 3.6.11 a7. (Gent) Adjacent to Schools 1 No/] 000 pupils 1 No/2 ‘hector: doveloped or ent to Hospitals and 1 No/100 beds y Health Care Centres (nin 1 No.) of = Adjacent to Shepping Centros ~ Ada rei = Adjacent to Stadia or large Recreational Centres 1 No/S 000 popu- lation capacity. Ho special allowance -need be made in pipeline design for extra flows to hydrants. Temporery interruption of donestie supplies during pericds of fire fighting Hydrants should be installed on pipelines (preferably looped) of nininve 75na dia- are deened acceptable. meter. Liaison with the local fire officer is essen- tial in arder to ensure that hydrants, especially outlet threads conform with those of available fire fighting apparatus. Chambers fihere Fittings like valves, meters or hydrants are jnstalled on buried pipelines. permanent eccess to then should be provided. In general this contingency above fit- tings on mains of, sizes below 250mm diameter and 4s covered by constructing surface boxe constructing brick or concrete chambers sround fit= tings on pipes of 300mm diameter or grester. Details are given in Appendix VIII. tification Markers Suitable marker posts should be erected to identify the type and show the position of buried pipeline fittings, including gate valves, hydrants, eir valves,,washouts and, in places. the mains then- selves. (See Appendix VIII.)Pa 3.6.12 3.6.13 3.6.14 3.6.15 At bends ond junctions the inturnal pre within pipelines give resultant Jateral forces ln order to resist these aad prevent pipeline 1 blocks should he damage suitable concrete ndix 1%. un in Ap constructed nm Trench Steps Where pipelines arc laid tu steep gradients the disturbed seils (in the trench above the pipe) may easily bo damaged by scour during periods of rain- fall. In order to prevent this erosion precest concrete trench steps should be instelled acrass the trenches at, or just above the surface level. Other Services In planning, designing or constructing water supply works the positions of other services should be noted. In this connection liaison should be made with Public Utilities, Authorities or private organisations to ascertain the location, depth, height, size and extent of their existing end pro- posed apparatus. Testing and Sterilising All water retaining structures end pipelines must be tested before commissioning. Pipelines are gen- erally tested at # pressure in excess of the the sanu- designed working pressure but less than facturer’s test pressure. Where manufacturers recommend maximum working pressures at half their test pressures, site test pressures should be set between these values. A test pressure of 1,5 x the ~ ~ 39. 4.6.16 (Cont'd) ~ - ~ ipeline working pressure is commonly Reservoirs should be filled and, the rated specified. tested fi water tightnoss. ‘ Aftor testing and completion of final or remedial works all those units designed to hold or convey treated water should be cleared and sterilised with chlorine. When in operation mains should be regularly flushed at scour points end deed ends.4.1 4.5.2 Ao, SEEGER EEE connection Site investigations have aiken place i tribylion from urban areas. with probable surage ce Generally it has been four actaring is practised and a fully re js prowided the volume of thet where water supply ticulated water- borne sewerage Bysten areas is in the sewage from high density houstn order of 85% of the water concu pion. In nediua denoity housing arens, stands ere larger, thus more water i9 used on gardens end consequently approximately 70% of the water consumed 1s converted into sewage. ase of low density housing areas approximately is converted into sevage- In the c 50% af the water consumed and/or water supply systens senoge to be dealt with Where other sanitation ere used the quantities of will vary - see Section 4.2, Rural Areas The formally developed sections of rural areas, e-9: 4f provided with reticulated water above. district centres, and sewerage systems will be as in 4-1-1 se of available space however, house types si m- Becau may be placed on larger dlar ta those in urban areas plots, thus on-site sanitation options described in ome more Viable even with reti Section 4.2 may bec ulated water supplies: al. te of liquid and solid matter ic and most is organic. ‘an be measured in terms of Demand - usual ly-‘neos~ The totel 6,0.0, basically static t the strengths man waste consis inor' of which som The organic content 6 B.0.0, (fiechemical Oxygen ured over a five day test). contribution per person 48 (0,05k9/day) (see Section 4.6.2) bu ot ran sewage may vary between 300 ppm and 1 000 ppm 1.0.0. depending on the quantity of water used. | he data given within this report the ever~ Using t age domestic ran sewage strengths cen be calculated: _ High Density Housing poo « 2% 0195 x 10% ee6mg/) | 600 x 0,85 _ Medium Density Housing 900 = 720,05 , 10% 357mg/1 1400 x 0,7 goo = 6 x 0,05 x 10% 333ng/1. 1800 x 0,5 - Law Density Housingap ntroduction Human waite consists of twa basic elements — excrete and swt is highly dufected with Fxcreta has @ high solid content and athaygentc organisms. from kitehens fe sul- lu water lage is basically liquid; 1 wach tubs, etc., and has & lower pathogenic Doth excreta and sullege require satisf- baths, content. actory treatment or disposal. There are many alternative methods of dealing with the disposal of huson waste. These can pit latrines to full water- Chfectively range from the simplest form of borne reticulated sewerage systems. “on-site” or vie human waste may be dispose of by “off-site” systems. Earlier experiences in Zimbabwe with low technology sonitation systems have predosinontly eencerned Bucket latrines and nigh soil collection In urban areas; and - Pit latrines. Experiences with pit 1 completely successful be! cient user education. atrines may not have been cause of inadequate con- struction or insuffi r Research Laboratory in In recent years the lai low tech- Zimbabwe (B.R.L) has developed @ low cost. latrine (see Section 4.2.5). nology improved pit into other sanitation options has Elsenhere research been carried out. sions of such research, Many of the findings and conclu- published by the World Bank - ~ 4.2.1 (Gout) Qo = “Appropriate Technology for Water have been used 08 & bests in thoir series Supply oath Sanitation”, for formulating the proposals given within, this report. Sketches of the acthods discussed within this report ore given in Appendix %. On-Site Systems On-site systeas are those where ell humen waste is dealt with at its souree. They include pit letrines, composting toilets, pour-flush toilets, equeprivies and waterborne sanitation with treatmant end effluent Uisposal vie septic tanks end soakaways or drain- fields. The type of on-site sonitation system to be used may depend upon several factors including housing plot soil size, house types, water supply and usage. characteristics, ground water table, costs of const- ruction and operation and social acceptance of selected alternatives. In general, on-site systems are nore suited to aregs of medium to low density development or locations the cost of constructing and/or operating of F- An on-site senitetion Pathogenic where site systems would be high. system creates point source pollution. pollutants from such point source can usually be effectively reduced with percolation laterally throug” lom of soil (greater distances in sands and gravels). sources are within one erea the Although pathogen: Where several point polluting effect may be greater. pollutants may be broken donn in soils chemical pollutants are less likely to be dispersed especial!4.2.2 (Gont'd) © are oral sources. On-site point sonilation systems are therefore not suitable for shollow wells or bercholes ore an the pathogenic use in areas where supply purpos used for water e the water, and chemical discharges could contami s vihere on-site sanitation options ceuld In Jocayi pollute potential water supplies, consideration must lo providing water piped from a source not be given polluted by the sewage disposal method. suitable for use in areas On-gite systems are nat of high density development or where soils have insufficient permoability to facilitate disposal. Where on-site systems are installed with @ view to subsequent up-grading, pits, tanks and super- structures should not be located within two metres of backstand boundaries. Off-Site Systems Off-site systems involved the removel of some portion basis. Th of the human waste from site on a regular may entail the mechanical removal of excreta (either fresh or composted) or the drainage of partially treated effluent or sewage through a piped system ) ¢ Examples of off-site sanitation methods include bucket) night soil collection (not considered within this report), double pit latrines and composting toilets with removal of compost/sludge organised os a civic function, pour flush toilets and aquaprivies where tank effluents discharge to # system of severs, septic tenk systems with effluent discharge to sewers, communal, facilities and fully reticulated seweroge. ia i tm i Aad (Cont'd) ‘ care lean likely to couse In general off-site sy I thus pra more suiteblo 1 source pollution for high density ¢ juired whore nodle are not sufficiently permeable lopment. They may elsb be to [meilitate disposal by on-site methods.” Under certain circumstances on-site systems way bo a view to subsequent upgreding to an installed wit off-site system - @ veral sanitation methods can fall within either site or off-site groupings depending upon the on methods of final disposel; succeeding sections of this report refer to alternative sanitation methods and indicate where or how they may be used os on- site or off-site systems. Pit Latrines These units which are purely on-site, operate on the basis of discharging excreta directly into a pit(or pits). The pit may have an srea of approx- imately Im” end depth ranging from 3 to & metres. In certain soils the top section may have to be lined in order to support the squatting plate and superstructure. For design purposes, World Bank recommend effective pit capacities (that portion lower then 1m below the ground) of 0,06m> per per- son per year if the pit is dry. In wet situations, because of the higher bacterial activity e reduced figure of 0,04m° per person per year is given. 3 per person In family B.R.L. eriginally designed for 0,087m per year but found it to be conservative.4.2.5 4G. (Cont'd) and school latrines sJudge eccumulution rarcly exceeds 0,021 m? per person per year where the latrine $5 ort io used regularly washed dorm and paper of some fer anal cleansing. School latrines which remain wet have a very extensive life since the sludge digests without the addition of wastes during periods of school holidays. Bacteria within the pit help to break down the excreta and the limited amount of liquid in excreta will s Pit latrines should not be sited > into the soil. where surface water could enter the pits end the bases of pits should be at least 1 m above the woter table. All pit latrine systems require sullage to be dis- posed of separately. A high proportion of sullage disposal will be at water supply points (standpipes) which should have conerete slabs to catch spillage, collect sullage discharges and drain to soakaways. Where water supplies are via communal standpipes < edditional individual sullage soakoways should be construeted on each stand. * World Bank recommend that pit latrines should only be considered suitable where population densities are less than 300 people per hectare and plot sizee In Zimbabwe, 2 ere sufficient for at least two pits. until results indicate otherwise, the more conservative limit of 200 people per hectare is justified, Thus. in general, for high dénsity housing in urban areas ; pit latrines ere not considered suitable Various pit latrine alternatives are described below: =, as & are a.2.6 (Cont td) = Masie Pit Lat a heen most commonly used in this simple unit throughout 7imbatwe. Although,cheap tt > Jed because of the associated odour, the past is net recone vd manquite problem Several variations of this unit are svetlable but for Zimbabwe the version developed by the Blair Research Lahoratories is considered to be most suitable. It can be purchased in packaged form, it ie casy to fabricate, relatively inexpensive and conforms with local and international health standards. Mounted above a conventional pit, the cower slab/squatting plate supports a spiral wall fabricated from eosily available materiels - usually mesh ond plaster. The spiral provides privacy without the need for a doar (# doored version 1s also available) ond an external vent pipe passes through the slab and extends above the super- The superstructure is painted structure roof. black internally and white externally: the vent pipe is painted black. When constructed the vent pipe should be positioned on the sunny side (north) and the door either north or south but never east or west. The warm vent pipe encourages ventilation by con- vection. Air enters the door, passes down to thu pit and up through the vent out to the air, remev 7g A sereen in the vent traps flies ond as they try to leave the pit via the odours. masquitees vent - the only source of Light in the pit and t! insect problem is thus removed. A sketch of this unit is given in Appendix +Au. 4.2.5 (Cont'd) When the pil ie full to within .4m of geound level it ds completely [illed with earth and slab and superstructure fresh loca- tion. After about twa yeors be dug aut and the now harmless compost my be used es a fertilizer. the are moved to a the original pit say uble Pit Lateine (V.1.0.P. Ventilated Improved which have been used successfully in for slab These units. Botswena and Lesotho, obviate the need superstructure) removal. Two pit (and possibly ely sized for a minimum period of onc year's adequat by side (in practice this use, are located side nay be & single, double ized pit with central dividing wall). arrangesent the cover slab may be coaaon and the provision of alternative squat In this superstructure may be fixed above both with @ ting positions. Alternatively. superstructure ‘+ e moved on the common slab as pit use $s 4 should be covered less than one Free of patho- used may b changed. When 8 pit is full it with earth and afters period of not year, when the composted excreta 18 may be removed end gens ( end not before) as a fertilizing agent+ The emptying (deeludging) of pits moy be carried out as a civic function. especially where V.1-0.P"s are used on a large scale- chat-could be used’ 18 fercthe:Authorsty concerned. working in one location, plate covers, and close the dust before in the same One system of operation to move superstructures oF used pits. squatting the secand two yearly intervals- the old pits at change over is due all e mechanically emptied. stant work load locality can b4 suitable planning of this work can give # com for a small tean of operators. = = = ~ 4.2.6 aah (contd) When this sethad ig employed, the Authorities on initially vicing sites, may excavate the the slabs. pits and construct The super- structures could be individually constructed A development of the pit latrine, this system hes the pit or chamber offset from the superstructure and squatting pan. The two are connected by & chute inclined at approximately 70" te horizontal The pit is separately ventilated and covered by renoveble pa » Its advantages over other pit latrines are: . larger pit capacity - increased life . users (children) do not fear falling in . eastly emptied without removing superstructure A major dis jor disadvantage is the possibility of excrete fouling the chute and encouraging flies cleaning would be required. Regulor Composting Toilets These uni hese units primarily differ with pit latrines by generally being sealed chambers of smaller size and requiring the reqular addition of biodegradeable matter. Toilets lets of this type are particularly useful in areas where there ig a great desire or need to reuse excreta in the form of fertilizer. As with pit latrines, su 8 a s. sullage has to be separately disposed.4.2.6 (Cont'd) 4.2.6 (Cont'd) An advantage of composting toilets ever pit lat- fines 16 their suitability for use ja difficult o year (ar thereabouts) using the other chamber, the excreta will be dug aut. For sugcessful oper- tion the oxereta oust be dry (40 = 6O%.doteture ground conditions, providing there is av outlot for marketing, using or disposing the campontud excreta. This advantage docs not apply when the content) and te facilitate this the vault besos “compost is reused im the individual plots. In may bo perforated. Vault emptying may be organised locations where the handling of human excrate is as an off-site system - i.e, with civie involvement. socially unacceptable they are not suitable unless « (é 4.2.7 Pour . ® programme of user education precedes installation. Composting toilets should only be dauble As with pit lotrines, under Those units utilise a squatting pan complete with vaulted batch types. no circumstances should compost (excrete) be hand- led when in a pathogenic state. mater seal and are flushed with water or sullage. Flushing $4 normally manual (hand pouring) elthough in seme cases the units may be upgraded to have Because of the small sma}l (?-3 litres) cisterns. - Continuous Composting Toilet quantities of water required per flush (2-3 litres) they give a considerable saving in water usage when The pit or vault of this on-site type ts specially designed to permit composted excreta te move into an adjacent pit for continuous removel. To aperote sotisfactorily regular additions of biodegradeeble matter are required and the composted excrete (humus) should be removed at the correct rate. These units require @ high degree of user care and are prone to operational problems. for use in Zimbabre. = Double Vault Composting Toilets (0.V.C. Two adjacent sealed veults ere used with common As with the V.I.0.P. the They are not recommended or separate cover slabs. superstructure may be maved from vault to vault or constructed centrally with alternative squatting positions. In common with the V.T.0.P. one chamber will operate until epproximately three- quarters full then be filled with earth and after compared with the full waterborne flush toilet (approximately 13 litres). In the plest (on-site) version of the pour flush toilet the squatting plate (chiang mei) and super— structure are located directly above a pit. An alternative system is to use the offset pit design. In this case a short length of sewer laid at @ grad- jent of not less than 1:40 connects the pen to an offset pit up to 8m away. A further adaption is to use two affset pits whereby either can be used whilst the other is full. This can be achieved by using a small chamber with a ‘Y’ junction in it and blocking off one of the two outlets at a time. The pit net in use is emptied when the other is almost full; this wark can be safely carried out by manual labour.4.2.7 (Cont*d) Pit copecity (that partion lower than inlet, or with single pit, lower than Im below ground) con be tnken 3 as 0,04m° per person per year, As actual water usage is gmall this on-site sanitation technique con be used in poorer soils. ways. te @ Mil @ Sullage could thus be disposed by discharging into i Pour flush toilets can be u The next advancement is cd in a variety of for the flows to enter septic tank with surplus liquid being conveyed 8 soakaway, french drainage system or to o sew the secondary stage of the septic tank. The twin tank system of septic tank and soakaway with has certoin advan- sullage bypassing the septic tan tages. Beceuse of the low water content in the excreta the septic tank will give a high retention period to permit higher pathogen removel and by keep- ing sullage away the risk of disturbing and flushing = excreta out to the soskaway is reduced. . In the off-site version, where septic tanks on pour- flush systems discharge their effluent to sewers, the lack of be loid gross solids means that, in theory, they could to slacker grandients or use smaller diemeter pipes. In practice this system would complicate o- prevent With a sewerage system for septic tank effluents it final upgrading to full waterborne saderage. would be necessary to provide @ sewage treatment facility although the septic tank system will have reduced the 6.0.0. content by approximately 30 - 50% Direct sewering of pour flush toilets, without the intervening septic tanks, should never be considered. A major ‘advantage of pour flush systems is the pos- sibility of incorporating the toilet within the house A.2.# (Cont'd) ssociated with odours or insocts. Ihe system alse Tendo itsell for upgrading oa eventually Hage could be diverted directly into The major disadvan- but without problems o exereta and 8 ful] materbarne sewerage systems requirement for relatively permesble soils tage is the the possible density of units on # which may restrict given area. qua_P of » superstructure end squat- aled (septic) tank with ank through en intergral 15am An equa privy consists ting plete above a small se direct discharge into the t Providing the drop pipe extends 10- uid @ water seal 1s formed preventing In order to maintain this oter, usually drop pipe. into the liq! fly and odour nuisances. water seal it is often necessary to add wi in the form of sullage, on @ regular bosis. will cause some of the will still be necessary to tanker, every 2 to 3 years. to a soakanay, chamber or a sewer with Although anaerobic action sludge to be digested, it desludge wanvelly, or via Surplus liquid drains off french drain in on-site systems or to off-site systems. The sealed tenk 1s usually vented. qua privy include the self topping = \ This unit hes the waste pipe eled tank Variations on the a (or sullage) equa privy. of a sink connected to discharge into the se maintain the top water level and keep the seol Unless this sullage is adequately trapped there the to help in toct. (and well maintain be a rapid build up of sand and grit within ed) before entering the tank could tank succes~ sful becavse of the need to maintain In general the basic aqua privy ts not an adequate