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OOP OS Ty Vv: Ki, g (roe rich KeWgur, rx maiud jruut dascity 2 Calapenctt tage. \ Ye (Os 2 xt {4 ao Known 04 jnvef Keugen. a Scanned with CamSc1 tratusrdion of Kuen: unig tae FARE H, cotagencais - Keung mafuner and givts ef git aud yor - “ a kowgus is“metwu , np prrolum hes ae maaeele nh owt mefunstion of KYLogur , ELH Hl No 904 2eMOUNA- Pebo lium axiginakt prom orgauic mene fallawrf tun re paafe pata wiagA Fre PPro" (jo to to), og bebo lium in gintetly famed fren ny dua us bn Ay nratiged yu arg ausam BH pear Bir moked which au seadily tenvurd nto Fe yew onbeny ae This farrrwsny involves aun ane muletion vy Hy duocanbenr fax med by minnx Boefoaf Acfivily aud chemin KotHen at Lud emp. teat 4 pede Poly Faumad KC ben tain marr Mader 15 CULLEN AM in Hu dhoelue TH acted fatruiay involwA pa Hunmaf bALek dew Cmabvation ) 4 Keroger jin Hat Huse of wlageatait - ouita reading bwuel ditty amd KmpAeUK | aagauit malin Prag nc nely OOLKA to Uguid Pero Lum Hesse HR fa RA medi oe Age ah bitumen, TVNTTTT TT OCAIMEU WILT Ud HOCUf ¢ Paafosy Nal dud Dingeneste. Hat food eLun 9 Hy * SJ duoehon Lipide, pusteina 4 yo tralyed af aiganim one soil amd (chai ea petion- cata geneals. 1 | parte hs. cr i gid asta bypodi lumen Fr Ca L MA. Orrapalle, anion'n. & E vadtinn 4 Hay qian casclaoun Mute Picante: — » ocadliNeu WILT Udlll Daratatalsialsiaieta’erale’yiatrieinialataiavaltra/itatalaiaialacavaat YU Svon Krevelen Plot +, ong ane mefwution | Von nrewetea pat Ls diagrammadic oe prauatalior rf Cake wuayA maturation Hf, gry oust matty ond Stauton Evebepion 4 prt bum. Tia rom fled A befween ML ty, aud % o KYuns - Tha Prresd in we fry fudicnkes HL dincehion of malwalt Ro tm Mak figure rn adcades vibiniie x Heefente white ocenrabily SAHmale Me Koger maturehon: Vidintle Re fle tauee fakes cae of, Bote Hime amd Hemp: forkar ia Kowa mafevst fier. o> a Scanned with CamSca © Redwenon Ye M Rew Ina . UMA Hy dolar bor guvation pa Aa wt ome finan tn touted fassTole fox ty fe x Kekogen, It found moat Mydecog carton. "TH Reduction O/e of Kewogen cvan-ciehed wu, Cor faxmafion Yh eee Keung ve dich Muy Of equ pert faster Haan putir Hy beuteuf Tura Keuo per TOAL C09 vibe wouy Lest ox No opt: vibra Refbe tree value quit su put Im poaed tu Had figuet iwaieafe fur esate Bx Hmalor 4 of wie ; vine Re flee toner mat ol gua afed jue fre vi FONG Hh OG HOS: + maaat gaa foumed at abightly ru ghut mata on meee + Apt reiglau fem Kwa guA » Com posible muses amd 4m Hay an MO ni pee isting atthe tale indo diff: typ + Ry valet mane famr of railed inet keane rubra ar Inerpa bolt +0 Poea quer awry alt. SEePrere ewe AAase eres R@eeeseeseeeeecezeoeBeeereFf Scanned with CamScTHe temp. oud of ou for mafion Oma COKE A pou dey deptr ly xt fuvwd 40 a4 oUt wuind Hr = TAL pomp ne quire ment depen da UpBA Jue At 6 yer A mesoyere reek quired Lem emp bOr Cenogele soe moat oil Kourek v0tK fy fun duetd MAO 3 04e emp. requirement fan olf amd gas genvstion dapords _ : vper fry Pe of Keno dae 5 Coo" “10° Je W eplmam femp far Mt Y olf mundo : (n MEA YO rock . m far cenoy ole rock olf uulrded + (Jo Jor Jc a Scanned with CamScReservoir rock Definition ¢ A reservoir is a rock strata that has significant void space so as to hold liquid/gas and also connectivity between pores so that there is easy passage of fluid through them * The study of these holes or pores including their size, geometry, mode of occurrence and connectivity is termed as petrophysics OCANMEU WILT Ud HOU| * mere presence of reservoir quality (porosity and permeability) is not a guarantee of getting oil or gas. * Source rock and cap rock is also necessary for formation of a trap and physical presence of oil/gas * Nealy all reservoir rock are of sedimemntary in origin * Atypical sedimentary rock consist of a) Framework element- dominant primary fraction like sand lime clast ,silt etc b) Matrix- minor primary fraction occuring between framework grains c) Cement — secondary deposit in pore spaces and replacing older fraction d) Pore space — surviving empty space after cementation Scanned with CamSc4. Primary and secondary “matrix” porosity system Sandstone Comp. ( cs ot 2. Fracture porosity system Framework ‘ FRACTURE N DISSOLUTION . PORE MATRIX ms ip co Note different use of “matrix” by geologists and engineers 0.25 mm Scanned with CamScCharacteristics * Porosity — It is the fraction of the total volume of the rock that is pore space or The ratio of volume of void spaces within a rock to the total bulk volume of that rock is commonly expressed as a percentage & = pore volume/ Total rock volume x 100 * Porosity can be expressed as in terms of density also; ve phi = (bulk volume — grain volume /bulk volume)*100 In practice, several descriptions of porosity exist, but the two most common are total porosity and effective porosity scanned witn CamscQualitative evaluation of porosity eee 0-5 Negligible 5-10 poor 10-15 fair 15-20 good 20+ Very good Scanned with CamScClassification of porosity De kn as Primary or depositional Intergranular or Sedimentation porosity interparticle Intraparticle same Secondary or post Intercrystalline cementation depositional i i | ) fenestral Do solution Vugey. Do fracture Tectonic movement (hit compation, dehydration Scanned with CamScPrimary or depositional porosity Primary or depositional porosity is that which, by definition, forms when a sediment is laid down Ha Oy Intergranular r porosity - Intergranular or interparticle porosity occurs in the spaces between the detrital grains which form the framework of sediments Scanned with CamScIntergranular porosity is generally progressively reduced by diagenesis in many carbonates, it is dominant porosity type found in sandstones. A mass of spheres of uniform sorting and packing will have same porosity, regardless of size of the spheres. Typical oil and gas reservoirs have porosities ranging from 10% to 25% and permeabilities of a few to a few hundred millidarcies Scanned with CamSc* Intraparticle porosity -In carbonate sands, particularly those of skeletal origin, primary porosity may be present within the detrital grains ex; the cavities of molluscs, ammonites, corals, bryozoan and microfossils may be all classed as intraparticle primary porosity Scanned with CamSc* the chemical instability of the carbonate host grains often leads to their intraparticle pores being modified or obliterated by subsequent diagenetic history Scanned with CamScFactor controling the porosity * Primary intergranular porosity depends on 1. Sorting of grains — better the sorting higher the porosity 2. Shape of grains — spherecity and roundness enhances the porosity 3. Packing of grains — cubic packing of uniform spherical grains has 47.6% porosityand rhombohedral packing has 26.7% porosity Scanned with CamSca 4. Compaction index — effect of compaction through rearrengement of grains during or soon after deposition Scanned with CamScScanned with CamScEffect of rock property on porosity and Norm ashility ROCK PROPERT Y TEXTURE EFFECTS ON PERMEABILITY AND POROSITY GRAIN SIZE Permeability decreases with grain size; porosity unchanged GRAIN SORTING Permeability and porosity decrease as sorting becomes poorer GRAIN PACKING tighter packing favors both lesser permeability and porosity GRAIN FABRIC In absence of lamination, controls anisotropy of permeability, permeability is maximum parallel to mean shape fabric CEMENT The more cement, less permeability and porosity Scanned with CamScFIGURE 6.22 Block diagram of my showing layered fabric with grains oriented paralel to currene General, K,>K,>K, Scanned with CamScSecondary or post depositional porosity The void or space created in a sedimentary rock due to diagenetic tectonic or post depositional processes are secondary porosity In general diagenetic process destroy the porosity Secondary porosity may be due to selective dissoultion of carbonate cement, rock fragment , feldspar and carbonate minerals by acidic water or dissolution of silicate mineral by hot alkaline waters Scanned with CamSci * Intercrystalline porosity - Intercrystalline porosity occurs between individual crystals of a crystalline rock i the typical porosity type of igneous and high- grade metamorphic rocks and of some evaporates * The pores of crystalline rocks are essentially planar cavities, which intersect obliquely with one another with no constrictions of the boundaries or throats between adjacent pores Scanned with CamScFenestral porosity -proposed for a primary or penecontempraneous gap in rock framework, larger than grain supported interstices. typical of fragmental carbonate sands, where it grades into primary porosity most characteristic of pellet muds and homogeneous muds of lagoonal and intertidal origin. A variety of fenestral fabric has long been known as bird’s eye. Scanned with CamSc* These structures have been attributed to organic burrows and to gas escape conduits. Which are frequently infilled by crystalline calcite. Scanned with CamSc* MOLDIC POROSITY - Molds are pores formed by the solution of primary depositional grains generally subsequent to some cementation * Molds are fabric selective; solution is confined to individual particles and does not cross cut cement matrix and framework Scanned with CamSc* Vuggy porosity- Vugs are a second type of pore formed by solution and like molds, they are typically found in carbonates * Vugs differ from molds though because they cross cut the primary depositional fabric of the rock. * With increasing size, vugs grade into what is loosely termed cavernous porosity Scanned with CamSc* Fracture porosity - Fracturing, in the sense of a breaking of depositional laminations can even occur pene- contemporaneous with sedimentation * takes the form of microfaulting caused by slumping, sliding and compaction fracture porosity is not only found in well- cemented sandstones and carbonates, but may also be present in shales and igneous and metamorphic rocks. Scanned with CamSc* Tectonic movements can form fracture porosity in two ways viz. tension over crests of compressional anticlines and shear failure Scanned with CamScINTERPARTICLE INTRAPARTICLE SHELTER FENESTRAL INTER- CRYSTALLINE PERMEABILITY * It is the property of a solid medium which allows a fluid to pass through without any change in the medium * Permeability constant defined by darcy law * Q=-kAdh/dl OCAHMEU WILT Ud TOCQulaitative permeability in evaluation of reservoir rock K in milidarcy qualitative evaluation <1.0 to 15 poor to fair 15-50 moderate 50-250 good 250 -1000 very good >1000 exceelent Scanned with CamScb Porosity controls volume of hydrocarbons in a reservoir, permeability controls productivity rates Permeability depends largely on Size of pore openings ' Degree and size of pore connectivity or effective porosity Degree and type of cementing material between rock grains Showing anisotropic behaviour Same rock behave as reservoir with one fluid and seal with another Scanned with CamSc* Darcy’s Law is valid under the following conditions: 1. Entire pore spaces are filled by a single fluid i.e. saturation is 100% 2. Fluid must be a Newtonian fluid i.e. viscosity is independent of flow rate 3. Flow must be in the viscous, laminar region Scanned with CamScWhen these three conditions are met, the permeability is considered as absolute or specific permeability i.e. permeability of one phase in a single-phase system. When there is multi-fluid system, permeability of one particular fluid is its effective permeability. The effective permeability may vary from zero to 100% of absolute permeability. It depends on relative saturation of different phases, capillary pressure and surface tension and wettability of reservoir rocks Scanned with CamSc* Relative permeability is effective permeability divided by absolute permeability. * relative permeability expresses the fraction of the total or absolute permeability, which a particular ie is utilizing. " i tf | Scanned with CamScCapillary pressure curve and pore morphology Capillary pressure curves provides data to determine the size of the throats connecting the pores and the percentage of total pores effective at successive levels in a reservoir which in turn is the key to hydrocarbon producing potential Fluid movement in a rock is a function of relative permeability, which in turn, for a given rock at a given time is a function of the fluid saturation in the rocks Scanned with CamSc* Pressure is a function of height above oil — water contact, and with an increase in differential pressure, increasingly smaller pore throats are invaded by oil * Most reservoir rocks are naturally water wet. As oil enters within the reservoir initially it occupies the coarser pore spaces driving water out into smaller and finer pore spaces where capillary pressure is high. * This is the time reservoir only yields water Only when the replacement of water by oil reaches 20% reservoir starts yielding water plus some oil. Scanned with CamScWith time reservoir turns into oil-wet from water- wet and relative permeability of reservoir with respect to water becomes zero The permeability relative to oil rises rapidly and the capillary pressure increases abruptly to the maximum oil replaces water in almost all pore spaces except fine/very fine ones where it is held by high capillary pressure. This water is referred as irreducible water and in present case, it is 30%. Scanned with CamScPORO- PERM RELATIONSHIP * From a physical point of view there is no specific relationship between porosity and permeability * Poro- perm relation ship cross plot gives the four end member of the categorisation of the reservoir Scanned with CamScMany LIMESTONE Most SANDSTONE RESERVOIRS Sel High perce Poronity propemionat sow permoatity i peemreneity 40 . ' | Les 30 = - ea], B20. = _ : an 10. oa ° a 7.0) 70 400 7060 PERMEABILITY (MD) BASEMENT FRACTURED crystatine mocate HESERVOIR ‘Low porosity, high permeability Scanned with CamScEffect of burial and diagenesis * Diagenesis is a chemical process which involves the chemical process between mineral and interstitial liquid with the effect of differential compaction and dissolution * With continued effect of burial porosity is getting decreases continuously; sand are deposit with initial porosity value of30 to 40 % which may reduced to reservoir limit or nil after sufficient time Scanned with CamSc* Carbonate sediment with initial porosity of 40- 75% undergo volume reduction upto 30 % * Burial promotes pressure solution in carbonates and it quickly overshadows the mechanical effect of burial * Diagenesis stage during maturation can provide the secondary porosity but it is still less than the overall primary porosity Scanned with CamScAtypical reservoir Atypical reservoir may form by two processes; 1. weathering 2. Fracturing * About 10% of the oil and gas accumulation may be occurred in atypical or fractured reservoir * Main rocks characterised are granites and gneiss * Fracture intensity index is a very valuable parameter which defines the fracture intensity and fracture orientation and in turn control the porosity and permeability of reservoir Atypical and Fractured Reservoirs _ Fracture Intensity Index (Fil): ers ME 8) where ¢, = total porosity and o,, = porosity not due to fractures. ocdlineu WILT UdlllTRAP ROCK Definition * Hydrocarbon traps form where permeable reservoir rocks (carbonates, sandstones) are covered by rocks with low permeability (caprocks) that are capable of preventing the hydrocarbons from further upward migration The caprock need not be 100% impermeable to water, oil or gas. If the upward loss of hydrocarbons is less than the supply of hydrocarbons from the source rocks to the trap,hydrocarbons may still accumulate Scanned with CamScNOMENCLATURE gaz/ol contact Closure oillwater contact \ ae Spill point ——Se ee Le Edge watar Bottom water Eage water Scanned with CamScCREST ;The highest point of the trap is the crest or culmination Spill point ; The lowest point at which hydrocarbon may be contained in the trap is spill point or spill plane Closure; the vertical distance from the crest to spill plane is the closure of the trap Bottom water ; The zone immedietly beneath the petrolium is referred to bottom water Edge water ; zone of the reservoir laterally adjacent to the trap as the edge zone Scanned with CamSc* Pay- within the trap the productive reservoir is termed as pay it may be of two types; 1. Net pay a 2. Gross pay | i Net pay is the cumulative vertical thickness of reservoir from which petrolium may be produced Gross pay is the vertical distance from the top of the reservoir to the petrolium water contact Scanned with CamScclassification * Traps are usually classified according to the mechanism that produces the hydrocarbon accumulation * Two main groups of trap are classified; 1. Structural trap 2. Stratigraphic trap STRUCTURAL TRAP * Structural traps are primarily the result of folding and (or) faulting, or both. OR are those whose geometry was formed by tectonic Processes after formation of beds. ocvarmeu win CamScAnticlinal trap Necessary conditions: An impervious cap rock anda porous reservoir rock; closure occurs in all directions to prevent leakage Simple fold traps (anticlinal) with axial culmination (fold axis dipping in two or more directions). The simplest type of trap is formed when a sandstone bed that is overlain by tight (i.e. low permeability) shale is folded into an anticline Scanned with CamSc* The crest of the anticline must have an apical culmination (i.e. a peak) somewhere along the fold axis so that hydrocarbons can be trapped. * Closure is defined as the height to the crest of a structure above the spill point of a trap. ¢ Anticlinal trap can be categorised into two types; 1. Compressional anticline 2. Compactional anticline Scanned with CamScCompressionsal anticline; Trap which is formed due to the compressional forces comes into play i Net shortening of earth crust takes place Associated with the subductive trough Petrolium field found within and adsjacent to aC mountain chain Scanned with CamScCompactional anticline; those anticline trap which is formed not by compression but by crustal tension When crustal tension causes a sedimentary basin to form floor is commonly split into a mosaic of basement horst and grabens Closure may be enhanced by compaction and sedimentation Differential depositional rate enhances the structural closure Scanned with CamScfig 7 TRAPS AND SEALS Surface BL FIGURE 7.11 Cross-section showing how basement block faulting causes anticlinal structures in sediments; dosure decreases upward. These drape anticlines are caused by tension rather than compression. Scanned with CamScDiapiric traps - Produced by upward movement of sediments that are less dense than those overlying them. - In these case, sediments tend to move upward diapirically and in doing so may produce diverse HC traps. - Cannot be regarded as structural traps , since no involvement of tectonic forces. ~ Generally caused by upward movement of salt or less frequently by over pressured clay. Salt domes: - Salt: Density 2.03g/cm? - Clay & sand if deposited recently, less dense than salt at nor near surface. As these are buried they loose porosity thereby gain density. - At burial depth 800-1200m, density of clay, sand > Density of salt - When this point is reached salt tend to flow up through the denser overburden. - This movement causes various kinds of HC traps. Scanned with CamScFolded and faulted sandstones Shale \ — Coser oo _ | Caprock Porous daprock traps Sandstone Pinched out by upiitt Unc. How Fe ak seminee demeity 4Olt > or Scanned with CamScSalt dome Salt domes form when salt is less dense than the overlying rock, and the salt moves slowly upwards due to its buoyancy Upward movement of salt through the sedimentary strata, and associated deformation is termed halokinetics or salt tectonics For this to happen, there must be a minimum overburden and the thickness of the salt deposits must be more than ~100 m Scanned with CamSc* Traps may form ; (1) in the strata overlying the salt dome, (2) in the top of the salt domes (the cap rock - caused by brecciation and dissolution), (3) in the strata that curve upward against the salt intrusion, (4) due to stratigraphic pinch-out of strata around the salt dome Scanned with CamScFaults and fault related trap: - Faults are common structural barriers within a petroleum reservoirs. - Sometimes they can be permeable | - Sometimes sealed and inhibit fluid movement and allow fluid movement. (i) Beneficial if they allow HC to migrate | - Also beneficial if they prevent escape of HC from from source to reservoir a trap. Within a trap they can inhibit effective petroleum production. . Faults plays an indirect but essential role in entrapment of many fields. - Few discovered fields are caused solely by faulting. . Important question: Whether a fault acts as a barrier to fluid movement (both HC and/or water or whether it is permeable? - Problem: Some faults seal, others do not. Guidelines to act fault act as a seal: (but these are not fool proof) If throw of the fault < thickness of reservoir - unlikely to seal - However, if clay is caught of in a fault plane it can trap.-Faults in brittle rocks are less likely to seal than in plastic rock. - In lithified rocks, faults may be accompanied by extensive fracturing which may be permeable - Some fields are caused by fracture porosity adjacent to a fault. Bailey and Stonely (1981): - Eight theoretical geometries for fault traps: 6 are valid Dip with fault Dip against fault Throw > thickness Throw thickness Throw < thickness J Y i spill yy point Normal fault Unlimited closure No closure _ Limited closure Reversed fault Spill point Unlimited closure | Limited closure ‘Assumption: Shale against sand is sealing, Sand against sand is nonsealing. The key question is whether or not a fault will be a seal. It partly depends on whether Unlimited closure No closure the fault places a permeable or impermeable unit in contact with the reservoir. In some cases the fault itself can be sealing. scanned with Camsche key question is whether or not a fault will be a seal. It partly depends on whether he fault places a permeable or impermeable unit in contact with the reservoir. In ome cases the fault itself can be sealing. FUNDAMENTAL TYPES OF TRAPPING MECHANISM Figure 18.3. Schematic recresantaton of hydrocarbon traps. mast commonly fassociated with the varaty of struct traps. In upper lett dagram. T ard A Indicate displacements towards ana ‘way from viewor, BC, basement com Blox. (From .P. Harding and J © Lowel ‘AAPG Bull, 1979) Detached normal faut San Scanned with CamSc{ii) Traps related to tensional faults: Important group of traps are developed. In these throw increases incrementally downward. This demonstrates that fault movement was synchronous with deposition. Such faults are termed growth faults. In plan these faults are frequently curved; when viewed from downthrown side, concave. Ina profile fault angle diminishes downward. Two types of growth faults (i) Basement related (ii) not basement related Both are important for oil. Scanned with CamScStratigraphic traps - These are another major group of traps. - Form due to changes in lithology. Such changes may be caused by the original deposition of the rock, as with a reef or channel. - The change in lithology can also be post depositional as with truncatior or pinchout. - The chief trap making element is some variation in the stratigraphy or lithology, or both of the reservoir rock such as facies changes, variable local porosity and permeabilty or an up structure termination of the reservoir rock irrespective of cause. - These are sealing of reservoir bed due to lithological changes other than geological structure. - Also known as porosity trap. Scanned with CamScStratigraphic traps related to unconformities -Channel traps | . Barrier traps L Can occur both in conformable sequences and adjacent to unconformities. Reef traps | Often overlies unconformities. Diagenetic traps — Underlie unconformities Unconformities: Facilitate juxtaposition of porous reservoirs and impermeable shales that may act as source and seal. -A large percentage of known global petroleum reservoirs are trapped adjacent to unconformities and source rocks of late Jurassic to mid-Cretaceous age. Above unconformity - Unconformity related traps (two types) (i. supra-unconformity) Below unconformity (i.e. sub-unconformity) Supra-unconformity traps: -Includes reefs and various types of terrigenous sands. - Three classes according to geometry (i) Sheet (ii) Channel (iii) Strike valley Scanned with CamScStrike valley trap * When alternating beds of hard and soft rock are weathered and eroded the soft stata form strike valley between resistant ridges of harder rock * Oil and gas may be stratigraphically trapped in the strike valley sand Scanned with CamScSubunconformity trap * Stratigraphic trap also occur beneath unconformity where porous permeable bed have been truncated and overlain by impermeable clay * Many truncation trap it will be provided by the irregular topography of the unconformity Scanned with CamScStratigraphic Oil Traps E Sandstone pinchout EXAMPLES OF STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS Pinch-out Pinch-out Platform carbonates Scanned with CamSc| Diagenetic trap -Diagenesis has considerable role in controlling quality of a reservoir. - Solution: can enhance reservoir quality by generating secondary porosity. - Cementation: Destroys -In some situation diagenesis can generate HC traps Case I: (By cementation) - Oil/gas moving up a permeable carrier bed may reach a cemented zone which inhibits further migration. (eg. Case II: (By solution - HC may be trapped in zones where solution porosity has locally developed in cemented rock. Case III -As oil migrates to the surface, it may be degraded and oxidised by bacterial action if it reaches a shallow zone of meteoric water. This tarr residue can act as seal inhibiting further up-dip oil migration. eg. The Shunuang oil field in the Liaohe basin Scanned with CamScScanned with CamScHydrodynamic trap If pore water flow in a sedimentary basin is strong enough, the oil-water contact may deviate from the horizontal because of the hydrodynamic shear stress that is set Flow of fresh (meteoric) water down through oil- bearing rocks commonly results in biodegradation of the oil and formation of asphalt, which may then form a cap rock for oil. Inclined oil waren contact may occur due to the hydrodynamic character Scanned with CamSc* Hydrodynamic trap form in the condition when hydrodynamic force of water is greater than the force due to the buoyancy of the oil droplets Oil will be restrained from upward movement and will be restrained from upward movement and will be trapped within the bed without any permeability barrier Ocal INeu WILT UdIllo’