INTRODUCTION aonncaensl ‘Curent and voltage transformers (CTs and VTA) are coflectively known as rrans ducers te instrament transformers. They are used to transform the power system ‘currents and voltages to lower magnitudes and to provide isolation between the high: ‘voltage power system nnd the relays and other measuring {nstruments (meters) con nected to the secondary windings of the transducers. In order (0 achieve a degree of imerchangeability among different manufacturers of relays and meters, the ratings ‘of the secondary windings of the transducers are standardized. The standard current ratings of the secondary windings of the current transformets (CTs) are 5 of I ampere. "The secondary windings of the voltage transformers (VTs) are rated at | 10 V line to line, The current and voltage ratings of the protective relays and meters are same as the current and voltage ratings of the secondary windings of the CTs an VTs respectively, The transducers should be able to provide current and voltage signals to the relays and meters which are faithful reproductions of the corresponding, primary ‘quantities, Although in most of the cases the modern transducers are expefted 10 0 s0, but they can’t be ideal and free from the errors of transformation. Heniee the ‘ervors of transformation introduced by the transducers must be taken into account, ‘so that the performance of the relays can be assessed in the presence of such errors. ‘As the operating time of modem protective relays has reduced to the order of few aillliseconds, the transient behavior of current transformers and voltage transformers require more attention. - 32 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS (CTs) ; ‘Current transformers are used to perform two tasks. Firstly, they step down the heavy ‘power system currents to low values that are suitable for the operation of the relays ‘and other measuring instruments (meters) connected to their secondary windings. ‘Scoondly, they isolate the relays and meters circuits from the high voltages of the ‘Power system. The standard current ratings of the secondary windings of the CTs ‘Msed in practice are SA or 1A. Since the current ratings of CT secondary windings Se sontentiand, comeescatings for selays and molers ao also standardized, 20 thas — ‘of imterchangeability among different manufacturers of relays and meters achieved. A conventional CT of electromagnetic type is similar to a power ‘Nansformer to some extent since both depend on the same fundamental principle of electromagnetic induction but there ate considerable differences in their design operation. A power transformer is a shunt-operated device while a CT is a seri soreees Soe Lamam ssestonnens so connected with their primarce in da rriansr eteagrrancted cect) and, because the primary currents are ‘has very few tums. tith that of ‘The VA rating of current transformers is small as el rane power transformer. Though the nominal (Continuous) currents tesigned To TIE ondary windings of the CTs are 5A or TA but they must be desig) edits ate higher values for short time of few seconds under abnormal SD pe tions, eB fault conditions. Since the fault currents may be as high nee full-load current, current transformers are designed to withstand these hig! rents for a few seconds, Protective relays require reasonably accurate repro- duction of the normal and abnormal conditions in the power system for at sensing and operation. Hence, the current transformers should be able to provi current signals to the relays and meters which are faithful reproductions of primary currents, The measure of a current transformer performance is its ability accurately reproduce the primary current in secondary amperes. Ideally, the current transformer should faithfully transform the current without any error. But, in pras: tice, there is always some error. The error is both in magnitude and in phase angle, ‘These errors are known as ratio error and phase angle error. The exciting current is the main source of these errors of a CT. Depending on application, CTs are broadly classified into two categories: (2) measuring CTs, and (2) protective CTs. CTs used in conjunction with measuring, instruments (meters) are popularly termed as measuring (metering) CTs" and those ‘used in conjunction with protective devices are termed as protective CTS. 3.2.41 Difference Between Measuring and Protective CTs CTs which are used to step down the primary currents to low values suitable for the ion of measuring instruments (meters) are called measuring or metering CTs. ‘Secondary of the measuring CTs are connected to the current coils of ammeters, ‘wattmeters, energy meters, etc: Since the measurements of electrical quantities are’ performed under normal conditions and not under fault conditions, the performanc of measuring CTs is of interest during normal loading conditions. Measuring CTs are required to give high accuracy for all load currents upto 125% of the rated current. ‘These CTs may have very significant errors during fault conditions, when the cur rents may be several times their normal value for a short time. This is not significant because metering functions are not required during faults. The measuring CTs should ‘fel saturated at about 1.25 times the full-load current so as not to reproduce the fault aR apa > 2 8 demege 0 he weaencng ins . is ‘in association with protective devices i.e. relays, trip coils, pil il ‘etc. are called protective CTs. Protective CTs are designed ae small se ‘ng fault conditions so that they can correctly reproduce the fault currents for sat- ‘sfactory operation of the eave relays. The performance of protective relays ‘during normal conditions, the relays are not required to operate, may not be as im spite of the de offset in the a fea condidered whi primary winding, hile designing the protective CT. The times full-load current. onrent Transformers ; 5 ¢ current transformers (CTs) are single primary ant ir performance can i . Hence, thei is magnetically coupled transformers. He e b one ee ea equivalent circuit commonly used in the analysis of ees ee eae tialent circuit of CT as viewed from secondary side is shown in Fig. 3.9. ers. Tt is convenient to put the exiting shunt circuit on the secondary side and to cael all quantities to that side, so that J, denotes the primary current referred i a Se — iting i fi b i nd induce voltage side. The exciting current Ip iS, ‘deducted from J, to excite the core al ge E, which circulates current Te 5 Theory of Curl 2 ‘ Conventional electromagnet Ideal CT for, | ee Practical CT Fig. 3.3 Equivalent circuit of CT as viewed from secondary side An ideal (perfect) transformer shown in Fig. 3.3 is to provide the necessary ratio change, it has no loss or impedance. All the quantities are referred to the secondary side, In an ideal CT, the primary ampere-turns (AT) is exactly equal in magnitude to the secondary AT and is in precise phase opposition to it, But in practical (actual) CTs errors are introduced both in magnitude and in phase angle. These errors are known a ratio error and phase angle error. The exciting current Ig is the main source of these errors, Practical CTs do not reproduce the primary currents exactly in mag- nitude and phase due to these errors. The errors of practical CTs can best be considered through the study of the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 3.4 Tn the equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.3 and phasor diagram of Fig. 3.4, N= Nominal (rated) transformation ratio or Nominal (rated) CT ratio x Rated primary current _ Number of secondary turns Rated secondary current | Number of primary turns Ry» X, = Primary resistance and leakage reactance respectively. R, and X, = secondary resistance and leakage reactance Ry, and X, = Primary resistance and leakage reactance as referred to the secondary sidebaits oF insyis, dens vatne tothe burden ( (load). component’ of the exci ting: eutrredt h won ‘required i to _ price flax. mabnaved Ltn cea secondary sha angle (0, = 3+ Y) phase angle between secondary, luced voltage, ¥ hms A tion f i SMr-iecn yunei¥ = 9% ty: 9t B= Phase angle seta Primary and reversed secondary current aa ——uurden on the CT) ee eae ae to both primary and Eo a Since the core ene induced voltages E, and E, lag behind panes BERNE aie proveronal tothe secondary and ape a PME snes ona Tis mde up of two components and I The 35 Pe rer aituutered vine primary sie by reversing, anid multiplying by RERTSUGN Theiesutan cure flowing in the primary winding 1, phasor sum of NZ, and fp. From the phasor diagram of Fig. 3.4, F= (I, +N, cos 6° + (I, + NI, sin 6? ' = (Iysin ot + NI, cos @,)? + (Ip cos «+ NI, sin 6,) Hence, J, = [(lp sin ct + NI, cos 0,)? + (Ip cos «+ NI, sin 6,)°]!” = (Ih sin? +2 Ip sin a: NI, cos 0, +N? F cos? 0,+ F, cos” a +2 [pcos a. NI, sin 6, +N? P sin? 9)! Neglecting terms containing F. 2p La R( , this becomes cos” 8, + sin? 6.) + 2NI, Ip (sin ce: cos 8, + cos ocsin 6,)}!2 = (NR +2NI, sin (a+ oy? which, to a very close approximation, = MI, + Ip sin (a+ 0.) Since Jp is small compared with NT, Hence J, = NI, + sin (a+ 8) G7) Actual Transformation Ratio The actual transformation Tatio (actual ratio) N, is given by, NI, + Ip sin (c¢-+ 8) soe I I, or I N,=N42 sj a as sin (a+ @) (3.8) Though this expression is only ay it i i PProximate, but it is Sufficiently ace, almost all Purposes. The expression can be further expanded ees Ny N,=N+ ir (sin a cos , + cos asin 0.) as or N, = N+ Losin £08 6, + cos asin 6, aig ee) c yan L808 gsin9, ne Ea i 5 Since fy sin c= J, ang Iycos = 1 &Ratio Error (Current Error) > The actual t transforthatio ratio (N,) is not equal to the rated (nominal) transforma- | tion ratio (iV) since the’ primaiy current is contributed by, the exciting current. The error introduced due to this differerice in CT ratios is termed as ratio error or Current error. The ratio error in percentage is expressed“as i. Nominal ratio Actual ratio : Se 100) (@{-)_. Percent ratio error ehual HES aS. x 100 - IJl, , or Per cent ratio error = 100 Tl, Lr ee f...or Per cent ratio error = x 100 j .14) I i & Where : N = Nominal (rated) ratio ABI. ct Rated primary, current 4 ~ Rated Secondary curr I, = Secondary current | |, can be calculated by using Equation (3.7) and WV, by usitig Equation (3.9) or BG. ty | The ratio error is largely dependant i upon the value of the iron-loss component J. of the exciting current. ‘The ratio error is considered to be positive when the actual ratio of the CT is less than the nominal ratio, i.e., when the secondary current; fora given Paap current, PH Vusrids goiter ali cio shisqab 1 mg a7 ynibnoqeamis? att svehong ob 2 Fora’ perfect dedijieurenb i transfornier; ‘te phase dietrdntio between ihe primary: and reversed secondary phasors i8 zero. But for an actual transformer, there is always a difference in phasé between the two phasors due to'tlie fact that'primary current has” to supply the components’of the exciting clirrént)The phase difference between the: primary, current phasor and the)reversed secondary current phasor is termedias the ‘phase-angle error’ of the CT. For sinusoidal current, it is said to be positive whem the: teyersed secondary current phasor leads the primary current phasor. The phase angle error B can be calculated by, using Equation (3.12) or (3. AB )eot lo murs ad aged The phase-angle error-is largely dependant upon the value of the magnetizing component /,,, of the exciting current.Ratio Correction Factor The term ‘ratio correction factor’ is defined as that factor by which nominal (rated) ratio of a CT is multiplied to obtain the actual (true) ratio. In other words, this factor can be defined as ratio of the actual ratio (N,) to the nominal ratio (Y). The ratio error in per unit is expressed as N-N, < (3.15) or or l+e= Na or Sy: Hence, : : 1 Rati tion factor (R,) = —— 3.16 io correction factor (Ry) = 7—— G.16) UB 2.7. Accuracy Class of CTs The accuracy of any CT is determined essentially by how accurately the CT repro- duces the primary current in the secondary. Accuracy class is assigned to the CT with the specified limits of ratio error and phase angle error. The accuracy of a current transformer is expressed in terms of the departure of its ratio from its true ratio. This is called the ratio error, and is expressed as: NI,-1, Per cent error = x 100 It I, rated primary current N = Nominal ratio = ———______ rated secondary current I, = Secondary current J, = Primary current The ratio error of a CT depends on its exciting current. When the primary cur- rent increases, the CT tries to produce the corresponding secondary current, and this needs a greater secondary emf, core flux density and exciting current. A stage comes when any further increase in primary current is almost wholly absorbed in an increased exciting current, and thereby the secondary current hardly increases at all. At this stage, the CT becomes saturated. Thus the ratio error depends on saturation. An accuracy of about 2% to 3% of the CT is desirable for distance and differential relays, whereas for many other relays, a higher percentage can be tolerated. According to standards followed in U.K., protective CTs are classified as S, 7 and U type. The errors of these types of CT s are shown in Table 3.1. 8 ®Gh errors _Uoseein: Bip ranua sei: When the primary current inctdases| at’ at'a ceytain pace the core commences to saturate and the error increases. The of the primary current at which the error reaches a specified limit is Kiow! wccliracy limit iprimary current or satura- tion current, The maximum value, of the, SPB CEP a ra given, accuracy limit is specified by the manufacturer, The CT: will maintain the ified ‘maximum primary current at the rated burden. Th fee i ‘iple of the rated current, The ratio of accuracy’ limit primary current and ‘rated primary 7 current is known as the rated accuracy limit factor.or saturation factor, the standard ~ values of which are‘5; 10,15, 20; and 30, The. perférmance of a CT is given at certain, multiples of the rated current. According. to BSS 3938, raled primary currents of CTs arenup: tor7S.kAv andisecondary ‘ourrents)5 Acor i“ 3,3 VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS (VTs) ; re previously known as potential transformers (PTs). er system voltages to standard lower values and to uments (meters) from the high voltages the secondary windings of the VTs have hangeability among relays and meters of L Voltage transformers (VTs) we They are used to reduce the pow physically isolate the relays and other inst of the power system. The voltage ratings of been standardized, so that a degree of inter different manufacturers can be achieved. The standard voltage rating of the second- ary windings of the VTs used is practice is 110 V line to line or 1 10/N3 volts line to neutral. Therefore, the voltage ratings of the voltage (pressure) coils of protective relays and measuring instrument (meters) are also 110 V line to line or 1 10/13 V line to neutral, The voltage transformers should be able to provide voltage signals to the relays and meters which are faithful reproductions of the primary voltages. The accuracy of voltage transformers is expressed in terms of the departure of its ratio from its true ration. 3.3.1 Theory of Voltage Transformers Theory of voltage transformers (VTs) is essentially the same as that of the ordinary power transformer. An ideal (perfect) VT is that in which when rated burden is con- nected across its secondary, the ratio of voltage applied across the primary to the sec- ondary terminal voltage is equal to the ratio of primary turns to secondary turns and furthermore the two terminal voltages are in precise phase opposition to each other. But in practical (actual) VTs, the above relation doesn’t hold good and errors are introduced both in ratio and in phase angle. This can best be explained by the equiva- lent circuit and phasor diagram for a VT shown in Fig. 3.16 and 3.17 respectively. Fig. 316 Equivalent circuit of VT as viewed from primary side The equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.16 is as viewed from primary side and all quantities are referred to that side. The symbols used in the equivalent circuit and phasor diagram are as follows. K = Nominal (rated) transformation ratio or Nominal (rated) voltage ratio Rated primary voltage Number of primary turns Rated secondary voltage Number of secondary turns y, = Primary terminal voltage E, = Primary induced yoltage v, = Secondary terminal voltageC/I Saale ll italia aaa E, = Secondary induced voltage Primary current Secondary current R, X, = Primary resistance and leakage y ; reactance respectively R, X, = Secondary resistance, and leak age reactance. VT primary excitation current Magnetizing component of the exiting current Jy required to produce flux 1.= Iron (core) loss component of the exciting current /y supplying core losses. Secondary terminal voltage referred to the primary side = kV, Fig. 3.17. Phasor diagram of a voltage I,= Secondary current referred to Sr ae primary side = J/K Secondary resistance referred to primary side = K? R, Secondary leakage reactance referred to primary side = K?X, econdary burden referred to primary = K° Z,, = Phase angle of the burden A= Phase angle error = Angle between V, and reversed secondary voltage, V Angle between V; and J, p= Core flux The secondary terminal voltage is generated from induced voltage in secondary E, fier pahsor subtraction of voltage drops due to secondary winding’s resistance and reactance. Secondary current /, lags V, by the phase angle of burden. The primary resistive and reactive drops (J, R, and J, X,) are supplied by applied voltage V, and are subtracted from V, to derive primary induced voltage E,,.E, is in opposition to £, The angle between V, and reversed secondary voltage V; is termed as the phase angle of transformer denoted by B. 2 VT Errors ‘The errors introduced by the use of voltage transformers are, in general, less serious than those introduced by current transformers. It is seen from the phasor diagram that, like current transformers, voltage transformers introduce an error, both in mag- nitude and in phase, in the measured value of the voltage. The voltage applied to the primary cireuit of the VT cannot be obtained correctly simply by multiplying the voltage across the secondary by the tums ratio K of the transformer, \\‘The divergence of the actual (true) ratio V;/V, fromnominal (rated) ratio K depends upon the resistance and reactance of the transformer windings as well as upon the value of the exciting current of the transformer. Ratio Error (Voltage Error) ‘The ratio error for VTs is defined as the error due to a difference in the actual trans- formation ratio and the nominal (rated) transformation ratio. In percentage, it is expressed as Norminal ratio = A Percent ratio error = rratio x 100 RV" «100 x 100 = WV, * KV,-V, or Percent ratio error = —y; ? 100 (3.31) i ee " Number of primary turns where K = Nominal voltage ratio = or of secondary turns = Actual transformation ratio V, = Secondary voltage, and V, = Primary voltage Phase Angle Error ed secondary pha- The phase difference between the primary voltage and the revers sors is the phase angle error of the VT. In order to keep. the overall error within the specified limits of accuracy, the winding must be designed to have: (i) the internal resistance and reactance to an appropriate magnitude, and (ii) mininum magnetizing and loss components of the exciting current required by the core. Limits of VT Errors for Protection ‘The accuracy of VTs used for meters and instruments is only important at normal system voltages, where as VTs used for protection require errors to be limited over a wide range of voltages under fault conditions. This may be about 5% to 150% of nominal voltage. The ratio error and phase angle error for VTs required for protection according to ISS : 3156 (Part III) 1966 are given in Table 3.2. . Table 3.2 Limits of Voltages and Phase Angle Efrors for Vis 025 to L0 tines rated ‘Ratio Err) + 3% + 5% Following are three types of voltage transformers. (i) Electromagnetic type VT's ie) Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformers (CCTs) ) “‘Opto-Llectfonic VTs © Electromagnetic Type VTs secoey) daraials ‘This type of a VTs is conveniently used up to 132 KV. It is similar to conventional i iti i fors! As its output is yund type trans “+ with additional features to qihimise errors. AS 11S © eee ep and cooling techniques. Tn ne transforiiens in physical Siz low, it differs from power transformers in PUY 1. in the USA single phase phase construction with 5 limbs is use E i Sees [ a of a VT governs itsconstruction. struction is more éornmon! ‘The Voltage rating its For ie “voltages, up to 3.3:KV,idry type transformers with, varnish nea and taped windings are quite satisfactory. For higher voltages, oil immersed VTS # used. Recently VTs with windings impregnated and encapsulated in synthetic resins have been developed for higher voltages. This technique hhas made it possible to use dry type VTs for system voltages up 10 60 KY.For voltages aboverl32KY, if electro- magnetic type VTS to be used, several VTs are ‘comnected in cascade. In cascade con- nection, the primary windings of CIs are connected in series, though’each primary 1s ona separate core “Coupling cc /atd provided alongwith each primary to keep the effective leakage inductance toa low value. They also distribute the voltage equally. Such an arrangement is conveniently placed in a porcelain enclosure. Electromagnetic type VTs are used at all power. system.vollages and are usually connected to the bus. Howeyer coupling capacitor, voltage, transformers (CCVTs) are more economical, at higher system voltages. ‘As the voltage decreases, the accuracy of electromagnetic nal Voltage. 19 °°"! type VTs decreases but 7 .¢ VTs become very expensive and hence it @ a Gapacitance voltage divider as shown in Fig, 3.18. Va may be'only about 10% or less of the system Voltage. This ‘arrangement is called a formet (CCVT) or a capacitor type VT and is used at 132 KV and above. CCVTT is one of the most corhinon vollaige'sources forrelayinig at higher.voltages.The ‘yeactor Liis included to.tunethe capacitor VTto reduce. the ratio” and hase angle, errors with the variation of VA burden, frequency, ete?!" alue that at system frequency itresonates with | . Dhe reactor is-adjustéd to'such'a the:capacitors! Capacitor VTs are more econorhi¢al than electromagnetic type in this range of system voltage, particularly where high Voltage capacitors aré used for car- rier-current coupling.The transient performance ofa Capacitor type VT is inferior to that of an electromagnetic type. A capacitor type VT has the tendency of introd harmonics in the secondary voltage. High Beet 4 = 2 voltage capacitors are enclosed in a’ porce- Jain housing, The performance of the volt- ‘age divider type capacitor VT is not as good as that of the electromagnetic type. ‘The. performance of high speed distance... relays is Jess reliable with capacitor type Vs. Hence, the decision regarding the choice of a YT will depend whether econ omy in VI cost or relay performance is more ‘ important for a particular power line. Errors FI8: 348 coupling capacitor voltage trans Line voltageof capacitor type VTs can be reduced by reducing its burden. It is due to the fact that the series connected capacitors perform the function of a potential divider if the cur- rent drawn by the burden is negligible compared to the current flowing through the capacitors connected in series. z Anelectronic amplifier having high input impedance and VA output high enough to supply the VA burden can be included in the capacitor type VT arrangement. Such an arrangement gives a good transient response. Finally, it can be concluded that the secondary voltage supply seldom creates any problem but problems with secondary current supply arise frequently. Opto-Electronic VTs The operation of an opto-electronic VT is based on the fact that the voltage differ- ence between the conductor and the ground manifests in an electric field between the two electrodes. The opto-electronics send a circular polarized light beam that travels through an optical fiber up the column. The light beam passes through three strategi- cally placed Pockels cells on the return path. The circular polarization changes to elliptical polarization as the light passes through a cell. The elliptical polarized lights from each cell are sent back to the opto-electronics at the ground level. The weighted measurements of the change of polarization in the three cells is used to determine the voltage difference between the conductor and the ground.