PAPER FOR PRESENTATION BEFORE THE SNAME HAMPTON ROADS SECTION PROPELLER SELECTION AND OPTIMIZATION by John C. Daidola' and F. Martin Johnson* ABSTRACT. Consideration is given to the broad subject of propeller selection and optimization and user friendly PC hased propeller selection and optimization computer program is presented, including the computer code. This is accomplished through a general discussion of propeller selection for both craft and ships, review and comparison of systematic series databases, presentation of a propeller optimization and selection computer program, example case studies including craft and ships and a discussion of selection techniques and sources of additional propeller data. INTRODUCTION Although naval architects and marine engineers have long been using systematic propeller series data for selecting principal propeller characteristics during design, to the knowledge of the authors, comparisons of the data bases and publicly available computerized selection and optimization procedures have not been widespread. These two situations have provoked this presentation in order to discuss these and other propeller selection and optimization related techniques. The significant interest shown over the years in case history propeller designs of individual ships should provide a basis for interest in the broad subject of propeller selection, which must be faced for all craft and ships of any type propelled by engines or turbines. ‘Assistant Vice President *Naval Architect M, Rosenblatt & Son, Inc. Maritrans GP 350 Broadway Fort Mifflin Road New York, NY 10013 Philadelphia, PA 19153-3889A user itiendly PC based propeller selection and optimization computer program is presented, along with its code, operable under the DOS operating system. It considers 18 distinc: cases of propeller selection and optimization conditions. Optimization is carried out using a one and two-dimensional Fibonacci searca technique. It provides for both regressed and interpolated databases of propeller thrust and torque coefficients (Ky-Kq). [A number of the Ky-Kq databases for the NSMB B-Series propellers have been compared and the results of predictions utilizing each are presented. Propeller selection and optimization case studies are provided and include a displacement ship fitted with an NSMB B-Series propeller, a planing power yacht fitted with Gawn Series propeilers, and a towing vessel fitted with a custom designed controllable pitch propeller. ‘Another section of the paper is devoted to techniques and assumptions that may be applied to improve propeller selection to conform with vessel operation and propeller/engine matching. ‘The paper concludes by addressing tne subject of developing additional databases for the computer program utilizing propeller model test data. This procedure has been applied to the towing vessel customed designed controllable pitch propeller for which a case study has been provided as discussed above. . ‘Asa final note, the SNAME T&R Committee has awarded a project to the authors und the Ship Design Committee Panel SD-2 for the preparation of a user's manual for the PC based propeller selection and optimization program provided herein. This should be completed by June of 1992 YNOPSIS OF PROPELLER SELECTION PROC Definitions Propeller: ‘The marine propeller is a propulsion device which converts the greater part of the power from a marine engine into a thrust force to propel the ship or craft. The screw propeller is the most common form of this device although it itself can be combined with other components, such as a nozzle, to form other propulsion device systems. The cycloidal or vertical axis propeller is distinctly different from the screw propeller. ‘The propeller of a single-sctew vessel is located in an aperture at the stem of the hull with its axis of rotation almost level and in the vertical fore and aft centerplane of the hull. The propeller of multi-screw vessels are also located aft, but at either side of the vertical center planeof the hull, and in addition to a declivity, the axis of rotation also may have an inclination 10 the vertical plane. Vertical axis propellers can be arranged at positions throughout the vessel boxtom, area so long as the resulting force vectors provide the required maneuverability The motion of a marine screw, as suggested by the name, combines a rotation with 2 translation along the axis of rotation. It usually consists of two but sometimes even more than seven identical usually twisted blades equally spaced around a hub or boss as shown in Figure 1, and mounted on a driving shaft leading from the propulsion machinery. It is not the intent herein to exhaustively discuss the geometrical characteristics of the marine propeller and thee are many fine references for that purpose [1,2,3]. However, for the purpose of the subject matter following in the paper, the terminology defined in Figure | will be useful. A number of different propeller designs and configurations will be considered herein and the variations in their characteristics will be for the most part in those noted in Figure 1. The inclinations and twist of a blade are defined by the angles between a datum plane normal to the axis of rotation and a number of datum lines fixed relative to the blade. A set of pitch datum es are taken at a series of constant radii from the axis of rotation, and the angle between the datum plane and a pitch datum line is termed the pitch angle 6. The pitch angle usually varies radially with typical values near the boss of 6 = 50° to ¢ = 15° near the blade tip, whereas for some craft propellers there is no variation from the boss to the tip. A rake datum line, which 's usually straight, is taken which intersects all the pitch datum lines in a radial plane through the axis of rotation, and the angle between the datum plane and the rake datum line is termed the rake angle ¥. The rake angle, which is usually constant for a given screw, varies from about ¥ = 0° to ¥ = 15°, and is lower for craft and usually twin screw ship propellers than for single screw ships propellers. The main particulars of a screw are the type, the number of blades, N, the diameter D, a blade area ratio, the pitch ratio p = P/D, the blade thickness ratio 7 = VD, and the boss ratio dy = Dy/D. The blade area can be expressed by using either the projected area catio a,, the developed area ratio ap, of the expanded area ratio ag which are all of the following form: 4A, =D? a Q It is convenient to divide propellers into eight main types as follows. However, it should be noted that there is a potentially significant variation of propellers within these categories. Light-duty open screws: Low blade area ratio, generally less than a = 0.45; fitted to low-powered vessels operating at low speeds, e.g. certain classes of coasters and small cargo vessels.cowmecnon oF RoTATION Pace. OF a PROPELLER Tone Fao a Figure 1: Marine Propeller Details oteModerate-dury screws: Blade area ratio generaily within the approximate c 0.45 10 0.65: fitted 10 moderate powered vessels operating at moderate speeds. cargo vessels, tankers, trawlers in free-running conditions. Heavy duty screws: Blade are ratio generally greater than about a; = 0.63; fitted to high-powered vessels operating at moderate or high speeds, e.g. passenger ships, high speed cargo ships and various classes of naval craft. Towing-duty screws: Similar to moderate-duty screws, but designed for the towing or icawling conditions of tugs and trawlers. ‘Supercavitating High Speed Craft: High speed conditions with propellers under fully cavitating conditions. Ducted Propellers: Ship and craft where propellers are fitted within a nozzle of varyi length; usually under highly loaded conditions. Waterjets: Similar to the ducted propeller with moving parts within the hull and within along duct. Generally fitted :0 high speed craft only. Vertical-Axis Propellers: For ships and craft requiring high maneuverability in close quarters. Power Concepts: ‘The power developed by a marine engine is called the Brake Horsepower or BHP at the output point and Shatt Horsepower or SHP at the point where it enters the propulsion shai ‘The difference in the two is primarily to account for transmission or reduction gear losses. power is transmitted to the propeller by the propulsion shafting where the greater part of the shaft horsepower, less any transmission losses in the bearings, is converted into a thrust horsepower. The SHP minus the transmission losses is termed the Delivered Horsepower or DHP which is applied to the propeller and absorbed by it in the form of a torque, Q, at a shaft rotational rate, n. ‘The Thrust Horsepower THP is the power applied by the propeller in the form of an axial thrust force, T, when the propeller operates at a speed of advance, V4, in propelling the ship or craft at a speed of V,. The speed of advance generally differs from the speed of the hull due to the presence of a wake behind the hull and appendages. The DHP and THP are defined as follows with units in Ib-ft:DHP ‘The behind the hull efficiency 7g is the ratio of the power applied by the propeller to the power which is delivered to and absorbed by the propeller: THP Ty, DHP 2xnQ (4) The thrust the propeller delivers overcomes the resistance of the vessel hull and appendages and the air resistance of its superstructure. ‘The power required to just overcome this resistance is termed the effective horsepower EHP: RVs EHP (5) 550 The SHP, DHP, THP and EHP are all linked in the following manner: DHP = 4; SHP. © EHP = tt DAP = nyn10 DHP m The efficiencies noted in equations (6) and (7) are defined as: 77, transmission efficiency of the propulsion shafting and bearings; 74, the hull efficiency relating the flow conditions in way of propeller; 79, the open water propeller efficiency without the presence of the hull and in uniform inflow velocity; and; 7p, the relative rotating efficiency accounting for the difference in propeller efficiency behind the hull. The determination of these efficiencies will not be considered further herein but methods are contained in the literature, (1,3) for example.Design Procedure Figure 2 depicts the events in the development of a propeller design for manuia '5]. The propeller selection process. which is the subject of this paper, occurs in the upper halt events prior to the detailed determination of propeller geometry and blade cavitation patterns. The main requirements of a ship propeller are [4,5]: L. High efficiency. Minimum danger of cavitation erosion. Minimum propeller - excited vibratory forces. 4, Good stopping and maneuvering abilit 5. Favorable interaction with the rudder to improve maneuverability. - minimum vulnerability. 6. Dependability 7, Low initial and maintenance costs. 8, Low noise characteristics. The selection and optimization of the principal propeller characteristics of diameter, RPM, pitch ratio and blade area is normally accomplished by considering items 1, and 2 directly, although items 3, 5 and 6 would affect the propeller type, the maximum propeller diameter and its placement. The remaining items are more typically considered in selecting the :ype of propeller and in the final design of the propeller and its sectional characteristics The importance of each of the above requirements cannot be overly emphasized. For example consider item 8, noise characteristics. In naval and oceanographic vessels the underwater noise emanating from the vessel has a significant impact on sensing devices such as sonar. Figure 3 gives an example of the variations in self noise as a function of ship speed due to propellers, vessel boundaries layer and machinery at the sonar dome of a naval vessel (6] The relative importance of propeller cavitation noise with respect to boundary layer noise is especially revealing as the propeller is situated relatively far from the sonar dome while the boundary layer noise is generated directly in the vicinity of the sonar dome.ANALYSIS OF MAIN] INPUT GATA(ormuy = lation of he prob PROPELLER DESIGN WITH VARIOUS. SYSTEMATIC SERIES DATA tor Propeller sign, SHIP PERFORMANCE PREDICTION DETERMINATION OF DETAILED PROPELLER GEOMETRY corrections in basic propeller geometry CALCULATION (OF BLADE CAVITATION PATTERNS SELECTION OF FINAL PROPELLER. AMONG ALL_DESIGNS PREPARATION OF DATA FOR PROPELLER MOOG. | MANUFACTURING. Firgure 2: Flow Chart of Propeller Design ProcedureWith this said the remainder of this paper will concer itself with those items normally considered in propeller selection and optimization, items | and 2. Propeller Characteristics ‘As shown in Equations (2) and (3) the torque absorbed by a propeller and the axial thrust produced are its characteristics which directly provide an estimate of the power required to drive the propeller and ultimately the ship or craft. Consequently, in designing @ propeller the knowledge of these characteristics for the propeller in questions is of utmost importance. Although there are a number of considerations in the selection of the optimum propeller design point, some of which will be considered later in the paper, the knowledge of a propeller’s torque and thrust characteristics is fundamental. The need for propeller torque and thrust characteristic data has resulted in the Ky - Kg diagram shown in Figure 4. This curve displays the non-dimensional torque coefficient Ka, the non-dimensional thrust coefficient Kz, and the propeller open water efficiencies np against the non-dimensional advance coefficient J: T a (8) pin? Q Q Ka = _ ) p(nDy'D°D pD't? y, (10) aD KJ To ay Kg 2e Propeller diagrams such as Figure 4 have historically been obtained from open water testing of model propellers. Today they can also be determined from hydrodynamic analysis. Most design problems can be solved for a particular screw using these diagrams. When two out of the four quantities V,, a, T and Q are given, the other two can be determined from the diagram. Other diagram forms have been selected to facilitate frequently attempted propeller design problems, but they all have as their basis the Ky - Kq diagram. Some of these will be considered later herein.NOISE LEVEL Figure 3: Figure 4: Variations in Ship's Self-Noise oT 7 a - 1 Ce : - °F oz ae oF os we 72° ry s ae ar SCALE OF SLiP RATIO Typical Curves of Thrust, Torque and Efficiency for Propeller in Open Water -10-Design Cases In carrying out propeller selection and optimization a number of cases arise whe the unknowns vary and where the solutions must yield dit summarizes the propeller selection design cases identified by the authors [7]. oth ent sets of results. Table | As an example, van Manen [4] has indicated that Case No. 4 is the most widely encountered design problem. The speed of advance of the fluid into the propeller, V, the power to be absorbed by the propeller, P, and the number of revolutions, N, are given. The diameter. D, is to be chosen so that the greatest efficiency can be obtained. By choosing discrete values of the diameter, D, the corresponding values of the advance coefficient, J, and the torque coefficient, Ka, can be calculated. From the K; - Kg - J diagram, Figure 4, the corresponding pitch ratios, P/D, and the efficiency, no, can be read off for each diameter chosen. Plotting the values of np as a function of the diameter allows the optimum efficiency diameter to be chosen. In order to simplify this frequent design problem the K; - Kg - J diagrams have been transformed into the By - 6 diagrams from which the optimum diameter, D, can be read directiy when the speed of advance, V, the power, P, and the rotative speed, n, are given [8]. The open water characteristics have been cast into other formats in such a manner that the required calculations for any given design requirement are reduced to a bare minimum. Examples are the B, - 5 diagrams for given values of the speed V,, n, and T and the 7-a diagrams for constru: of the tow-force diagram of a tug [9]. There are also others. In the next section some of these other diagrams will be considered from a standpoiat of accuracy however, the design approach and computer code presented in this paper will utilize the original and fundamental K, - Ka - J data form. This approach provides generality, access to the largest amount of data and the speed of the computer negates any increased effort that may be incurred in special cases. Cavitation The effects of cavitation on the marine propeller are numerous and serious. They can include: + Racing of the propeller + Thrust breakdown + Erosion or pitting of the blades + Noise emission as shown in Figure 3 + Large amplification of propeller - excited hull pressure forces “iTABLE 1: Propeller Selection Design Cases No. | Given Sought Description 1. Ve,T,D N, Po, P/D Ship with a specified Prop. dia. It is required that the Prop. develop a certain thrust at a given speed. Output: Po ve RPM (note. P/D) 2 [va,t,.8 | 0,Pe,2/D Same as above azcept RPM given and diameter mst be found. | Gutpat: Pe ve Dia. (note 2/D) 3 Ya, N.1,2/D dia, It is required to operate at certain speed. Output: 7 vs RPM (note 7/D) D, 7, P/D Same as 3 except RPM givea and diameter must be found. Gutpat: T vs RPM (note P/D) Ship with a specified power and prop. AL Tat(Va) [Va,¥,2/D Taf(Va) [Va,D,?/D Po Va, iW, B/D Tat(Va) |Va, B/D D4, Po 1 & 2 Combined Output: P/D & Po 3G 4 Combined Output: P/DET for various speeds and what is the power. Output: P/D va Va (Kote J) now specified. Output: RPM ve Va (Note /D) Same as 8 excapt RPM known and diameter unknown. Outpat: Va vs Dia. (note ?/D) Same as 7 except prop. dia. and Torque. Output: Va vs Dia. (note P/D) ah Same as 7 bat the power and dia. are ‘The thrust requirements of a ship are known. What is the acest optimum prop. Same as 7 except prop. dia. and RPM and power are specified. Outpat: Va ve P/DTABLE 1 (cont'd) No. Given Sought Description 12 Po, power and RPM are known. P/D | Sutpat: va 13 P M,T,B/D) Va Required thrust, prop, and RPM ara known. Outpat: Va 4 Taf(Va) Va,N Same as 7 except the prop. is given. D,2/D | Po |__ Output: Fo ve Va (Note RPM) is Vat, | Po,W The prop., ship speed and required 2.2/0 thrust are know. Output: Pe, RPM 16 ‘Taf(Va) Va, M,P/D Same as 7 except prop. size is given. D Output: Va va RPM (note P/D) 7 |tat(va) | Va,¥, Po | Thrust requiraments of ahip and prop Dd | | are know. | Output: Va ve 8 ve Po 18 DN, Po Taf (Va) | Prop at constant RPM for various Po speeds. Outpat: T 7s Va & Po va Va 19 D,Po, Tf(Va) Prop. at constant power for various P/D Output: T ve Va (Note RPM) —+——_1__|_———__ 20 D,Q,P/D [Ts£(¥a) Prop. and shaft size (torque) are NePoef(Va) | given. Output: T va Va (note SPH) 21 Yas 0 [T,Po Bollard thrust, const. 29M, prop. D,¥, 2/3 given. Outpat: 7 and P/D 22°, [vas0,0 [tw Bollard thrust, constant power, Po, P/D diameter given. Outpat: 7 and RPW +t -13-TABLE 1 (Cont'd) No. | Givan Sought =| Description Bollard thrust, constant torque propeller given. Outpat: 1,¥,?o ‘Tat (Va) B/D 2 £(Va) Dia., RFM and power given. pitch (C.F. prop.) Outpat: Tv.3. Va P/D vis. Va vary Tat (Va) Dia. & RPM are known, Find optiaum B/Dat (Va) P/D for Va Poaft(Va) Gutpat: T v.s. Va, Po vig, Va (Note P/D) Bollard thrust for C.?. prop 1(Dia., REM, & power given) Output: 7 & 2/D “14.The methods of dealing with cavitation on propellers have been varied and case sge- One of the first investigations and design criterion centered around the experimental § turbine ship "Turbanis 95, wherein a limit on propeller thrust of Li! Ib. per in? was set {10]. Refined forms of this criterion have been developed, Bursiil (11] and Keller (12] ror instance, and are still widely used for the selection and optimization of principal propelle: characteristics of diameter, RPM, pitch ratio and blade area, The Burrill Chart, including expanded information from his original work, is given in Figure 5 [1]. Other approaches have been taken in dealing with this problem. In the case of propellers for fast craft the Gawn [13] and Newton-Rader [L4] propellers have been developed wherein at high speed operating conditions the cavitation present collapses in the wake field and thereby does not harm the propeller, while thrust breakdown is avoided. These so called cavitatin: propellers are also joined by the supercavitating types, [15] for example, which accomplish the same objective but have significantly less efficiency at lower vessel speeds. When utilizing systematic propeller series data in design only, the average flow conditions behind the vessel are considered. Cavitation is dependent on local conditions as well and the circulation theory of propeller design (3,4), in the form of lifting lines, lifting surfaces or vortex sheets, has provided a means of analysis. In many cases, during the final detail design of the propeller blade sections, the induced velocities, pressures and forces along different radii of the propeller blades are determined to consider local cavitation in more detail and revise the blade contour to avoid any deleterious effects as shown in Figure 2 OPELLER CH: TERIST ATABASE: Genera Today, as years ago, the greatest available propeller characteristics and design databases are those of systematic open water experiments with series of standard type model propeilers covering variations in certain design features. Most of these experimellts were carried out many years ago. Design charts based on the results of these experiments provide methods which enable standard screws to be designed ‘with a minimum of computational effort. More recently the original experimental databases have been re-faired and analyzed to convert them to a format that is more compatible with computers. These latter forms will be utilized in the computer program presented in the next section. Also more recently, hydrodynamic analysis has been utilized in lieu of open water experiments to obtain systematic series type data. Open water experiments of systematic series propellers have been carried out for a variety of conventional ships’ propellers, high speed craft propellers and more unconventional types. These propeller series normally are comprised of variants whose characteristic dimensions such as pitch ratio, number of blades, blade area ratio, blade outline, shape of blade sections and blade thickness are systematically varied. Figure 6[4] indicates a number of these systematic series as well as their area of applicability. Even many years after their development “15+7 nr 1 pounoe syed onr-azaeg) ito ™ Yuan! MELATVE VELOGTY &T Oro Rabe Figure $: Simple Cavitation Diagram= TANKERS TWOLSCREW SINGAE SCREW —__coaSiERS | CONTRA -motARNG PROPELLERS | Pea i 8 semes 4m Se i i peoptuens | ELE t/g59-Ry 70 Prore.ens. "4 meee Vo +083-K4 4 osol. 1 ase La 7 {ae --=-% Figure 6: Comparison of Optimum Efficiency Values for Different Types of Propulsors TABLE 3: Summary of Wageningen B-Screw Series mace wea rane “Uy 2.38 ! | ose 288, 2.70 0.79 3.38 2.59 2.70 Oythe importance of these series to the propeller designer cannot be over emphasized. They orovide a capid means of determining the principal propeller characteristics of diameter, RPM. blade number, blade area and pitch. More advanced techniques can later be employed to prepare the final design of blade sectional characteristics to further optimize performance on a local basis as previously discussed and as shown in Figure \owiedge of the potential improvement which can be achieved in the final design based on past designs can of course be introduced in the initial propeller selection and optimization process utilizing the systematic series with an “adjustment factor.” In the remainder of this section a brief review of the systematic series is presented. The forms of the databases are considered, and in some cases the subject.of differences in results utilizing alternate formats of the original databases are addressed. A summary is given in Table 2 which has been developed from various sources but principally Radojcic (16). In a fe cases for propellers that have been utilized in recent design, the numerical representations of their performance characteristics, useful in computer applications, have been presented in Appendix L. Open Screw Propellers NSMB (Troost) A and B Series Propellers: The Troost series of propellers began with the A-Series [9] incorporating airfoil blade sections, section a) of Table 2, as it had previously been shown that these were more efficient under non-cavitating conditions than those with flat-face segmental type sections. It was subsequently found that for this type of section and the narrow blade tips incorporated in the A~ Series propeller that the susceptibility :o cavitation was increased [2]. The A-Series gave way to the second set of propellers, the B-Series, having inller blade sections of the airfoil type and the outer sections of flat-face segmental type with moderately wide blade tips. Therefore, the B-Series retained the advantage of airfoil sections at the inner region of the blade, where there is little possibility of cavitation, and provide a greater margin against cavitation at the outer region of the blade The original B-Series consisted of four bladed propellers only but was extended in stages to cover propellers from 2-7 blades (3,17,18]. Table 3[i7] gives a summary of the series consisting of about 120 propeller models. “18+TABLE 2: Summary of Propeller Series Data fy [se i 7 7 7 fy |seates | , (REGIME! aguy- | Section | 2 2/2 | Ae/Ao oF | iS | | rou | ee ' I pomacs | { Tacseries [cayig7s | a [ves aye) [2-7 ata | 120 [ees | ojsss Hisyiises | ¢ [0.221 465 as-4.4 | 18 fae "| xea.xco | (26)/1953 | xc | - ale) | it wsroc- | czeqi972 | xc] a 5 7s Gear SK | raise | ve | ~ | a Cie rm AgK(Gamm) | (131/1953 | xc | YES 2) 9.20-1.20 | aa [ow [es U5) 1° Isic Pe] - om 0.587 i jasiiser | c | “b) o°643 I KA angst | c fas | ay 3 9.50-1.10 | a0 [ew ol {54.281 1 * Tes [BE | ef ~ [om [as [nee [orsacze a L 1 1 1 1 1 xewten- | 1, se | ves <) [a 104 | 0.48-0.95 12 TABU Rader anger | (78.31) 2.08 | [careD 1 [secussay | 491/- sc | - co) | 3 | 40-2.2 | 0,651.10 con eel 1 [scrsseay Jranyigma | se | a3 [Ts ; 1 jones (4tsy | se | = a 3 ° 35 | er. | | tssa | one wea | se | - aes 3.7 Jews BLADE SECTIONS "NC - non-cavitating a) b) GI) © = cavitating Lim += LEZZZZE Sc + super-cavitating NSM flattoced. segm. _Newton- Rader, SK 4) °@ ) CZzzzzzrm, = ZZ Ea Tulin, $C Hydronoutie FigThe characteristics of the B-Series have been presented in five different forms of ch: as previously mentioned: Ky-Kq, By-3. By3, k-J, and va. Further, the Kr-Kq data were the tir 10 be faired by means of a numerical regression analysis and cast into a polynomial equation format where the K; and Ka are expressed in terms of the advance ratio J, the pitch ration P/D, the blade area ratio A,/A,, and the number of blades Z [17,18]. These later investigations also included the effect of Reynolds number on the test results and the Ky-Kq were extended to the remaining three quadrants in addition to ahead speed and RPM. The various representations of the B-series test data and their sources are shown in Figure 6. It has been noted [3,18] that a modified B-Series propeller is now available, the BB propellers, which have slightly wider blade contour near the blade tip, however, the performance characteristics are identical to the B-Series, The polynomial equations for the B-Series are given in Appendix 1 During preliminary considerations in the development of a propeller selection program years ago [7], it was decided that a comparison of the data bases available at that time would bbe prudent, as differences had been observed. The two data representations of the B-Series that were deemed most suitable for computer application were the U.S. Navy interpolation database (20] and the B-Series regressions [17]. The Navy representation requires interpolation in the K, - Kg vs J array composed of point data on the Ky-Ke chart Zor a given BAR and P/D. The B-Series Regression [17] only requires a function evaluation given J, P/D, and BAR for K, and Kq to be calculated. ‘The latest B-Series regression [18], not available at that time also requires the blade number Z and provides a means to adjust K; and Kg for Reynolds number effects The approach chosen for comparison at that time was to calculate Ky-Kg using original B-Series regression for 4 and 5 bladed propellers (17], which was the only one available at that time, for the same J, BAR, and P/D as the Navy data. The percentage differences between Kz - Kg of the two representations was calculated. Then, for both the U.S. Navy database and the B-Series Regression, B, - B, vs 5 v5 mp were determined and compared with the available graphical B, - B, vs 6 vs no and Ky - Kg vs J charts {9,19}. The above sequence is shown in Figure 7, -20-Original Troost Series-8 Hesearch and Data Compilation by Troost and van Lanneren (3,19] (2 - 7 Bladed Propellers] [Data faired and presented Le | in graphical form by \troost and van Lammeren Ll (9.191 | | i | eee | [Ke 7 Ko vs 3 | [Be = 8 | Lee Se | | (ee | kr - Ko vs J (20]] by nenneena| van Manen, and costerveld ae || ! ——— Navy ] | Dutch Regression (17, 18] | van Lanmeren, | | Bei-and Be2-1/J graphical} form by Oosterveid, et.al. [3] Figure 6: The Evolution of Several Major Representations of The B-Series Propeller Data a6| Dutch Regression | | (7) | Cl [butch Regression — | 1 | ge-sevssvere’ | u ' Calculated compare! Calculated i | from LT] ke - kos J for | wS. Navy the same J's as Navy Ue | | | { —— | Calculated \ Compare by , (| butcn gegression | | Nn | I ——_1 ——— ke - Kove J [Be = Be vs 6 vsa0 | | by van Canmeren by van Lammeren | and Troost (9, 19] | and Troost (9,19) | Figure 7: Comparison of Various B-Series Data SourcesThe results of the comparison as shown in Figure 7 has indicated: + The U.S. Navy data compares exacily to the B, - B, vs 6 vs 19 of van Lammeren and Troost. Therefore it seems to have come from this source. (The U.S. Navy or B-Sesries regression has not been compared to the Ky - Kg vs J of Troost and van Lammeren.) © The B-Series regression does not give the same values as the Navy and van Lammeren and Troost and B, - B, vs 5 vs no. The U.S. Navy and B-Series regression appear to differ up t0 8% in their values of K- and Ka for corresponding J's. The reasons for the differences noted could emanate from a number of sources. At the time of the analysis, it was believed the plot fairing vs mathematical “fairing” of the original data could introduce significant differences. More recently (18] the effects of the Reynolds number at which the various B-Series propellers were tested has been identified as a source of differences in performance characteristics. These differences can be on the order of magnitude as those identified above Hadler [21] has compared the B-Series regression equations (18] and a lifting line approach (22,23] in determining the optimum propeller characteristics for 2 containership. It was found that the B-Series tends to give smaller optimum diameters and higher values of DHP than the lifting line approach. It is concluded that the B-Series is still the most useful method for the early design stage g and establishing the preliminary propeller characteristics The TMB (Taylor) Standard Screw Series: The Taylor series comprised a group of three and four bladed propellers of the same basic type having elliptical blade outline, flat-face segmental blade sections and constant face pitch distribution (24) ‘The data derived from the results of this series were given in the B-3 chart format originally developed by Taylor and other related charts for standard area and thickness ratios covering a range of pitch ratios P/D. The AEW (Gawn) Standard Screw Series: ‘The Gawn Series [13,27] were tested at the Admiralty Experiment Works, Haslar, England. This series comprises a group of three bladed propellers of the same basic type incorporating an elliptical blade outline, flat-face segmental blade sections and constant face pitch distribution. Data was presented in the form of Ky-Kg vs J vs to. 2.These propellers were tested under both ron-cavitating [13] and cavitating were intended to have good chara high speed craft considerations. (27] conditions and tics under both conditions making them particularly useful Zor Blount and Hubble [25] have given regression polynomial expressions for the K; and Kg of the Gawn AEW series for open water conditions as well as thrust loading limits for both partial and fuily cavitating conditions. The cesults are included in Appendix 1. "Stock" Commercial: Blount and Hubble (25] have compared their regression polynomial expressions for open water performance of the three bladed Gawn Series to “stock” segmental section propeilers of United States origin. The polynomial expressions modelled after the NSMB B-Series polynomials retained terms for blade number variation. K;-Kg vs J was then determined utilizing their polynomials for a set of five stock three-bladed propellers, four four-bladed propellers and another set of three three-bladed propellers. The actual Ky-Ka vs J characteristics of these propellers were determined at the US Navy facility at DTRC. They determined the agreement of the data was within normal engineering accuracy except for low advance coefficients. ‘They conclude that propeller selection for commercially available propellers can be accomplished by utlizing this data as presented in Appendix 1. The KCN Standard Screw Series: This series is based on tests carried out in the Naval Architecture Department of the Kit College, Newcastle, England reported by Burrill and Emerson [26] and Gawn and Burrill (27]. The KCB and KCD Series (26] have blade outlines and sections similar to the Troost B-Ser:es. The data is presented in the form of curves of Kr, Kg, and 7 on a base of J at a number of constant values of the cavitation aumber o. The KCA Series (27] is generally similar to the Gawn Series. The data is presented in the form of K-J coefficients. For each blade area ratio of the series, charts are given for atmospheric and reduced pressure conditions and for each of the pressure conditions separate charts are given in the form of P contours on J, Ky; J, Ka} and J, 7 co-ordinates. Radojcic (16) has utilized a regression analysis of the data to develop polynomial expressions for K; and Ke for the CA Series which are also included in Appendix 1. ‘The National Physical Laboratory (NPL) Methodical Screw Series: ‘Much of the work at NPL on model propellers was concemed with the effects of detailed changes in the geometrical factors influencing screw performance rather than on the provision of standard series data covering a wide range of design conditions. The factors investigated included lowpitch, biade width, biade section shape and blade thickness. O"Brien (2] aotes that some of :he eariier « by Baker and Riddle (29] provides valuable information on basic aspects of arope! tial model propellers of the Troost Series were based on this work ‘The Newton-Rader Series: This series was developed in the United Kingdom for high speed craft and tested at the cavitation tunnel of Vosper Thomycraft Lid, [14]. The main features of this series are the hollow-faced blade sections and the significantly low minimum test cavitation number. The Newton-Rader propellers are of special interest to the high speed boat designer since they were specially designed to operate under cavitating conditions, even though they are not supercavitating propellers in the usual sense of the term It is also to be noted that they maintain an acceptable efficiency at both non-cavitating and cavitatin: conditions. Kozhulcharov [31] has regressed this data and presented it in a polynomial format whic has been included in Appendix 1. It is noted however, that the authors were unable to obtain reasonable K, and Ka values utilizing this data. Supercavitation Series: ‘Ata point where the cavitation on the back of a propeller results in a condition where the blade is no longer wetted the propeller is operating in a supercavitation regime. Figure 8 indicates the region where this can be expected [39] Figure 8: Design Ranges for High-Speed PropellersThe theoretical determination of the lift and drag characteristics of supercavitating sect the selection of optimum shape for the face was first presented by Tulin (32]. Rutgersson (3: carried out testing of a series of Tulin type section propellers at the Swedish State Model Basin (SSP) Tachmindji and Morgan (34] have presented a series based on theoretical computations by Caster [15] at the David Taylor Model Basin [DTMB] rather than model testing. Venning and Haberman (36] have presented additional data developed by Caster (37] at DTMB extending his work on theoretical series to include two and four bladed supercavitating propellers. ns and S Skew Bladed Propellers: Cummins [38] et al have presented theoretical and experimental data on highly skewed propellers, including open water characteristics for ahead and astern operation of four propeliers as shown in Figure 9. The following advantages and disadvantages are considered: © Decrease in propeller - induced unsteady bearing forces and moments. © Decrease in propeller - induced unsteady pressure forces. 2 Decreased susceptibility to cavitation when operating in a wake. Decreased backing efficiency. Additional difficulty in manufacturing. © Strength related problems for very high skew and for backing conditions. Tandem and Contrarotating Propellers: Hadler et al (40] have presented some open water data on these arrangements of two propellers on one centerline wherein the tandem propellers are on one shaft and the contrarotating propellers are on two concentric oppositely rotating shafts. Contrarotating propellers have the potential to improve efficiency. Tandem propellers have the potential of mitigating propeiler-induced vibration and would be less expensive than the contrarotating or twin-screw arrangements they would mock Thrusters Ducted Propellers: ‘The ducted propeller consists of an arrangement wherein a propeller is surrounded by a relatively short annular ring. Where the cross-sectional contour of the nozzle tends to slow the inflow to the propeller itis called a decelerating nozzle and the opposite an accelerating nozzle. The ducted propeller with the accelerating flow type nozzle is now used extensively in cases where the vessel screw is heavily loaded or where the screw is limited in diameter. The decelerating flow type of nozzle may be useful in the retardation of propeller cavitation. -26-have been conducted at MARIN and e K,-4-70 propel Extensive syst results presented in the literature atic experiments on ducced 9 regression coetficients fo accelerating nozzles 19A and 37 [3] and others [41]. The regression coefficients for the K, propellers in nozzles 19 and 37 are included in Appendix | Waterjets: Waterjets usually consist of an impeller or pump inside the hull which draws water trom outside. imposes on it an acceleration, and discharges it astern as a jet at a higher velocity. It is therefore 2 reaction device exactly like a more standard propeller, but with moving parts within the hull and ducted to through a long “nozzle". Accordingly, its petformance could be treated in a manner sim propellers, however, K;-Kg data is not generally available for thrusters although procedures for determining these relationships are, e.g. [42] and (39) Kee 0° SKEW 36° SKEW 72° SKEW 108° SKEW Figure 9: Projected View of Skewed Propeller SeriesVertical Axis Propellers ‘These propellers consist of an arrangement where a number of perpendicularly mounted blades rotate around a vertical axis. Through a special mounting mechanism, each blade experiences such a movement that a thrust is created. They are also called cycloidal propellers. Where the blade is so ‘mounted that the perpendiculars from the blade always pass through a point eccentric to the rotation axis and within the blade circle they are of the Voith-Schneider type. The advantage of vertical-axis propellers lies in the fact that the propeller thrust can be used for steering and stopping the ship without stopping or changing the direction of rotation of the main engine. This makes it particularly suitable for the propulsion of ships that operate in crowded and restricted waters. Van Manen [43] has presented open water resuits of these propellers and developed an optimum ficiency curve as shown in Figure 6. As can be seen the efficiency of these propellers is less than other types. ym Seri ‘The propeller characteristic databases have been based on the tests or analyses of model propellers of specific design carried out under selected and controlled environmental conditions Further, testing programs for individual series have been conducted at different times and perhaps under somewhat different conditions. In designing propellers or making performance estimates from propeller series data, it may be necessary to depart from some of the basic features of the standard design. If this results in the performance of the near-standard screws differing from that given by series data, then correction factors are needed to make allowance for the discrepancies. As aresult, correction and adjustment factors have been developed over the years to accomplish the following: 2 Correction factors to unify the individual series test data. 2 Adjustment factors to extend the series to somewhat different propeller characteristics. 2 Adjustment factors to modify the series performance data to account for differing environmental conditions. Correction Factors: As previously mentioned, a Reynolds number correction has been derived for the NSMB B- Series propeller to account for its variation in the test results obtained over a span of many years and to correct the performance data for actual operating conditions [18]. The approach to developing the correction factor was the methods developed by Lerbs [44] which has also been applied to the SSPA Standard Series [47,48] and the Newton Rader Series [14]. --28-Adjustment for Different Propellers: The correction factors discussed herein are strictly applicable to screws of a standard series type and can be considered for those propellers which are near the standard. O'Brien (2} for exampie discusses these adjustments in detail and gives typical values and equations for their estimation for certain cases and propeller series. wance for change in blade area ratio is usually made by linear interpolation of performance data between two standard values of blade area ratio above and below the required value. For some propellers which lie outside the range of blade area ratio covered by the series data, it may be necessary to make an extrapolation. Blade thickness changes to the standard propeller impact a number of the performance characteristics. An increase in the blade thickness at a constant advance coefficient would increase the thrust at a greater increase in torque with a resulting reduction in efficiency with an attendant greater susceptibility to cavitation. At constant thrust the rate of rotation would decrease. It has been shown for the NSMB B-Series [18] that in those cases where it can be assumed that an increase or decrease in blade section thickness does not influence the effective camber and pisch the effect on thrust and torque can be determined by evaluating a new effective value for the Reynolds number as given in Appendix 1. The effects of changes in blade section shape are closely connected with those due to changes in pitch as the effect in variation in lift of one section to another can be counteracted for by an adjustment in pitch. Pitch corrections for propellers having different blade section shapes can be derived on the basis of equal effective pitch obtained by adding the section zero lift angle to the pitch angle. Propellers having different radial variations in pitch can be compared on a basis of their mean pitches A propeller having a boss of diameter greater than standard with all other characteristics constant would have the smaller blade surface area, lower thrust, torque and ef! Adjustment for Different Environment: The propeller operates under environmental conditions affected by the presence of the vessel hull, its appendages and speed, the propeller inclination dictated by the shaft line, its submergence and rotational speed. The presence of the vessel hull is accounted for in the hull related efficiencies previously discussed. The propeller submergence, rotational and forward speed affect the pressure field and the potential for cavitation which is then addressed by selection of a proper propeller series and adjustment of the blade area. Particularly on small craft with highly inclined shafts the flow into the propeller plane is oblique and not axial. As a resuit, the performance characteristics of the propeller must be adjusted. Several authors have considered this matter [28] -29-PROPELLER OPTIMIZATION AND SELECTION COMPUTER PROGRAM Introduction Propeller selection programs have been developed in the past by the US Navy (20] and numerous individuals and organizations for their own use. More recent programs have been indicated by MacPherson [50] and Hadler (21]. These have all varied significantly in their complexity, applicability automation, operating medium and user interface and availability. They have all however relied on ‘open water propeller performance data available in the literature as previously discussed herein. Traditional propeller selection methods have looked at the problem of optimizing diameter and pitch based on optimizing efficiency. With this as the foremost interest it has been left to the use evaluate the parameters to be selected and optimized and convert the particular problem in question to a form acceptable to the calculation procedure. The initial impetus in developing the program presented herein came from the authors having carried out many propeller selections with differing initial problem conditions ana observing that available methods did not readily address these varied cases. In fact this very situation had led other: in earlier times to develop varied design charts based on systematic series data as heretofore discussed Hadler [21] has developed a computer program to select an optimum propeller based on two design conditions for such vessels as icebreakers and tugs. Accordingly, a primary goal herein was to define ail potential problem initial conditions and desired output Another goal in developing the program presented herein was to provide for the introduction of different propeller data for analysis. As previously discussed, there is a wealth of open water propeller data available, much of which has been regressed and is currently in polynomial equation form. Later in this paper a procedure will be proposed for developing a polynomial equation format for additional propeller data, Consequently, it is evident that a means is needed to accept this varied and developing propeller data as it becomes necessary. Further, as the original U.S. Navy propeller selection program utilized a graphical representation of the Ky-Kq vs J data it was desired to allow for the incorporation of this approach, although it is unlikely to be of significant use in the future due to the more compact polynomial equations. Overall Program Structure Figure 10 shows the overall organization of the Propeller Selection and Optimization Program (PSOP) that was originally envisioned (7]. The section of the program within the dotted lines of Figure 10 has actually been developed and is contained herein. The developed program consists of the following general components: -30-aA. Figure 10: The Global Propeller Selection and Optimization ProgramA) Propeller Data B) User Data Input C) Optimization/Analysis Module D) Output Module In the description of the PSOP that is to follow, each of the above components will be discussed separately. Pt at: The first corhponent of the program loads the propeller series regression data from a data file consisting of coefficients and exponents to be used in the evaluation of K;-Kq polynomials in the for K, = £Cy (4 (P/D)I (EAR) (ZY (12) 0 Kg = 2Cq (% (P/D)i (EAR) (Zi (13) ‘These polynomials conform to the format developed for the B-Screw series [18], which was the first data utilized during the development of the program which can however, accommodate any other series data which adheres to this format. As an example, it currently also contains the Gawn AEW Series (25] and the Gawn KCA cavitating series (16]. The user may specify a file containing other regression coefficients, The B-series data currently also contains polynomial coefficients that are used to correct the Ky and Ke terms for Reynolds aumber effects. This correction may be employed at the option of the user. Data Input ‘The next component of the program allows the user to input information particular to the design case to be solved. In the interactive mode, the program prompts the user to select a particular desig case and then asks for the appropriate known values as outlined in Table 1. In all cases, the BAR and ‘number of blades must be specified as well as hull-related data consisting of values for wake fraction, thrust deduction, and relative rorative efficiency. It is at this point that the user may elect to enable or disable the B-series Reynolds Number correction. The user may then elect to go back and review or modity this data on the screen and then elect to save the data to a file for later use or recall data from a previously saved file, Optimization/Analysis Module ‘The Optimization/ Analysis module directs the analysis process based on the information given. Although each design case has its own particular set of quantities that must be known or calculated, it is possible to identify certain procedures which are commonly used in the analysis of these cases as shown in Table 4, 32.TABLE 4: PROPELLER SELECTION MATHEMATICAL PROCEDURES oe {mat is |GIVEN (BAR and no. T i | 26 be done [of blades for all}} Means of Execution | Calculate 3, /D |civen by Segression zormula | Ke | for Ke Calculate a, B/D Given by Regression formula Ve | for Ko | Solve for | P/D, kr Use the ‘Fibonacci Search’ 5 Solve for 2/D, Ko Use the “Fibonacci Search’ | J Solve for 3, ke (Use the ‘Fibonacci Search* e/D | Solve for J, Ko Use the ‘Fibonacci Search* P/D Maximize J Use the ‘Fibonacci Search* (vary 2/2) | | EO eee Solve for | oe, J Tuse the ‘Fibonacci Search* | j PD | \ Maximize ‘acne Use the "Nested Fibonacci \ (vary J, 2/D) | Search* ‘ \ Vcatculate | 2/0, J By using K+ and Ko ] directly from the Regression| ae formia Maximize F/D Use tha "Fibonacci Search" | a (vary J) given «T . (J, Re given) ue 2/D Solved BN airror inage of actual Cg P/D Figure 11: FIBID Search Technique <3Several of the procedures listed in Table 4 require the maximum or optimum point of a function to be calculated. Others require finding a point where the function attains a specific target value. The program utilizes the Fibonacci Search technique to accomplish both of these objectives. The Fibonacci Search technique is a method for determining the maximum or minimum value of a function in a unimodal range where the first derivative is equal to zero at only one point. It has been stated [51] that in a unimodal function range no technique can be guaranteed to find a minimum or maximum in less function evaluations than the Fibonacci Search and that practical experience indicates that the more complex the function,the more likely it is that the Fibonacci Search will be required. A more comprehensive treatment of this procedure is given in Appendix 2 ‘The Optimizer/Analysis module performs the analysis of the design case by evaluating the data input by the user and then directing the program execution through the appropriate procedures listed in Table 4. They are accomplished using several generalized subroutines to perform certain tasks common to all. These subroutines are discussed further below: FKT - Calculates K, directly from the regression polynomial given J, RPM, B, P/D, EAR, and Z. FKQ - Calculates Kg directly from the regression polynomial given J. RPM, D, Pid, EAR, and Z, FNU - Calculates open-water propeller efficiency using the routines FKT and FKQ. FIBLD - A one-dimensional Fibonacci Search which solves for the independent variable of a monotone function which is to attain a given target value. Figure 11 presents a graphic interpretation of how this is achieved. ~ A wo-dimensional (nested) Fibonacci Search using the advance coefficient, J, as the outside independent variable and calls FIBID with P/D as the inside variable. Then for each J, the routine matches P/D to a target K; or Kg and seeks the maximum efficiency. Based on the design case information given by the user, the Optimizer/Analysis routine will determine the appropriate sequence of procedures and supply target values for the Fibonacci Search subroutines. For example, consider the case where diameter, speed of advance, and thrust are given and an optimum RPM and P/D are sought. ‘The routine would perform a nested Fibonacci Search with J as the outside variable and P/D as the inside variable. In other words, for each J, the corresponding RPM is calculated and used to obtain a target Ky. A one-dimensional Fibonacci Search is then performed to match the P/D to the known Ke. At this point the efficiency is calculated. ‘The routine continues in this manner until maximum efficiency is achieved. Table 5 shows the strategies that are applied to the other design cases. As a result of similarities in variables and their analysis, a number of cases in Table 5 have been combined within PSOP resulting in 18 distinct cases that the program can currently handle as shown in Appendix 3. 34.TABLE 5: PROPELLER SELECTION PROGRAM SEQUENCES _ case Data Pibon. Outside Outside Inside Inside REM D Ve T Pd P/D Search Variable Target Varia) Target 2 OO Oo ere) I Opt Bfe = B/D xt 2 ¢¢¢c¢6¢ 2-0 z Opt Efe = B/D RQ 3 ¢G¢¢@6¢¢¢ 2-0 a KQ/a*3 P/D xT 4 ¢¢¢¢@Qqc 2-0 a RQ/a*3 P/D xT 5 ¢¢¢6¢c¢ G i+ z XT/g- 6 ¢¢@e¢c¢6¢6 1-0 o RQ/a-3 7 ¢¢¢6¢6¢6 1-0 a RQ/d*3 8 f¢$egGcc 2-0 a opt Err P/D xT 9 Se¢Geegec 2-5 z Opt Efe = -P/D KQ 10 @cGag@e¢c 20 g KQ/T*5 P/D RT aa ¢¢¢G¢66¢ iD P/D xT 12 ¢¢¢cGC¢ iD P/D xQ 23 ¢¢oce¢@c 15 P/D xQ 14 ecageccecc 15 ¢¢eccG¢G¢ ip a RQ 16 @o¢c¢c¢ G i-D z RT 17 ¢¢¢@6¢c 2-D a Opt Bff = P/D xT 18 e¢¢¢c¢c¢c¢ 1-0 z RT/g*2 19 @a¢cecceceé 20 ¢a¢¢coqc 1-d a KQ/o*3 21 G¢@¢ccec id P/D = Opt_Ert 22 ¢G¢¢¢¢6 isd a T/I*2 23 ¢¢¢¢6¢c 1-0 B/D xT 24 ¢¢¢c6¢c 10 P/D KQ 25 ¢cgoce¢ee 26 eecocea G= Given C= Calculated oe Bollard Q= Torque specifiedOnce the analysis has been completed. the program performs a rough cavitation check using the Keller Criterion [12] (discussed in Appendix 1, under B-Series) to guide the user in the selection of an appropriate blade area ratio, BAR. This check is performed at each design point analyzed by the program. Further, it is applied to all propeller types, e.g. B-Series. Gawn, etc., even though other cavitation criteria may be applicable as with the Gawn criteria cited in Appendix 1. At this time, the latter criteria have not been incorporated in the program and must be considered externally. Output Module Once the Optimizer/ Analysis module has completed its calculations, the Output Module takes over and presents the results of the analysis. Thrust, torque, and speed of advance may be presented in dimensional form or in non-dimensional coefficients of Ky, Ka, and J. For each point analyzed, the program displays values of speed of advance, V,, thrust and Kz, torque and Ka, diameter, RPM, P/D delivered power, and the Keller criterion BAR. In addition, the input values of BAR and number of blades is indicated. The output is displayed to the screen by default however, the user may elect to direct output to a file as well. eller Selection Program Computer Interface: The PSOP has been written in the FORTRAN 77 computer language and accordingly can be operated on any system with an applicable compiler. User Instructions: The user instructions are given in Appendix 3. The program is fully interactive and prompts the user for all required information. Accordingly, a structured format for input is neither appropriate nor presented Source Code Listing: The FORTRAN 77 Source Code Listing of the program is contained in Appendix 4. This listing has been obtained directly from a IBM compatible PC CONSIDERATIONS IN PROP! R SEL! Qverall Considerations At the outset of this paper a list of the main requirements for a ship propeller were given. Those requirements which can be addressed in the propeller selection process, once the hull lines and propeller/shafting arrangement has been identified, principally include efficiency, cavitation, propeller excited vibration, stopping and maneuvering abilities, and compatibility with the prime mover.The stopping and maneuvering abilities can be affected most by consideration of controllable reversible pitch propeller and other novel propellecirudder systems. The danger of cavitation and propeller excited vibration can be addressed by selecting a propeller type most suitable for the environment, ¢.g. Newton-Rader propellers for a high speed environment. skewed propellers to minimize vibration, and a number of blades consistent with the vibratory scenario. Figure 6 can give a quick indication as to which type of propeller will give the best efficiency for a given type of vessel. Additional attention can be given to this subject during the development of final blade section shape during the propeller design stage carried out later in the process as shown in Figure 2. During the initial design stages, the propeller selection process can best address the maximization of efficiency in terms of the selection of principal propeller characteristics, precaution against cavitation erosion, compatibility with the prime mover and manufacturing. Efficiency Utilizing the series data heretofore discussed allows for the investigation of optimum propeller efficiency as itis affected by the principal propeller characteristics of diameter, RPM, piten, blade number and blade area. In general, the larger and slower turning the propeller the higher the efficiency, however, other factors limit the application of this simplistic approach, Most prominent are restrictions in the maximum propeller diameter introduced by the hull, limitation in RPM due to the propelling machinery, and operating conditions experienced after the vessel has been in service for a period of time. ‘The amount of power which a propeller will absorb at a given vessel speed will vary with the condition of the propeller, the surface condition of the hull, the drait and trim of the vessel and the sea and wind conditions, A typical propeller power absorption characteristic for a trial condition, with the hull and propeller clean and smooth, at a particular draft and trim, and in calm sea’ and wind conditions, is showa in Figure 12. In service, the power absorption characteristic (at the same draft and trim, and even in calm seas and winds) will move up and to the left as shown, reflecting the fact that at any particular service speed, an increased amount of power will be absorbed by the propeller as the condition of the hull and propeller deteriorate through roughening and fouling. The sea margin is defined as the difference between the power required to achieve a particular speed in the trial condition, and the power required to achieve the same speed in service. The extent and rate of increase of propeller power absorption in service can be limited by the use of advanced hull coatings and by frequent cleaning or other reconditioning of the hull and propeller. Sea margins of up to 20 percent are common when weather effects are limited, but when allowances for extreme weather are included the margin will be higher. The lower portion of Figure 12, shows the relation between the RPM of a fixed pitch propeller and the speed of the vessel. This relation enables the power requirements of the vessel 37.to be corel fed with the output of the prime mover. Controllable pitch propellers permit adjustment of the propeller power absorption curve to help to compensate for deteriorating condition of the hull and propeller, but this alone is usually not sufficient reason to fit one PUUER ABSORECD BY PRUPLLLC PROPELLER eH eotage lt | pee je - avezace, seavice eSattion rata. Soiree AVERAGE SERVICE SPEED Figure 12: Speed-Power Curves -38- sent sours.The most cost effective propeller design should be d that balance the propulsive efficiency against weight and cost of the grime ansmission and consider the operat ie propeller is most likely to perience. However, the varying circumstances just discussed tend to cloud the matter of selecting a propeller design point. Furthermore, the efficiency curve of a propeller, as shown in Figure 4 for example, is rather flat at the top and consequently the design RPM can vary somewhat without materially affecting the efficiency. In some cases as with tugs or icebreakers where high thrust must be developed at very different speeds in the free-route versus towing or icebreaking conditions respectively, the demands must be balanced and considered on a case by case basis mined by trade-otf considerations The effect of hull fouling can be weated in a more universal way. Propeller characteristics are such that the propeller can be designed to operate at an RPM somewhat higher than that corresponding to the maximum propulsive efficiency without incurring a serious efficiency penalty. During service as the ship siows and the propeller roughens, rated power is developed at progressively lower RPM values, but as the propeller has been designed for the higher RPM, its efficiency remains stable neglecting the effects of deterioration in service. Selecting the higher RPM also has the beneficial effect of reduced propelling machinery costs as the rated torque will be lower. Waterjets have some of their own characteristic considerations. Experience with these is discussed by Svensson (52] and additional data is provided by Krupa (39). Cavitation Cavitation forms on marine propellers are mainly of the fixed or attached and the vortex type occurring in shear flow (3]. These types can be subdivided in accordance to their position on the propeller, e.g. face and back cavitation, or in accordance with the physical nature of the cavitation, e.g. sheet and bubble, etc, It usually occurs in highly loaded propellers where there is a breakdown in thrust beyond a certain critical revolution. It manifests itself as noise, vibration and erosion of the propeller blades, struts and rudders, and eventually affects the ability of a vessel to teach its desired speed. Nowadays it is assumed that cavitation damage is primarily caused by the process of cavitation bubble collapse on the propeller blade surface. When it is impossible or impractical to avoid such a cavitating condition steps should be taken to minimize the impact. Firstly, the loading of the blades should be sufficiently reduced. When utilizing methodical test series the data in Figure 5 as well as the Keller Criterion [12] which has been incorporated in the Propeller Selection Program are useful in identifying a suitable loading and blade area. As a note, prevention of cavitation erosion may be enhanced by choosing suitable propeller materials or by applying protective, metallic or non-metallic coatings. In the case of higher speed applications, Figure 8 can be utilized to determine whether propellers designed to operate under cavitating conditions should be utilized. In this case, -39-additional design information is provided by Kruppa (39] and Vennit provide significant design information for supescavitating propellers Compatibility With Prime Mover Figure 12 indicates the relationship between the propeller power absorption curve and the vessel speed-power characteristics. At any steady state operating conditions these must match. As can be seen from the general and schematic representation in Figure 12 for the trial and service conditions noted the propeller absorbs the same power at different RPM's. For a fixed pitch propeller this is identical to saying that the propeller absorbs the same power at different torque: Q = SHE (as) N Gas turbines and steam turbines tend to be constant-power machines such that within limits, if rated torque is reached at an RPM that is somewhat less than rated, additional torque is developed until rated power, corresponding to the flow through the power turbine, is reached. This could naturally allow for the variation in RPM and torque relatiorship shown in Figure 12. Diesel engines on the other hand have no significant over-torque capability. The torque developed by a diesel engine is proportional to the cylinder pressure, which has definite limits. Therefore, when the engine is producing its maximum torque, it may produce only the maximum power at maximum RPM as opposed to gas and steam turbines. In service, if the load on the diesel engine requires more than the engine s rated torque, the engine will become overloaded with resulting deterioration of performance and increased maintenance. For this reason, propellers should be designed so that during sea trial conditions, wien they are new, they develop rated power at an RPM that is a small percentage faster than rated. During service as ‘he ship slows and the propeller roughens, rated power is developed at progressively lower RPM values, but still within the continuous service power rating (torque) of the main engine. This consideration is important in the design of all types of propulsion plants, but it is of particular importance with diesel-driven ships, because the shaft horsepower that can be developed and consequently the ship speed, can otherwise be limited. SNAME (531 and Kresic and Haskell [541 give suggestions for the selections the design point for diesel engine applications and conclude that it is prudent to investigate the engine-propeller compatibility over all operating conditions. fanufacturing Even the simplest screw propeller with constant pitch, flat face blade sections and symmetrical blade outline is a comparatively complicated geometric object. To produce a patter, a mold, and finally a casting which conforms to all the requirements of pitch, rake, track, blade spacing, blade width, blade thickness and shape,and also the specific material physical and chemical properties, all without detrimental effects, is a significant accomplishment. -40-Deviation from simpie screw geometry or material inevitably adds. co: manufacturing process. As an example. the B-Series propellers with their airfoil shape a rounded leading edge are more difficult to manufacture than the Gawn-Burzill propetiers with flat face and a back of circular arc. APPROACH TO ADDITIONAL DATA BASES General The availability of propeller selection computer programs such as that presented herein has heightened the need for K;-Kq vs J propeller data in polynomial format as given in equations [12] and [13]. The usefulness of such mathematical expressions would even extend to an expression of the Ky-Kq vs J for a single propeller. As an example, a vessel operator could quickly evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of different towboats fitted with different propellers more accurately utilizing the actzal performance data of those propellers. OBrien [2] presents a procedure for modifying standard series data to suit a non-standard propeller. Herein an approach is proposed for consideration which directly develops polynomial - expressions based on data of the derived prpeller. It does require the availability of a relatively simple regression analysis software package that is readily available from a number of sources for PC computers. Approach The mathematical modelling of propeller open water data to arrive at polynomial expressions is accomplished by regression analysis wherein the raw data for Ky-Kq vs Jis fitted with two single curves, each representing its least squares fit to the data. Radojcic [16] has recounted the evolution: () Test data of a single propeller may be satisfactorily represented by a third degree polynomial. Ky Kg = C+ CJ + C2 + OP as) (2) For a series with all parameters constant except P/D van Lammeren and van Manen [17] derived a ten term polynomial of sixth order for the B-Series. (3) For a series where only blade number is a constant van Lammeren and van Manen [17] have derived a sixth order polynomial of from 17 to 25 terms for the B-Series. “41.(4) For variations of all parameter Oosterveld and Oossanen [18] derived a sixth order polynomial of trom 39 to 47 terms for the B-Series ‘A number of investigations [16,25] have utilized the B-Series polynomial expressions with modification to the coefficients for representing other propeller type series. Obviously as discussed above the more extensive the range of data the more involved the mathematical complexity becomes. This previous work can be utilized to mathematize miscellaneous propeller data for utilization within a propeller selection program in an analysis mode where “what if Scenarios can be investigated with a known propeller. Fortunately, as can be seen from the equation description above if a numerical representation is desired for a single fixed pitch propeller or a single controllable pitch propeller, the mathematical representation is less tenuous. This is considered in more detail by Daidola and Reyling [55] and software is provided to aid in the analyses. As an example of the results consider a towboat controllable pitch propeller for which open water test results were available for four pitch settings [55]. The regressed coefficients are give in Table 6 and the calculated efficiency curves using these coefficients are show in Figure 13 and exhibit no appreciable difference to those of the open water tests. These coefficients are used in one of the design. example problems of the next section which utilize this propeller. CASE STUDIES General The case study examples given below are intended to demonstrate some of the PSOP capabilities and to describe its output. Table 7 presents data for the three examples’ vessel hull and propulsion system characteristics which were available as background information or for input into the program: Where the word "varies" appears in the table, it is intended to indicate that a curve or vector of data was available. a2.ney ken 0 oz O Piteh = 1790 mm ° Pitch = 1270 mm Model $e, 222 (CPt) 4 0s 08 3 + Piteh = 1590 mm © Piteh = 1000 mm Figure 13: CPP Calculated Efficiency from Regression 0,0 0.047 0.0031 ADA AD,2 A0,3 0.0886 0.291 0.200 B01 B02 60,3 0.0084 -0.013 0.037 ALO AM AILS AZ ABO ABT 0.49 1.18 -0.016 1.0187 0.0621 ~0.465 B11 B13 820 823 86,0 86,1 0.0 0.12 0.0573 0.1072 0.0204 ~0.047TABLE 7: Case Si idy Vessels - Data Given VESSEL CUDDY CABIN CONTAINERSHIP HARBOR TUG PORT FISHERMAN Hull Characteristics LOA 32-6" 715'-0" LBP 30"-0" 685'-0" Beam 10"-9° 103" Speed 40 knots varies varies ‘ 9000 tbs 22,400 L-Tons 400L.Tons Propulsion EHP 355 varies varies 1.0 1.03 varies 1.0 1.047 varies - 22'-0" 755° - 1.082 varies = 50 4000(engine) 300 3 3 Example | - Cuddy Cabin Sport Fisherman this example demonstrates the PSOP’s optimization capabilities. The objective is to select the optimum propeller for a small cuddy cabin sport fishing vessel which requires 335 EHP to travel at a speed of 40 knots. Available propeller design data for this craft had utilized the Newton-Rader propellers but as previously mentioned, it was not possilbe for the authors to obtain valid Ky-Ke data with the regression polynomials available in Reference (31]. As a result, the Gawn KCA cavitating propeller series operating at a cavitation number of 0.5 were utilized for this case. The vessel has an engine RPM of 4000 and a choice of possible reduction ratios of 1:1, L'4:1 and 2:1. The approach, therefore, is to determine the optimum diameter and pitch for each possible reduction ratio. This problem corresponds to Case Number 8 from Table 4. The program requires as input the RPM, vessel speed, and required thrust as calculated from the EHP. Additionally, the user must input a blade area ratio, which is assumed to be 0.71 for this example. Based on the above data, the program produced the following results which compare reasonably with results of manual analyses for this vessel utilizing Newton-Radar propellers: 44.Reduction Ratio LL 100 Proveiler RPM 4 Optimum Diam. (Ft.) 1.193 Optimum Pitch 1.129 Prop. Efficiency 0.6727 Required DHP 527 cam tain HP Estimate In this example, a DHP curve is to be constructed for a containership with stock NSMB B- Series propeller and a known EHP curve and propulsive coefficients, The propeller particulars are: Diameter 22 ft. PID 1.082 BAR 0.83 This example corresponds to Case Number 5 in Table 5. The program requires as input the propeller diameter, blade area ratio, and P/D, the vessel speed-thrust curve as calculated from the EHP data, and the wake fraction, thrust deduction, and relative rotative efficiency data. - The resulting program output is presented in Table 8. The corresponding DHP curve is presented in Figure 14, along with the original EHP data for the vessel. ug with CP Propelle: This example serves to demonstrate the program’s ability to utilize independently Obtained propeller regression series. The series used for this problem is the CPP tug propell data based on the regression coefficients listed in Table 6, The objective of this example is to determine the correct pitch for a controllable pitch propeller fitted on a harbor tug to develop a rated horsepower of 1150 at 300 RPM. The free- running vessel speed at this RPM and power is also desired. The propeller diameter is 7.55 tt and the BAR is 0.50. Model test data for the tug is available. This example corresponds to Case Number 11 in Table 3 where diameter, design horsepower, and design RPM are known and a speed-thrust curve is available. The program found the correct P/D for full power adsorption at rated RPM to be 0.683, which may be compared with a P/D of 0.680 found by manual calculation. The corresponding free-running speed at this pitch was found to be 12.96 knots. The program output for this example is presented in Table 9. -45-24 22 Vessel Speed, Knots 20 Figure 14: Containership Speed/Power -46-TABLE 8: Program Output for Containership PROPELLER ANALYSIS RESULTS NO. BLADES = ‘ BLADE AREA RATIO = 8.3000002-001, HUB IMMERSION = v xts 1a.00 20.00 THRUST 149270. 189352. ‘TORQUE 618912. 734351. HP 9209. 13120: uP 6573. 9317. PITCH 23.80 23.80 DIAM, 22.000 22.000 RPM 30.757 90.420 NON-DIMENSTONAL DATA P/D 1,082 1,082 Jop +7360 +7800 xT I17s6 11787 KQ +0332 10337 STA 16614 16586 MIN SAR 2446 513 Stop - Program terminated. Cr \FORTRAN> 16.0000000 Fr 22,00 240325. 391704. 38446. 24.00 301815. 31239015, 25472, 47840, 23.80 22,000 aihiaia 4.082 +7620 tise 10382 1649t TABLE 9: Program Output for Tug PROPELLER ANALYSIS RESULTS NO. BLADES = 2 BLADE AREA RATIO = 5, 000000E-001 HUB IMMERSION = v xrs 12.00 12.25 THRUST 12095. 12420. TORQUE i639. 12008, DEP az. 703. EHP 357, 378. PITCH 4.02 4.32 DIAM. 7.546 7.546 REM 300.000 300,000 NON-DIMENSIOWAL DATA P/D 533 +546 yop 4083 +4138 xr 10750 10770 xQ * .9086 19099 BTA 0 15089 15140 MIN BAR, 371 376 Stop - Program terainated. C2 \ PORTRAN> 10,0000000 FT 12.75 15667. 14950. 876, 49a. 4.60 7.546 300.000 +609 +4307 10972, 10133 13420 +422 -47- 13.00 20588. 19709. 1155. 657. 5.17 7.546 300,900 -635 14392 11274 10162 1sson 1492 32.96 20501. 19624. 1180. 654. 5.15 7.546 300,000 683 4978 a7. toner tease +490 Las LBS aag54= pitch angie rake angle number of blades = P/D = Pitch ratio Pitch Diam = UD = blade thickness ratio equivalent blade thickness at the axis of rotation aD = boss ratio = diameter of boss rojected area ratio developed area ratio projected area of blades leveloped area of blades -xpanded area of blades = EAR Brake Horsepower Effective Horsepower haft Horsepower DHP = Delivered Horsepower = P, Q = Torque n= Shaft RPM N = Shaft revolutions T = Thrust THP = Thrust Horsepower Vy = Speed of Advance Vs = Ship or Craft Speed 1g = Behind the hull efficiency R= resistance of the immersed hull and the air resistance of the superstructure ng = felative rotative efficiency ty = hull efficiency 1 = propeller open water efficiency behind the hull efficiency K, = propeller thrust coefficient = propeller torque coefficient coefficient of advance 1 = arbitrary radius thrust load coefficient = T/(4p Ap Vy, water density radius of propeller = D/2 -48-REFERE: 1. Principles of Naval Architecture, SNAME, 1967, O'Brien, T.P., The Design of Marine Screw Propellers, Hutchinson & Co., Ltd., 3. Principles of Naval Architecture, Vol.II, SNAME, 1988. 5 5. Van Oossanen, P., "Calculation of Performance and Cavitation Characteristics of Propeller including Effects of Non-uniform Flow and Viscosity," NSMB Report 457, f., Sabathé, P. and Guieysse, L., “Acoustique Sous-Marine," Dunod Paris, 1944. > 8 9. Troost, L, "Open Water Test Series with Modern Propeller Forms,” Trans. NECI, (0. Thornycroft, JI. and Barnaby, J.W., “Torpedo Boat Destroyers,” Minute of Proc. of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. 122, part IV, 1894-1895 IL. Burrill, L.C., "Developments in Propeller Design and Manufacture for Merchant Ships," Trans. of the Institute of Marine Engineers, 1943. ES van Manen, J.D., “The Choice of the Propeller," SNAME MT, pp.159-171, No. April 1966. Netherlands, 1974. 1962. Daidola, John C., Optimal Propeller Selection from Systematic Series, Univ. of Mich., 1972 (unpublished), Taylor, D.W., The Speed and Power of Ships, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1943 1950-51 12, Keller, J. aufim, "Enige Aspecten Bij Het Antwerpen Van Scheepsschroeven,” Schip en 13. Gawn, R.W.L., Effect of Pitch and Blade Width on Propeller Performance, INA Werf, No. 24, 1966. Vol.95, 1953. \4. Newton, R.N., Rader, H.P., "Performance Data of Propellers for High-Speed Craft," RINA Quarterly Trans., April, 1961. 15. Caster, E.B., "TMB 3-Bladed Supercavaitating Propeller Series," DTMB Report 1193, ‘Aug. 1957. -49-18 19 27. 28. 29. Radojcic, D., “Mathematical Mode! of Segmental Section Propeller Series for Open- Water and Cavitating Conditions Applicable in CAD," SNAME Propeller Symposium, 1988. van Lammeren, W.P.A., van Manen, J.D., and Oosterveld, M.W.C.. “The Wageningen B-Screw Series," SNAME Trans., 1969. Oosterveid, M.W., P.van Ossanen, "Further Computer-Analysed Data of the Wageningen B Screw Series," International Shipbuildung Progress, Vol.22, No.251, July 1975. W.P.A. van Lammeren, L. Troost, and J.G. Konig, “Resistance, Propulsion and Steering of Ships," H. Stam Haarlem, Netherlands, 1948, Chase A, MRMR (Computer Program), NAVSEA, U.S. Navy, 1967. Hedler, J.B., "The Selection of an Optimum Propelier for Commercial Ships," NTIS MA-RD-840-39002, November, 1988. . Lerbs, H.W., "Moderately Loaded Propellers with a Finite Number of Blades and an Arbitrary Distribution of Circulation,” Transactions, SNAME, Vol. 60, 1952. Eckhardt, M.K. and Morgan, W.B., "A Propeller Design Method,” Transactions, SNAME, Vol. 63, 1955 . Taylor, D.W., "The Speed and Power of Ships,” US Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1943. Blount, D.L., Hubble, E.N., Propellers for Small Craft, Sizing Segmental Section Commercially Available Propellers 1981, SNAME Symposium, 1981. Burrill, L.C., Emerson, A., "Propeller Cavitation: Some Observations from 16 ins, Propeller Tests in the New King’s College Cavitation Tunnel," NECIES, Vol.70, 1953. Gawn, R.W.L., and Burrill, L., "Effect of Cavitation in the Performance of a Series of 16 ins. Model Propellers," INA, Vol.99, 1957. Propellers "88 Symposium, SNAME, 1988. Baker, G.S. and Riddle, A.W., "Screw Propellers of Varying Blade Section in Open Water," Parts I and II, INA, Vols. 74 and 76, 1932 and 1934. -50-30. 41 42. . Tachmindji, A.J. and Morgan, W.B., “The Design and Estimated Performance of a Kozhukharov, P.G., "Regression Analysis of Gawn-Burriil Series for Application in iputer-Aided High-Speed Propeller Design," Proc. 5th Int. Coné. on Hi Speed Surface Craft, Southampton, May 1986. Kozhukharov, P.G., Zlatev, Z.Z.., "Cavitation Propeller Characteristics and Their Use in Propeller Design,” High Speed Surface Craft Conference, London, May. 1983. Tulin, M.P., "Supercavitating Flow Past Foils and Struts," Natural Physical Laboratory Symposium on Cavitation in Hydrodynamics, 1955 « Rutgersson, 0., "Supercavitating Propeller Performance Influence of Propeller Geometry and Interaction Between Propeller, Rudder and Hull," Joint Symposium on Design and Operation at Fluid Machinery, Fort Coilins, Colorado, June 10-14, 1978. Series of Supercavitating Propeller Washington, D.C., 1958. Second Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics, Kozhakhorov, P.G., "Creation and Utilitzation of Data Base for Design and Analysis of Cavitating Screw Propellers,” SNAME Propeller Symposium, 1988, Venning,"E. and Haberman, W.L., “Supercavitating Propeller Performance," Trans. SNAME, 1962 pp. 354-417. Caster, E.B., "TMB 2-, DTMB Report 1637, }-,4-Bladed Supercavitating Propeller Serie - Cummins, R.A., Morgan, W.B. and Boswell. R.J., "Highly Skewed Propellers,” SNAME Trans., 1972. Kruppa, C.F.L., "High Speed Propellers, Hydrodynamics and Design," University of Michigan, 1967. Hadler, J.B., Morgan, W.B., and Meyers, K.A., "Advanced Propeller Propulsion tor High-Powered Single-Screw Ships," Trans. SNAME, 1964. Gent, W. van and Oosterveld, M.W.C., “Ducted Propeller Systems and Energy Saving, Proceedings International Symposium on Ship Hydrodynamics and Energy Savings, Madrid, 1983. Daidola, J.C. et al, "Propulsion Systems for Slow Amphibians," SNAME Propeller Symposium, 1981. orvan Manen, J.D., "Results of Systematic Tests with Vertical Axis Propellersn, NSMB Publication No. 235b, 1966, also International Shipbuilding Progress, Vol. 13, 44. Lerbs, H.W., “On the Effect of Scale and Roughness on Free Running Porpellers.” Journal ASME, 1951. 45, Burrill, L.C., Emerson, A., "Propeller Cavitation: Further Tests on 16in. Propeller Models in the King’s College Cavitation Tunnel," Int. Shipbuilding Progress, Vol. 10, No: 104, April 1963. 46. Emerson, A., Sinclair, L., "Propeller Cavitation: Systematic Series Tests on 5- and 6- Bladed Model Progellersn, Trans. SNAME, 1967. 47. Lindgren, H., "Model Tests with a Family of Three and Five bladed Propellers,” SSPA publication No. 47, 1961. 48. Lindgren, H. and Bjarne, E., “The SSPA Standard Propeller Family Open Water Characteristics," Publication No. 60, SSPA, 1967. 49. Mavludov, M.A., Roussetsky, A.A., Sadovnikov, Y.M., Fisher, E.A., Propellers for High-Speed Ships, Sudostroenie, Leningrad, 1982, (in Russian). 50. MacPherson, D.M., "Reliable Propeller Selection for Work Boats and Pleasure Craft: Technique Using a Personal Computer," Fourth Biennial SNAME Power Boat Symposium, 1990. 51. Dixon, L.C.W., Nonlinear Optimization, the English Universities Press, 1973 52. Svensson, R., “Experience with Water Jet Propulsion in the Power Range Up To 10,000 KW, SNAME Power Boat Symposium, 1985. ‘Marine Diesel Power Plant Practices," SNAME T&R Bulletin No. 3-49. 54, Kresic, M. and Haskell, B., "Effect of Propeller Design-Point Definition on the Performance of a Propeller/Diesel Engine System with Regard to In-Service Roughness and Weather Conditions," SNAME Trans., 1983. 55, Daidola, J. C. and Reyling, C.J. SNAME Chesapeake Section, September, 1991. "Polynomial Representations of Propreller Characteristics," 56. Wilde, D.J., and Beightler, C.S., Foundations of Optimization, Prentice Hall, 1967. 57. Nowacki, H., “Computer-Aided Ship Design Lecture Notes," The University of Michigan, Dept. ¢ Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, Report No. 018, 1969 eaeAPPENDIX 1 PROPELLER SERIES POLYNOMIALS 8-Series Table A-i gives the coefficients and terms for othe Kr and Ko of the 8- Series propellers. Table A-2 gives the correction for Reynolds nunber where: Co.7sm \|Va? + (0.75nqD)? fe (A-L) co.7sm = chord length at 0.75 radius ° = ‘kinematical viscosity The polynomials in Tables A-1 and A-2 are for the blade thickness - chord length ration equal to: (0.185-0.001252) t/eo.7se = (A+2) 2.073R2/A0TABLE A-1: B-SERIES COEFFICIENTS AND TERMS OF THE Kx AND Ko POLYNOMIALS [FOR Rn = 2x 10°} as UIP /D PAG ASIEN Gans UMIP/D PAG ADE) PFOA TAIE K Case s+ ae = a saucsenocccncunnuaacoconsupornoonnonnos heniernnnocenmnenHcoonbennERnHrnnoceernnneces Le AZKe = Ko = When it can be assumed that an increase or decrease in blade section thickness relative to Equation A-2 does not influence the effective camber and effect on thrust and torque can be ascertained by calculating an pitch, the + POLYNOMIAL FOR B-SERIES REYNOLDS NUMBER CORRECTION {ABOVE Rn = 2 x 10%] 0.000353485 -0.00333758(Ax/Ao) J? -0.00478125(Ae/Ao) (P/D)I +0,000257792(LogRn-0.301)7 + (Az/Ao)J? +0,0000641392(LogRa-0.301) (2/D}*, J? -0.0000110636(logRn-0.301)(P/D)°J? 00000276305 (1ogRn-0.301)#Z(Ae/Ao) J +0.0000954 (1ogRa-0.301)2(An/Ao) (P/D)F +0.0000032049(1ogRn-0.301)2?(Ax/Ao) (P/D)75 -0,000891412 +0.00696898(P/D) -0,00006666542(P/D)* +0.0160818(Az/Ao)? -0 000938091 ( LogRa-0.30L) (2/D} -0.00059593(LogRa-0.301)(P/D)? +0.0000782099( logRn-0.301)7(2/D)? +0.0000052199( LogRn~0.30L)Z(Az/Ao) J? -0.00000088528( logRa-0.301)?2(Az/Ao) (P/D}I +0,0000230171 ( LogRa~0.301)2(P/D)® 000000184341 (1ogRa-0.301)#2(P/D)* 000400252 (LofRn-0.301) (Az/Ao)? +0,000220915(1ogRa~0.301}#(Ae/Ao)* effective new value for the Reynolds number according to: a{t/etom=m 7 oo « (anino.ven = 4.6052) | 142(t/c)*0.75R \ 4 Rino.75R = effective Reynolds number for a change in (t/c)o.7s" Adand (t/c}to.7se = new t/c value at 0.758 An indication as to the required blade area ratio of fixed pitch propeller can be obtained by the formula from Keller [18,12]: Ae = (1,340.32) Bo _ (Po - Pv)+D? where Ae Ao + expanded blade area ratio number of blades propeller trhust in kg static pressure at centerline of propeller shaft in kg/n? vapor pressure in kg/m? constant which can be set equal to 0 for fast twin-screw ships 0.10 for other twin-screw ships 0.20 for single-screw ships AEW Gawn Series/Commercial Segmental Section Propellers Table A-3 gives the coefficients for the X= and Ko of the AEW Gawn Series/Commercial Segmental Section Propellers [25]. The 10 percent back cavitation line for go.7= can be represented by the equation te = 0.494 09-88 (4) and is used as a desisgn criteria for adequate blade area to avoid performance degradation and cavitation erosion.TABLE A-3: COEFFICIENTS AND TERMS OF Kz and Ka POLYNCHIALS (ytThe maximum Kr is represented by te = 1.2 go.7n (a-5) in the transition (partially cavitating) region. te becomes constant in the fully cavitating region and can be represented as te = tex = 0.0725 (P/D) - 0.0340 (EAR) (a6) The maximum torque loading coefficient de in the transition region for go.7n is given by Qe = 0.2 (2/D) of9-7 = 0-38 ceaRvo.o1 (a-7) and in the fully cavitating region Qe = Gex = (0.0185 (P/D)? - 0.0166 (P/D)] + 0.00594] /EAR (A-8) ‘These relations are applicable for #/D from 0.6 to 2.0 and for EAR from 0.5 to 1.1. The assumption is made that they apply to 4-bladed as well as 3- bladed segmental propellers, since a similar analysis of Wageningen B-screw series cavitation data for 4-bladed and 5-biaded propellers showed no substantial difference with number of blades. For design purposes it has been suggested [25] that a factor of 80 percent be applied to te and Qe in the transition zone but not to tex and Qc for the fully cavitating regime. KCA Gawn-Burrill Propellers The coefficient for the Kr and Ko polynomials are given in Table A-4. For up to 10 percent back cavitation the DAR can be expressed as: DAR2Kt+ [0.1937 (do/(1-w) 7) 9(1.067-0.229-(P/D)) + (5744, 84)0- 22g 76]-* (a9) A-6TABLE A-4: COEFFICIENTS AND TERMS OF Kr and Ko POLYNOMIALS FOR OPEN-WATER CONDITIONS % Seeataarsar® cero”? + 2 Zitaainor™ 2/0 (08 ; exye atte | 0,1193852 0 0 0 0 1.911660 -3 0 0 o | | -0.6574682 0 0 01 o.rost6s8 0 0 0 1 | o.usx% 0010 | ~a.s10220 0 0 0 2 | 0.411996 O O11 0.1547428 0 003 | sonia? 0021 i. 5.863050 -2 0 2 2 | 0.2490295 0 0 1 2 | “077360 -2 0 23 0.159602 0.0 1 3 | -o1mie79 0 10 0 8.536770 -2 0 2 0 | 0.2628839 0 1 01 5121630 -2.0 21 | “0.521703 O11 t -9.3203070 -3 0 2:2 0.297078 9 120 3.2878050 -2 0 2:3 6.152580 -2 213 | $.4960%0 2101 a.a7oauoo -2223 | ~4.8650630 -2 1 1 0 ~4,0801660 -3 1 6 0 0.106250 0 111 41582010 -3 1 6 1 3.5299580 -2 1 2 0 “1.1360520 -3 26 0 1101020 2 20:3 “3.517360 3-222 ATCOEFFICIENTS AND TERMS OF - Kx ands Ko POLYNOMIALS | 1 ax Baotianer hint iem Bagotaaino® dy 0 am” a fe] Tae TST ETT] Simin 9 00 28 | tamar io 920 iio8 jouw tte tite soma oft 9 i sim te bios fags 02208 | rire sous. 12220/| [Tamar 2133 tomar 23008) [tage 121 eo oma 20002] james 22200 crams tort | | bite sume 2 0 Ml ams Att ot ] sowie 20002 5.an879 +100 5 0 Se 200 views Lo 33a | tamer i 8 Et Peers ae ho eae 83040) new 12230 a rams 13308 foam i234 When back cavitation is greater than 10%, the Kr and Ke should be adjusted for thrust breakdown in the following fashion where kr and Ke are given in Table A-5: Kreaw = Kr > ake (A-10) Kocew = Ko - ako (el) Newton-Rader Propellers ‘The polynomials expressions for Kz and Ko are given as follows [31] with the coefficient given in Tables A~6 and A-7. Kk J-0.55 Ae Kr = 2 Aa )24+(G)P 20 (B/D 1) <2 +6 )3s (A712) teas ho AGm 5-0.55 he 10Ke = f B3( J 834 (G)Pa+(B/D-1)%3+(—_ 95 jel 1.65 Ao where: = oo G+ exp | -0.3 fin (yj? | (a4) _ oe | TABLE A-7: VALUES OF COEFFICIENTS INCLUDED IN EQUATION (A-12) 7 i 7 7 waa a 2 vam 8 1 tt x Pe 2 sisgeraa 2 tat x aus 2 2 tt : sussos1 9912 R mt 1 2k 5 sso 9 1. ao 3 unm 0 3} a2 ‘ ae rt uo aria os 12 7 ssvaseo 3 0 3s auue 5 9 24 a eitsiasad ae x6 aa 2 0 1 2 : aia) oe en) " cana mw asa 20222 " weer t 9 1 ot x» By 1a 2 8 2 ase rr a. 6 0 9 8 a some 6 8 at Re poro4 2 “ arate a aust 9 3 a8 8 cama eo) at 8 te 6 ames 10212 fies es eter aces vga 3 2 8 “s ansse 20203 1 8 os 6 ease 3 gt? 8 zaos 0 2 tt ° es 2 83? me satsrsea gtk sess 428? a feces ae oe une A eran a so suse 2 tt 3 ed # vam 1 9 34 i eat ee 2 rams 9 tat 5 oma 9 $28 = co : a * oe a a Pa uae ee ead eae eet a ge gt s oe 0 2 oume 0 8 2 2 2 tein a wae 2 att @ mame $02 a2 8 a2 02 ad (continued on Page A-11)TABLE A-6: VALUES of COEFFICIENTS INCLUDED in EQUATION (A-13) a rrr Bem sage : a8 vss + 0 32 > Mane 3 bo awe 6 12? : sume oo 1 ga say 28 na 5 same 2 oe 1 1 ee FG Gt ‘ gsomy 9 1 8 1 gasses ke ro sae 2 zo ge ggg a ss 883 sama 2} a? sms 6 2 a 2 28 1 8 easae 1 a Hon 4 " uses 6 2 2 2 8 ste " nosis 9 0 0) gO Dora no eas at mgm $4 gt 4 etsmmws 6 at BE 1s eee ee eee R -49.283000 nd ‘8 am 1 9 0 2 2 som 1 22g 0 eum tee kg gE 8 9.59881 9 2 Bs W685 tS gg tise 1 a 2 gS roms 1 ot tg 2 95.164692 . ook 7 uso kkk ' erste 7 2 2 7” 2482S kk g 2 10.2090 5 2 9 1s7m2so aor 3 ase tae a0 7ames2 20k # Men 9 1 ay meme boa ee mame 5 5 a ort % sees! 8 ot 2 run 0 22 t 7 ; eee = fame OE 35 sams 2k meme nr yg Ba gg oe somes 2 22,62 1 ee re DRM BS 2 8 dome oF ase * yams 9 1 38 % puma 1 oo ot ame or a x crams 488 : mama 30g Mk B 723.6095 1 22k * eee @ 6.770810 3 2k 8 eee . vuwt oe gow SHIRT Fake ee ee amie 8 8 3 2 re “woe ff 2p am Fe 45 cn a a bald ae! “ws 2 2 o gem 5 0 2 ot emo kt 6 wm or a to 9 som 31 oat si whoa $8 we ee ere Sinem 4 8 8 8 # ome 9 2 0 8 game 1 1 kt 6 rms 8 23k vy 2am 6 9 9 +TABLE A-7: (continued) VALUES OF COEFFICIENTS INCLUDED IN EQUATION (A-12) 0 0.647320, 24206 stent s.ss0575 4.860517 aurzatet a.s4a562 5.208389 92222 eaneao a.zesea ssrzese 1368253 auze4s72 36508 0.085806 sazonzs0 Ducted Propeller accelerating nozzles The polynomial 122.0400 7.0si38s (920678 $028 6620 13.336620 “3.83977 30083, 175.3400 39.s01098 “1541751 ~a.saesia sa.cunseo 2.288305 03708 5.796266 9.9e2ses 5.385871 siz40mn3 9.514691 arene expression for the Ka-4-70 propeller in Tables A-9 and A-10 respectively: where Ke Ko Kew Ke Ko = Ece(a,y)(P/D)=(3)" ur = Eco(x,y)(P/D)*(3)" ur = ECen(x,y)(P/D)*(5)¥ ur is total thrust coefficient Kew is nozzle thrust coefficient is torque coefficient ACLL 19A and 37 are as follows [3] with the coeffi the flow fent in {Ar15) (A-16) (A-17)ootzt0— 1907 6900 L 00 00 oo 9 oo 09 oo 3 oo 00 00 5 oo 09 00 £ 09 00 zo0010 z 100 — oo oo i 00 oo v0 ° 00 oo oo 9 oo oo oo 4 00 oo oo , oo oo oo ' oo oo 90 5 oo oo rao t 00 oo 00 o 00 oo oo 8 00 0 90 3 oo oo 00 + 00 00 00 5 00 00 oo z oo oo oo t oo 62100 ° 00 oo oo 2 00 oo woreo'— 3 00 oo ‘oo ’ 00 oo oo 8 oo oo oo 3 00, oo oo t Zs9900— orasta~ 00 ° oo 09 09 2 oo 00 00 3 90 00 90 + soozta'— 09 09 & Teast0 00 90 t 00 00 seower t usta” 0709 nosh" 0 oo 00 09 2 oo 00 oo & oo 00 00 , oo 00 oo & suo0re oo z escnrs — 06001 1 00 votwes ° vreeco'— oo 9 00 oo 8 oo pan — ¥ 00 ‘00 & 00 00 a 09 00 00. i ezu910 R910 ~ ssszat'~ 0 9 ty "9 ‘a we ZO out ew & AVATON-LE NI OL-F 7A HOA SUNBIDISAIOD “6-V ITAVE oo oo L ° 00 oo 9 00 00 8 0 00 + oo oo 8 918t00'~ oo 3 00 B6zL10'— 1 00 00 ° ° oo oo 9 oo oo oo 9 oo oo oo Y oo oo 00 8 oo 00 00 a 00 80080" 00 1 00 00 0 ° 9 00 oo oo 8 90 oo oo 8 90 oo 00 Y oo 9660 00 § oo ‘00 00 a oo 0 00 t 99¢200"~ 00 00 ° , 09 ertoto— oo 2 00 00 oo 8 00 oo 00 , oo oo oo 5 oo osrers— 00 a oo 0 00 1 0997 r9z0e'~ seset'— 0 8 oo oo oo 2 00 oo oo 8 00 oo 00 + oo 00 00 8 61800: secve: ‘vost 3 00 0 oo t oo 20909" rs9199 ° z 00 rortg9 — vo 8 00 00 oo 8 0 00 00 , 90 00 00 £ 1020" — serazz: 90 a 00 Tee189— aigeer~ 1 oo weet — 00 ° ' oo avez oo 9 oo 908 — oo 8 Prawn oo oo ’ 90 reaget'— asit6e 8 soror0'— TeEI90"— 00 z 00 eg900. agg ~ 1 seu900 ves10" ossoc0 0 ° 09) 19 a 5 our m3 ugriaaowd HIZZON-V6I NI OL-b “MX YOA SENSTOISSIOD 8-¥ TIGVS Ar12APPENDIX THE FIBONACCI SEARCH A continuous, twice-differentiable funciton is said to be unimodal in the range a £(x2), it can be deduced that Hi ¢ Ke (1-2) Similiarly, if xa < x2 and f(x2) > £(x1) it follows that x2 > Xe (es) Any function is said to be unimodal. if conditions (1-1) through (1-4) are satisfied by any two of its points. It can be shown (56] that, for a unimodal function, no technique can be guaranteed to find the minimum in less function evaluations than the Fibonacci search technique. The following gives an outline of the characteristics of the search (57]: Prerequisites: Only function values. Unimodal function, not necessarily rentiable or continuous. Algorithm: The strategy is built ona sequence of numbers, called Fibonacci numbers, defined by: Fo=i, Fasl Fis Fet Fin, iad (1-5) That is, each Fibonacci number (for iz1) is the sum of the previous two, and the sequence begins with 1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,... These numbers are used as normalised interval lengths during the search. For convenience, assume that the final interval of uncertainty is normalized to 1, Then as the initial normalized interval length, a Fibonacci nunber of Fa must be selected which is large enough in magnitude so that: iss (i-6) Fa Ald1 = interval length Fa = desired ratio of reduction in the interval of uncertainty Figure 1-1 shows an example where, say, «= 0.1 so that fa = 13 had to be selected as the initial normalized interval length. Then in the first step sample points are placed a distance Fa-1 = 8 away from either end of the interval. This ensures, due to the properties of the Fibonacci numbers, that their distance from the other end of the interval equals Fa. 5 in either case. One of the boundary intervals of length S is now discarded as not containing the maximum, The remaining interval already contains one reusable point a distance Fa-2 away from one of its boundaries so that only one point must be added at a symmetrical location for the next cycle. ‘The search continues from here on with one new point per cycle, until the interval length has shrunk to Fo = F: = 1. At this stage the maximum may lie in either of two neighboring intecvals of length i, and one extra trial point must be expended, placed a small distance € away from the midpoint of this double interval in order to decide in which of the two intervals of length 1 the maximum is actually located. Number of tr with «= 1/Fn there are N n trials. Figure 1-1: Fibonacci SearchAPPENDIX 3: Computer User Instruction - Preliminary DISCLAIMER: THIS USER'S INSTRUCTION AND THE COMPUTER PROGRAM ARE PRESENTED FOR INFORMATION ONLY. USE OF THESE SHOULD ONLY BE BY A QUALIFIED NAVAL ARCHITECT KNOWLEDGEABLE IN PROPELLER SELECTION. OUTPUT SHOULD BE INTERPRETED BY THE USER AND ITS REASONABLENESS FOR THE APPLICATION IN QUESTION CONFIRMED BY THE USER. UNDER ANY EVENT THE AUTHORS DO NOT ASSUME ANY RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE UTILIZATION OF THIS MATERIAL AND COMPUTER PROGRAM. FURTHERMORE, THE USER’S INSTRUCTION AND THE COMPUTER PROGRAM ARE PRELIMINARY DRAFTS AT THIS TIME. General The program is designed to be menu-driven. When the program js initiated, a menu appears from which the user may elect to choose a propeller series, select a design case and input data, edit date that has previously been input, or transfer input data or analysis results to or from an external file. In selecting a propeller series, the user may choose between the Wageningen B-Series, Gawn AEW Series, Gawn KCA Cavitating Series, or the user may specify a file containing regression coefficients for a custom propeller series. When selecting a design case, the program displays a menu listing the possible design cases. A brief summary of which variables must be input and which will be calculated appears next to each case. The user then enters the case number for the particular design problem under consideration. The program will then prompt the user for the data appropriate to the selected case. This data may include values for diameter, RPM, design horsepower, P/D, vessel speed, equilibrium thrust, equilibrium torque, and speed-thrust data corresponding to vessel EHP curves. The data is to be input in English units of feet, pounds, and horsepower. In all cases, values for the blade area ratio, hub immersion, wake fraction, thrust deduction, and relative rotative efficiency must be provided. At the end of the interactive input, the user may go back and modify any or all of the input data and/or save the data as an input file to be used in later sessions. When all data has been entered, the user selects the Propeller Analysis Option from the main menu and the program proceeds with the analysis and/or optimization and presents the Output on the screen. After viewing the analysis results, the user may then elect to save the results to a text file or proceed with another design problem. Screen Symbols This section describes the computer screen which will be displayed during the execution of the program. Als