buildings

Article
Study on Durability Properties of Coconut Shell
Concrete with Coconut Fiber
Anandh Sekar * and Gunasekaran Kandasamy
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, SRM Institute of Science and
Technology, Kattankulathur 603 203, Tamil Nadu, India; gunasekaran.k@ktr.srmuniv.ac.in
* Correspondence: anandhsekarcivil@gmail.com; Tel.: +91-978-926-4084




Received: 2 April 2019; Accepted: 28 April 2019; Published: 30 April 2019


Abstract: Coconut fiber was used in coconut shell concrete (CSC) and its durability properties were
studied. The properties include: water absorption, volume of permeable pore voids, rapid chloride
penetration test, sorptivity and resistance at elevated temperature. For comparison purpose, these
properties were also studied on conventional concrete (CC) with coconut fibers. Three different curing
conditions viz. full water immersion, site curing and air-dry conditions were employed except for
temperature resistance study in which only full water immersion was used. Test results show that
the durability properties were better in full water immersion condition in case of CC mixes and in
site curing condition in case of CSC mixes. Temperature resistance tests gave a minimum guarantee
of both CC and CSC mixes without and with coconut fibers for 2 h resistance and hence they were
deemed safe for construction.

Keywords: coconut fiber; coconut shell; concrete; durability; temperature; properties

1. Introduction
To save the natural resources from over extraction of aggregates from rocks and sand from rivers,
many alternate materials are tried in the production of concrete. These alternate materials are found
from the wastes generated from domestic, industrial and agricultural sectors [1]. When these wastes
are used in concrete composites, it enables the production of green concrete and helps in the reduction
of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emission. As an example, using coal fly ash in concrete production leads to an
improvement of fracture toughness and making green concrete, in turn leading to the reduction of CO2
emission [2]. Literature states that the introduction of supplementary materials into the concrete can
be divided generally into six classes, namely industrial wastes (fly ash, silica fume, ground granulated
blast furnace slag, metakaolin etc.), nano industrial wastes (nanosilica, nanotitanium, tiania–silica
nanosphere, nanoalumina, nanometakaolin, carbon nano tubes etc.), agriculture–farming wastes
(bamboo, wheat, barley, corn, olive, banana, sisal, date palm, elephant grass etc.), aquaculture–farming
wastes (oyster, periwinkle, mussel etc.), minerals (calcite, diatomite, zeolite, perlite etc.) and dust and
powders (limestone powder, brick powder, waste marble dust and powder, waste ceramic powder,
ground pumice powder, quartz powder etc.) [3]. In line with these alternate materials, coconut shell
and coconut fibers can be added to the agriculture–farming group, and it has been proven that coconut
shell (CS) waste can be used as an aggregate in place of conventional stone aggregate [4–10].
In general, conventional concrete (CC) is strong in compression but weak in tension. To overcome
this deficiency in CC, steel bars are normally used where tensile stresses are developed or tension
zones are identified, which is normally referred to as reinforced cement concrete (RCC). However,
to enhance the inherent tensile strength of concrete itself, fibers are introduced, leading to a special
type of concrete called fiber reinforced concrete (FRC). Coconut shell concrete (CSC) also exhibits the
deficiency of weak tension. Therefore, to overcome the same in CSC, coconut fibers were introduced

Buildings 2019, 9, 107; doi:10.3390/buildings9050107 www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2019, 9, 107 2 of 13

and the aspect ratio and volume fractions were optimized in an earlier study and were compared with
CC with coconut fibers [11]. Fresh and hardened concretes with and without coconut fibers were tested
for flexural strength, split tensile strength, impact resistance and bond properties for the optimized
aspect ratio and volume fraction.
Any concrete structure needs to have adequate durability if it has to perform in agreement
with its intended level of functionality and serviceability over an expected or predicted life cycle.
The penetrability of concrete structures, particularly when the concrete structures are in severe
environmental conditions, decides its ultimate serviceability and durability [10]. Since the mechanical
and bond properties of CSC with coconut fibers were already shown to be in acceptable range [9],
we investigated its durability properties in this study.

2. Significance of the Study

Durability indicates the life period of the material under the given environmental conditions.
In general, concrete is durable under normal environmental situations. The durability issues arise
due to either unknowingly introducing deleterious materials while adding the constituents or when
the concrete is exposed to severe harmful environmental conditions not expected earlier. External
moisture or air can penetrate through the concrete which can facilitate the corrosion of steel embedded
in the concrete in case of reinforced cement concrete. This corrosion activity may lead to an increase in
volume of steel which in turn initiates cracking and spalling of concrete cover.
Therefore, this study aimed to estimate the durability performance of CSC with coconut fibers.
Additionally, since CS and coconut fibers are wood based material, the effect of three different curing
conditions—full water immersion W1, site curing condition W2, (method adopted in field—covering
the specimen with wet gunny bags) and no curing W3 (air-dry) were considered in this study as per
literature [8,12]. The durability parameters studied include water absorption, volume of permeable pore
voids (VPV), rapid chloride penetration test (RCPT), sorptivity and resistance at elevated temperature.

3. Materials and Mix Proportions Used

Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) 53 grade conforming to Indian Standard IS 12269: 2013 [13] was
used as a binder. The chemical composition of the cement used is presented in Table 1. Palar river sand
was used as fine aggregate and it conformed to Indian Standard IS 383: 2016, zone III [14]. Coconut
shells were crushed to the maximum size of 12.5 mm and used as coarse aggregate. Figure 1a,b
shows the raw CS and coconut fibers collected from the local coconut industry and used in this study.
For comparison, 12.5 mm of conventional crushed stone aggregate was used in the production of CC.
Since in an earlier study, the mechanical and bond properties were studied for the optimized aspect
ratio and volume fractions with the selected mix proportions of both CC and CSC [11], the same mix
proportions with the same optimized aspect ratio and the volume fractions were considered in this
study. That is, mix proportion used for CC was 1:2.22:3.66:0.55 with a cement content of 320 kg/m3 , and
for CSC, it was 1:1.47:0.65:0.42 with a cement content of 510 kg/m3 . Coconut fiber, having an optimum
aspect ratio of 83.33 and a volume fraction of 3%, was was used in CC mix proportion in this study
following [11]. Similarly, coconut fiber having an optimum aspect ratio of 66.67 and volume fraction of
3% was used in CSC mix proportion. For identification purposes, mixes without fibers are abbreviated
as CC for conventional concrete and CSC for coconut shell concrete. Similarly, mixes with fibers are
abbreviated as CCF and CSCF, respectively.

Table 1. Chemical properties of OPC 53 grade cement used.

Chemical Name Chemical Formula Percent Content (%)

Lime CaO 63.5
Silica SiO2 22.2
Alumina Al2 O3 4.9
Buildings 2019, 9, 107 3 of 13

Buildings 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Table 1. Cont. 3 of 13

Chemical Name Chemical Formula Percent Content (%)

Iron oxide Fe2O3 3.3
Iron oxide Fe2 O3 3.3
Magnesium oxide
Magnesium oxide
MgO
MgO
2.6
2.6
Sulphur trioxide
Sulphur trioxide SO
SO 3 2.2
2.2
3

Na2O
Na O 0.8
0.8
Alkalis 2
Alkalis
K
K22O
O 0.5
0.5
Loss
Losson
on ignition
ignition 1.2
1.2

(a) (b)
(a) Raw coconut shell (b)
Figure 1. (a) (b) coconut
coconut fiber
fiber at coconut industry.

4. Test Methods
4. Test methods
The
The test
test methods
methods followed
followedto
todetermine
determinethe
thedurability
durabilityproperties
propertiesofof
the concrete
the areare
concrete explained in
explained
the subsequent segments.
in the subsequent segments.
4.1. Water Absorption and Volume of Permeable Pore Voids
4.1. Water absorption and volume of permeable pore voids
Volume of permeable pore voids (VPV) is a vital property of any concrete. This property
Volume of permeable pore voids (VPV) is a vital property of any concrete. This property is
is responsible for allowing the moisture and air into the concrete [15]. An oven-drying method
responsible for allowing the moisture and air into the concrete [15]. An oven-drying method
recommended by the American Standards ASTM C 642-97 [16] was used to determine the water
recommended by the American Standards ASTM C 642-97 [16] was used to determine the water
absorption and VPV properties. This standard suggested to use the cylindrical specimen of size
absorption and VPV properties. This standard suggested to use the cylindrical specimen of size 100
100 mm diameter and 100 mm height (Figure 2a) cut from the center core of a cylinder of size 100 mm
mm diameter and 100 mm height (Figure 2a) cut from the center core of a cylinder of size 100 mm
diameter and 200 mm height. After the specified days of curing, specimens were allowed to air-dry to
diameter and 200 mm height. After the specified days of curing, specimens were allowed to air-dry
remove the surface moisture. Specimens were allowed to absorb water for at least 48 h as per ASTM C
to remove the surface moisture. Specimens were allowed to absorb water for at least 48 h as per ASTM
642-97 [16]. This test was performed on three specimens for each curing condition (W1, W2 and W3).
C 642-97 [16]. This test was performed on three specimens for each curing condition (W1, W2 and
Average results of three specimens are reported.
W3). Average results of three specimens are reported.
First, specimens were placed in an oven and maintained at 100 ◦ C–110 ◦ C for 24 h. After this
First, specimens were placed in an oven and maintained at 100 °C–110 °C for 24 h. After this
period, specimens were allowed to cool at room temperature for 24 h and then the weights were
period, specimens were allowed to cool at room temperature for 24 h and then the weights were
measured frequently until the weights became constant. This value was considered as mass of the
measured frequently until the weights became constant. This value was considered as mass of the
specimen and noted as A. The specimens were then immersed in water for 48 h and surface dried
specimen and noted as A. The specimens were then immersed in water for 48 h and surface dried
properly. The weights were taken in the surface dried condition and noted as B. Then the specimens
properly. The weights were taken in the surface dried condition and noted as B. Then the specimens
were kept in boiling water for 5 h (Figure 2b). They were then cooled at room temperature for 14 h.
were kept in boiling water for 5 h (Figure 2b). They were then cooled at room temperature for 14 h.
The mass of the specimen was determined and noted as C. The samples were tied with thin copper
The mass of the specimen was determined and noted as C. The samples were tied with thin copper
wire and immersed in water with spring gauge. In this immersed condition, weights of the specimens
wire and immersed in water with spring gauge. In this immersed condition, weights of the specimens
were taken and noted as D. Water absorption and VPV were calculated as follows:
were taken and noted as D. Water absorption and VPV were calculated as follows:
( (B) − A)
Water
Waterabsorption inin
absorption %%== × 100× 100 (1)
(1)
A
( )
Volume of voids in % = × 100 (2)
( )
Buildings 2019, 9, 107 4 of 13

(C − A)
Volume of voids in % = × 100 (2)
Buildings 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW (C − D) 4 of 13
Buildings 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 2. (a) Center core cut specimens (b) specimens under boiling.
(a) Center
Figure 2. (a) Center core
core cut specimens (b) specimens under boiling.
4.2. Rapid chloride penetration test (RCPT)
4.2. Rapid
4.2. Rapid chloride
Chloridepenetration
Penetrationtest Test(RCPT)
(RCPT)
Chloride ingress is one of the major forms of environmental attack for RCC, and in turn, it leads
Chloride ingress
Chloride ingress is is one
one ofof the
the major
major forms
forms of of environmental
environmental attack attack for RCC,
forcauses
RCC, for and in
and in turn, it it leads
leads
to initiation of corrosion of embedded steel bars. This may be one of the the turn,
reduction of
to initiation
to initiation of corrosion
of corrosion of embedded
of embedded steel bars.
steel bars. This
This may
may be be one
one ofof the
the causes
causes for for the
the reduction
reduction of of
strength, performance and view of the structure. A general method to avoid this is the prevention of
strength, performance
strength, performance and view view of the structure. A general
general method
method to to avoid this this isis the
the prevention
prevention of of
chloride ingress into and the steel of
barsthebystructure. A
using impermeable concreteavoid to the extent possible [17].
chloride
chloride ingress into the steel bars by using impermeable concrete to the extent possible [17]. Therefore,
Therefore,ingress
for designinto purposes
the steel and bars controlling
by using impermeable
the quality of concrete
concrete,toit the extent possible
is necessary to know[17]. the
for design purposes
Therefore, for design and controlling
purposes and the quality of concrete,
controlling the qualityit isofnecessary
concrete, toitknow
is the ability
necessary to of chloride
know the
ability of chloride ions to penetrate the concrete. However, it is a long-term process and it is not
ions to penetrate
ability the concrete. However, theitconcrete.
is a long-term process it and itlong-term
is not possible to find initaisshort
possibleoftochloride
find in ionsa shortto penetrate
time. Instead, However,
an accelerating process isisa followed process
[18]. ASTM andC1202 not
[19]
time.
possibleInstead, an accelerating process is followed [18]. ASTM C1202 [19] suggests a simple laboratory
suggests to find inlaboratory
a simple a short time. testInstead,
to determinean accelerating
the chloride process is followed
penetration [18]. ASTM
of a concrete sampleC1202 using [19]a
test to determine
suggests a simple the chloride test
laboratory penetration
to determine of a concrete
the sample
chloride using a triplicate
penetration of a specimen
concrete sample of 100
using mm a
triplicate specimen of 100 mm diameter and 50 mm height cut from the center core of a cylinder of
diameter specimen
triplicate and 50 mm of height
100 mm cutdiameter
from theand center50 coreheight
mm of a cylinder
cut fromof the100 center
mm diameter
core of aand 200 mm
cylinder of
100 mm diameter and 200 mm height. These specimens are to be subjected to 60 V applied through
height.
100 mm These
diameterspecimens aremmto be subjected to specimens
60 V applied through direct current for a duration of 6 h.
direct current for and 200
a duration ofheight.
6 h. The These
sample tested are to be subjected
for RCPT is showntoin60 V applied
Figure 3. One through
of the
The
directsample
current tested for
for a 3% RCPT
duration is shown
of chloride in Figure
6 h. The solution 3.
sample testedOne of the chambers
forother
RCPT is showncontains 3%
in Figure sodium chloride
chambers contains sodium and the chamber contains 0.3 3. Onesodium
mole of the
solution and
chambers the other
contains 3% chamber
sodium containssolution
chloride 0.3 moleand sodium
the hydroxide
other chamber solution
contains was0.3 used.
mole The total
sodium
hydroxide solution was used. The total charge passed was calculated, measured in coulomb. Tests
charge passed
hydroxide was calculated,
solution wasthree
used. measured
The totalfor in coulomb.
charge Tests were performed on the three specimens for
were performed on the specimens each passed was
curing condition. calculated,
Average measured
results of inthree
coulomb.
specimensTests
each
were curing
performed condition.
on the Average results
three specimens of three
for each specimens
curing are reported.
condition. Table 2 illustrates the rating of
are reported. Table 2 illustrates the rating of RCPT with respect Average
to the charge resultspassed
of three inspecimens
coulombs
RCPT
are with
reported. respect
Table to the charge passed in coulombs versus chloride ion
2 illustrates the rating of RCPT with respect to the charge passed in coulombs penetrability.
versus chloride ion penetrability.
versus chloride ion penetrability.

Figure 3. Specimens under RCPT testing.

Figure 3. Specimens under RCPT testing.
Figure 3. Specimens under RCPT testing.
Table 2. RCPT ratings (as per ASTM C1202).
Table 2. RCPT ratings (as per ASTM C1202).
Charge Passed (coulombs) Chloride ion penetrability
Charge Passed (coulombs) Chloride ion penetrability
> 4000 High
> 4000 High
Buildings 2019, 9, 107 5 of 13

Table 2. RCPT ratings (as per ASTM C1202).

Charge Passed (Coulombs) Chloride Ion Penetrability

>4000 High
Buildings 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13
2000–4000 Moderate
1000–2000
2000–4000 Low
Moderate
100–1000
1000–2000 Very
LowLow
<100
100–1000 Negligible
Very Low
< 100 Negligible
4.3. Sorptivity Test
4.3.
The Sorptivity
measure test
of unsaturated flow of water/fluids inside the concrete is known as sorptivity [20].
It is alsoThereferred
measure toofasunsaturated
a measureflow of the capillary
of water forces
/ fluids inside exerted by the
the concrete pore structure
is known as sorptivityof concrete
[20].
causing water/fluids
It is also referred to to as
be adrawn
measure intoofthe
theconcrete.
capillary For
forcesthis test, the
exerted by concrete
the pore sample
structure should be dried
of concrete
causing water
consistently / fluids
and the flow toconditions
be drawn into wellthedefined.
concrete.Using
For this test,squares
least the concrete sampleitshould
regression, be driedeasy
is relatively
consistently and the flow conditions well defined. Using least squares regression,
to get a good fit while plotting a graph between cumulative water absorption per unit area of concrete it is relatively easy
to get a good fit while plotting a graph √
between cumulative water absorption per unit area of concrete
surface (i) and the square root of time ( t). A simple technique is suggested by ASTM C1585 [21] for
the surface (i) and the
measurement square
of rate of root of time (√t).
absorption A simple
of water technique is
by concretes. suggested required
Apparatus by ASTM for C1585
this[21]
testfor
were
a scale, a stopwatch and a shallow pan of water. The test required the use of triplicate specimens ofasize
the measurement of rate of absorption of water by concretes. Apparatus required for this test were
scale, a stopwatch and a shallow pan of water. The test required the use of triplicate specimens of
100 mm diameter and 50 mm thickness cut from the center core of a cylinder of size 100 mm diameter
size 100 mm diameter and 50 mm thickness cut from the center core of a cylinder of size 100 mm
and 200 mm height.
diameter and 200 mm height.
At first, prepared samples were preconditioned to a certain moisture condition, by drying the
At first, prepared samples were preconditioned to a certain moisture condition, by drying the
specimens for 7 days at 50 ◦ C. After seven days, these samples were allowed to cool in a container and
specimens for 7 days at 50 °C. After seven days, these samples were allowed to cool in a container
sealed
andfor threefor
sealed days. After
three thisAfter
days. process,
thissamples
process,were
samplessealedwereusingsealedinsulation tape on thetape
using insulation circumference
on the
of full depth of theofspecimen
circumference full depthinofsuch a way thatinthe
the specimen suchtopa and
waybottom
that thesurfaces
top and were
bottom exposed
surfaces forwere
testing.
Theexposed
mass offor thetesting.
specimen was taken initially at time 0 and then specimens were
The mass of the specimen was taken initially at time 0 and then specimens were immersed in a depth
of 5–10 mm water
immersed (Figure
in a depth 4). Once
of 5–10 the testing
mm water (Figureof4).specimen started,ofatspecimen
Once the testing the selected times
started, (i.e.,)
at the 1, 2, 3, 4,
selected
6, 9,times (i.e)
12, 16, 20,1,25,
2, 3,
30,4,45,
6, 9, 12,60
and 16,min,
20, 25,
the30, 45, and 60
specimen wasmin, the specimen
removed from thewaswater
removed
and from
weighed the water
after the
andwater
excess weighedwasafter
blottedthe excess
off with water
damp was blotted
paper andoff with A
towel. dampgraph paperwasand
thentowel.
plottedA graph
between wasthe then
mass
plotted between the mass gain
2 (gm) per unit area (mm 2) over the density of water and the square root
gain (gm) per unit area (mm ) over the density of water and the square root of the time elapsed. From
the of the time
graph, elapsed.can
sorptivity From bethe graph, as
reported sorptivity canofbethe
the slope reported
line ofas thefit.
best slope
The ofexperimental
the line of bestresults
fit. Thecan
experimental results can be related using the equation: i = S t 0.5, where i is the cumulative water
be related using the equation: i = S t0.5 , where i is the cumulative water absorption per unit area of
absorption per unit area of concrete surface, S is the sorptivity coefficient and t is the time at which
concrete surface, S is the sorptivity coefficient and t is the time at which the weight was determined.
the weight was determined.

Figure 4. Specimens under sorptivity test.

Figure 4. Specimens under sorptivity test.
4.4. Resistance to Elevated Temperatures
4.4. Resistance to elevated temperatures
Indian National Building Code, SP-7 (2005) specifies that the resistance to elevated temperature on
Indian National Building Code, SP-7 (2005) specifies that the resistance to elevated temperature
the unexpected face of the specimens can be up to a maximum of 180 ◦ C and/or average temperature
on the unexpected face of the specimens can be up to a maximum of 180 °C and/or average
temperature of 150 °C. Hence, it is necessary that the elements are to be designed with sufficient
backup strength to support the loads applied for the projected time of rise in temperature [12]. Since
CS has organic matter, it is susceptible to damage at high temperatures. But it does not mean that the
Buildings 2019, 9, 107 6 of 13

of 150 ◦ C. Hence, it is necessary that the elements are to be designed with sufficient backup strength
to support the loads applied for the projected time of rise in temperature [12]. Since CS has organic
matter, it is susceptible to damage at high temperatures. But it does not mean that the use of CSC in
construction is 8,
Buildings 2019, not safe.
x FOR The
PEER capacity of the members can be boosted up by designing the members
REVIEW 6 of 13 for
strength and because of this, members may have residual strength to carry the loads when subjected
use of temperature
to raised CSC in construction is not safe.resistance
[12]. Therefore, The capacity of the members
to elevated can be boosted
temperature up by
by the CSC designing
members with
the members
coconut fiber arefor strength and because of this, members may have residual strength to carry the loads
studied.
when
Onlysubjected
full water to immersion
raised temperature [12]. Therefore,
(W1) curing resistance
was adopted to specimens
on the elevated temperature by the
used for this CSC
test. After
members with coconut fiber are studied.
28 days curing, concrete cube specimens were placed in an oven at 100 C, 200 C, 300 C and 400 ◦ C
◦ ◦ ◦
Only full water immersion (W1) curing was adopted on the specimens used for this test. After
for 1, 2, 3 and 4 h, respectively. Specimens were then allowed to cool to room temperature before
28 days curing, concrete cube specimens were placed in an oven at 100 °C, 200 °C, 300 °C and 400 °C
being tested for compression strength. The results of temperature tests are reported on an average of
for 1, 2, 3 and 4 h, respectively. Specimens were then allowed to cool to room temperature before
triplicate specimens.
being tested for compression strength. The results of temperature tests are reported on an average of
triplicate specimens.
5. Results and Discussion

5.1. 5.Water
Results and discussion
Absorption
5.1. Water5absorption
Figure shows the water absorption of CC, CCF, CSC and CSCF mixes under W1, W2, and W3
curing conditions.
Figure 5 showsFor the
thewater
CC specimen,
absorptionthe of water
CC, CCF, absorption
CSC and at 28-days
CSCF mixeswas
underfound
W1, asW2, 3.98%,
and W3 4.04%
andcuring
6.48%conditions.
for the curing conditions W1, W2 and W3, respectively. For the CCF
For the CC specimen, the water absorption at 28-days was found as 3.98%, 4.04%specimen, the results
wereandfound
6.48%asfor
4.11%, 4.19% conditions
the curing and 6.63% W1,for the
W2curing
and W3, conditions W1,For
respectively. W2theandCCF
W3,specimen,
respectively. Similarly,
the results
for the
were CSC specimen,
found the 4.19%
as 4.11%, water and
absorption
6.63% for at 28-days
the curing wasconditions
found as 11.32%,
W1, W211.14%
and W3, andrespectively.
11.45% for the
curing conditions
Similarly, for theW1,
CSC W2 and W3,the
specimen, respectively. Likewise,
water absorption for the
at 28-days CSCF
was foundspecimen,
as 11.32%,the results
11.14% andwere
11.45%
found for the 11.28%
as 11.38%, curing conditions
and 11.74% W1, forW2
theand W3, respectively.
curing conditions W1, Likewise,
W2 and forW3,
the respectively.
CSCF specimen, the of
In case
the results
CC andwere CCFfound
mixes,aswater11.38%, 11.28% and
absorption 11.74%
results for theincuring
are better case ofconditions
W1 curing W1, W2 andwhich
condition W3, is
the respectively. In case of
traditional method the CC and
compared toCCF
W2 mixes,
and W3 water
curingabsorption results
conditions. arein
But better in case
the case of of
CSCW1andcuring
CSCF
condition which is the traditional method compared to W2 and W3 curing
mixes, W2 curing condition performed better compared to W1 and W3 conditions. It is concurrent conditions. But in the case
withofone
CSC and CSCF mixes, W2 curing condition performed better compared to W1 and W3 conditions.
of the earlier studies [12] that the water absorbed by the CS during the course of soaking
It is concurrent with one of the earlier studies [12] that the water absorbed by the CS during the course
is stored by the CS which behaves like a reservoir, and that this helps in internal curing, leading to
of soaking is stored by the CS which behaves like a reservoir, and that this helps in internal curing,
a continuation of hydration process. This is lacking in the W3 condition. Therefore, it can be said
leading to a continuation of hydration process. This is lacking in the W3 condition. Therefore, it can
thatbeproper curing is required for CSC and CSCF to achieve better durability properties. Literature
said that proper curing is required for CSC and CSCF to achieve better durability properties.
states that thestates
Literature waterthat
absorption
the waterof CC is limited
absorption of CCto is 5.00%
limited[12]. In this
to 5.00% study,
[12]. instudy,
In this all theincases ofcases
all the CC and
CCFofmixes, it was found that the water absorption was less than 5% under
CC and CCF mixes, it was found that the water absorption was less than 5% under W1 and W2 W1 and W2 conditions.
However, this limit
conditions. was not
However, thisfulfilled
limit wasinnotthefulfilled
case of CSCin theand
caseCSCF
of CSCmixes. But compared
and CSCF mixes. Butwith the water
compared
absorption
with theofwaterlightweight
absorptionconcrete (LWC) with
of lightweight pumice
concrete aggregates
(LWC) [22–24]aggregates
with pumice these results are better.
[22–24] these
results are better.
14
W1 W2 W3
12
Water absorption (%)

10

0
CC CCF CSC CSCF
Mix types

Figure5.5.Results
Figure Results of water
water absorption
absorptiontest.
test.

5.2. Volume of permeable voids

Buildings 2019, 9, 107 7 of 13

5.2. Volume of Permeable Voids

Buildings
VPV test 2019, results
8, x FOR PEER REVIEW
on CC, CCF, CSC and CSCF mixes for W1, W2, and W3 curing conditions 7 of 13 at

28 days are shown in Figure 6. For CC specimen, the VPV value at 28-days was found as 3.19%, 4.79%
VPV test results on CC, CCF, CSC and CSCF mixes for W1, W2, and W3 curing conditions at 28
and 8.34% for the curing conditions W1, W2 and W3, respectively. For CCF specimen, the results were
days are shown in Figure 6. For CC specimen, the VPV value at 28-days was found as 3.19%, 4.79%
found as 5.11%, 7.52% and 9.55% for the curing conditions W1, W2 and W3, respectively. Similarly,
and 8.34% for the curing conditions W1, W2 and W3, respectively. For CCF specimen, the results
for CSC
were specimen, the VPV
found as 5.11%, values
7.52% andat9.55%
28-days
for was found as
the curing 13.23%, 11.55%
conditions W1, W2and and16.58% for the curing
W3, respectively.
conditions
Similarly,W1,
for W2
CSCand W3, respectively.
specimen, the VPV values Likewise,
at 28-days forwas
CSCF
found specimen,
as 13.23%,the results
11.55% andwere found
16.58% for as
13.63%, 12.41% and 17.03% for the curing conditions W1, W2 and W3, respectively.
the curing conditions W1, W2 and W3, respectively. Likewise, for CSCF specimen, the results were These results
indicate
foundthat the use 12.41%
as 13.63%, of CS aggregates
and 17.03%contributes
for the curingto the increasing
conditions W1,VPV. ThisW3,
W2 and mayrespectively.
be due to the porous
These
nature of CS
results in comparison
indicate that the usewith conventional
of CS aggregate. to
aggregates contributes The
theresults of VPV
increasing VPV. of This
CSCmayand be
CSCF
due mixes
to
are the porous nature
comparable of CS
to that in comparison
of other LWC in withwhich conventional
VPV values aggregate.
ranged The
fromresults
8.6 toof22.5%.
VPV ofAdditionally,
CSC and
VPVCSCF mixes
ranged are20.1
from comparable
to 21.2%tofor that
oilofpalm
othershell
LWC in whichwhich
concrete, VPV values ranged
is similar from[12].
to CSC 8.6 to 22.5%.
For CC and
Additionally, VPV ranged from 20.1 to 21.2% for oil palm shell concrete, which
CCF mixes, VPV results are better in W1 curing condition compared to W2 and W3 curing conditions is similar to CSC [12].
andFor
in CC
caseandof CCF
CSCmixes, VPV results
and CSCF mixes,areW2better in W1
curing curing condition
condition performedcompared
bettertocompared
W2 and W3tocuring
W1 and
conditions
W3 conditions. and in case of CSC and CSCF mixes, W2 curing condition performed better compared to
W1 and W3 conditions.

18
W1 W2 W3
16
14
12
VPV(%)

10
8
6
4
2
0
CC CCF CSC CSCF
Mix types

Figure 6. Results
Figure6. of VPV
Results of VPVtest.
test.

5.3. 5.3.
RCPTRCPT
RCPTRCPT testtest
results
resultsononCC,CC,CCF,CCF,CSC
CSCand and CSCF
CSCF mixes forW1,
mixes for W1,W2,W2,andandW3 W3 curing
curing conditions
conditions at at
28 days are shown in Figure 7. For CC specimen, the RCPT test value at 28-days
28 days are shown in Figure 7. For CC specimen, the RCPT test value at 28-days was found as 2443, was found as 2443,
25702570
andand2659 coulombs for the curing conditions W1, W2 and W3, respectively.
2659 coulombs for the curing conditions W1, W2 and W3, respectively. For CCF specimen, For CCF specimen,
the the
results were
results found
were found asas2408,
2408,2515
2515and
and2590
2590 coulombs
coulombs forforthe
thecuring
curingconditions
conditions W1,W1,
W2W2andand
W3,W3,
respectively.
respectively. Similarly,
Similarly, forfor
thetheCSC
CSCspecimen,
specimen, thethe RCPT
RCPT values
valuesatat28-days
28-days were
werefound as 3254,
found 29162916
as 3254,
andand37053705 coulombs
coulombs forfor
thethecuring
curingconditions
conditions W1,W1, W2W2 and
andW3,W3,respectively.
respectively.Likewise, forfor
Likewise, thethe
CSCF
CSCF
specimen, the results were found as 3158, 2907 and 3693 coulombs for the
specimen, the results were found as 3158, 2907 and 3693 coulombs for the curing conditions W1, curing conditions W1, W2 W2
andand
W3,W3, respectively.
respectively. Additionally,
Additionally, RCPTRCPT ranged
ranged 2115
2115 toto 3336
3336 coulombsfor
coulombs forexpanded
expandedclay
clayLWC
LWC[25].
[25]. Additionally,
Additionally, RCPT rangedRCPT fromranged from
3581 to 3,581 to 4,549 coulombs
4549 coulombs for oil
for oil palm palm
shell shell concrete,
concrete, which
which is is to
similar
similar to CSC [26]. From the study results, all the mixes show moderate chloride-ion penetrability.
CSC [26]. From the study results, all the mixes show moderate chloride-ion penetrability.
During testing, it was noticed that the specimen’s temperature continued to increase throughout.
During testing, it was noticed that the specimen’s temperature continued to increase throughout.
At the end of the test, high temperatures were observed and felt. The reason for this phenomenon is
At the end of the test, high temperatures were observed and felt. The reason for this phenomenon is that
that quality of concrete is lower in comparison with high strength, and high-performance concrete
quality
tends ofto
concrete
rise in is lower in comparison
temperature with high
since it is related strength,
to the product and
of high-performance
the current and theconcrete
voltage tends
[27]. to
riseTherefore,
in temperature since it of
if the quality is related to theisproduct
the concrete low, theof the current
current passing and the
will bevoltage
greater [27]. Therefore,
at a given if the
voltage
and hence it may cause greater heat energy. In turn, this will lead to increase in charge passed.
Buildings 2019, 9, 107 8 of 13

quality of the concrete is low, the current passing will be greater at a given voltage and hence it may
cause greater
Buildings 2019,heat energy.
8, x FOR In turn, this will lead to increase in charge passed.
PEER REVIEW 8 of 13

4000
W1 W2 W3
3500
Charge passed (coulombs)

3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
CC CCF CSC CSCF
Mix types

Figure 7. Results
Figure7. of RCPT
Results of RCPTtest.
test.

5.4. Sorptivity
5.4. Sorptivity
Sorptivity test on a concrete specimen will give information about the pore structure of concrete [28].
Sorptivity test on a concrete specimen will give information about the pore structure of concrete
If the sorptivity is low it
[28]. If the sorptivity is indicates that the
low it indicates quality
that of concrete
the quality is high
of concrete against
is high the resistance
against of water
the resistance of
absorption. Generally, the sorptivity value should be be
less than 0.5
water absorption. Generally, the sorptivity value should less than0.1 0.1mm/min
mm/min0.5 for forthe
thequality
quality of of
concrete to be high [12]. Sorptivity test results on CC, CCF, CSC and
concrete to be high [12]. Sorptivity test results on CC, CCF, CSC and CSCF mixes at W1, W2, and W3 CSCF mixes at W1, W2,
and W3 curing
curing conditionsconditions
at 28 daysat are
28 days
shown are
in shown
Figure 8.inForFigure
the CC 8. specimen,
For the CC thespecimen, the value
sorptivity test sorptivity
at
test28-days
value were
at 28-days were found 0.5 for the curing conditions
found as 0.083, 0.090asand0.083,
0.1170.090
mm/minand0.50.117
for themm/min
curing conditions W1, W2 and W3,
W1, W2 and W3,
respectively. Forrespectively.
the CCF specimen,For thetheCCF specimen,
results were foundthe asresults
0.090,were
0.097found as 0.090,
and 0.128 mm/min 0.097 and
0.5 for

0.128
the mm/min 0.5
curing conditionsfor the W1,curing
W2 andconditions W1, W2 Similarly,
W3, respectively. and W3, for respectively. Similarly,
the CSC specimen, the for the CSC
sorptivity
values atthe
specimen, 28-days was values
sorptivity found atas 28-days
0.108, 0.098
wasand 0.130
found mm/min
as 0.108, and 0.130 mm/min0.5 for W1,
0.5 for the curing conditions
0.098 W2
the curing
and W3, respectively. Likewise, for the CSCF specimen, the results were
conditions W1, W2 and W3, respectively. Likewise, for the CSCF specimen, the results were found as found as 0.117, 0.108 and
0.144
0.117, mm/min
0.108 and 0.144 mm/min0.5 conditions
0.5 for the curing W1,conditions
for the curing W2 and W3, W1, respectively.
W2 and W3, The results of sorptivity
respectively. The results of of
the CSCof
sorptivity andtheCSCF
CSC andmixes are comparable
CSCF to that of oiltopalm
mixes are comparable that of shell
oil concrete
palm shell ranged fromranged
concrete 0.06–0.14
from
mm/min 0.5 [26]. In
0.5 certain lightweight aggregates, the cement paste infiltrates
0.06–0.14 mm/min [26]. In certain lightweight aggregates, the cement paste infiltrates the aggregate the aggregate surface
to a particular
surface depth,depth,
to a particular as a result
as a improving the aggregate
result improving interfacial
the aggregate zone [29]zone
interfacial and [29]
this may be the
and this may
case in this study also. The improved aggregate interface zone coupled with the capability of CS
be the case in this study also. The improved aggregate interface zone coupled with the capability of
aggregate to provide internal curing resulted in the lower sorptivity of cured specimens (curing W1
CS aggregate to provide internal curing resulted in the lower sorptivity of cured specimens (curing
and W2) compared to the uncured specimens (curing W3). Therefore to lower the sorptivity of
W1 and W2) compared to the uncured specimens (curing W3). Therefore to lower the sorptivity of
concrete, proper curing is necessary.
concrete, proper curing is necessary.
Buildings 2019, 9, 107 9 of 13
Buildings 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 13

0.16
W1 W2 W3
0.14

Sorptivity (mm/min0.5)
0.12

0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
CC CCF CSC CSCF
Mix types

Figure 8.8.Results
Figure Results of sorptivity
sorptivity test.
test.

5.5. Resistance at Elevated

5.5. Resistance Temperature
at Elevated Temperature

CompressiveCompressive strengths
strengths of CC, of CC,
CCF,CCF, CSC CSCand andCSCF
CSCFcubescubes that
thatare arenot
notsubjected
subjected to temperature
to temperature at
an age of at 28
an days
age ofunder 28 days
W1undercuringW1 curing conditions
conditions were 30.10, were43.80,
30.10,25.60
43.80,and 25.60 andN/mm
30.01 30.01 2N/mm 2,
, respectively.
respectively. For this temperature resistance study only W1 condition cured specimens were used.
For this temperature resistance study only W1 condition cured specimens were used. After the
After the application of a specific temperature for a specific time duration, specimens were tested for
application of a specific
their residual strength.temperature
Results are thefor a specific
average time specimens.
of triplicate duration,The specimens were tested
results of residual strengthfor their
residualofstrength.
CC, CCF, CSC Results are the
and CSCF average
mixes subjectedof triplicate
to differentspecimens.
temperaturesThe and results of residual
for different durationsstrength
are of
CC, CCF, CSC and
presented CSCF9, mixes
in Figure 10, 11 andsubjected to different temperatures and for different durations are
12, respectively.
presented inFrom Figuresthe literature, it is noticed that in case of CC, up to 300 °C, the residual strengths are 98, 92,
9–12, respectively.
88, and 70% at 100 °C,
From the literature, it is noticed 200 °C, 300 that
°C, and 400 °C,
in case of respectively
CC, up to 300 [30,31].
◦ C, In
thethis study, the
residual residual are 98,
strengths
compressive strength ◦ of CC◦ is approximately
◦ 96, 94,
◦ 90 and 88% at 100 °C at 1, 2, 3 and 4 h duration,
92, 88, and 70% at 100 C, 200 C, 300 C, and 400 C, respectively [30,31]. In this study, the residual
88, 83, 77 and 74% at 200 °C at 1, 2, 3 and 4 h duration, 77, 67, 61 and 57% at 300 °C at 1, 2, 3 and 4 h
compressive
duration, strength
61, 54, 49 ofand
CC43% is approximately
at 400 °C at 1, 2, 96,3 and 94,4 90 and 88%
h duration, at 100 ◦ Cofatits
respectively 1,original
2, 3 and 4 h duration,
strength.
88, 83, 77 and 74% ◦ ◦
Likewise, the at 200 C
residual at 1, 2, 3 and
compressive 4 h duration,
strength 77, 67, 61 and
of CCF is approximately 94,57%
90, 85atand
30081% C at
at100
1, 2,
°C3atand 4 h
duration, 1, 2,61, 54, 449
3 and and 43%84,
h duration, 40076◦ C
at 80, and at69%
1, 2,at3200and°C4ath1,duration,
2, 3 and 4 respectively
h duration, 74,of 67,its
62original
and 57% strength.
at
300 °C at 1, 2, 3 and 4 h duration, 61, 53, 51 and 44% at 400 °C at 1, 2,
Likewise, the residual compressive strength of CCF is approximately 94, 90, 85 and 81% at 100 C at 1, 2, 3 and 4 h duration, respectively◦

3 and 4 of h its original strength.

duration, 84, 80, 76Similarly,
and 69%the atresidual
200 ◦ C strength
at 1, 2, 3ofand CSC4ishapproximately
duration, 74,94, 67,87,
6275and and57%68%at at 300 ◦ C
100 °C at 1, 2, 3 and 4 h duration, 77, 67, 60 and 52% at ◦ 200°C at 1, 2, 3 and 4 h duration, 49, 36, 29 and
at 1, 2, 3 and 4 h duration, 61, 53, 51 and 44% at 400 C at 1, 2, 3 and 4 h duration, respectively of its
21% at 300 °C at 1, 2, 3 and 4 h duration, 34, 28, 22 and 16% at 400 °C at 1, 2, 3 and 4 h duration,
originalrespectively
strength. Similarly, the residual strength of CSC is approximately 94, 87, 75 and 68% at 100 ◦ C
of its original strength. Likewise, the residual compressive strength of CSCF is
at 1, 2, 3approximately
and 4 h duration, ◦ at 1, 2, 3 and 4 h duration, 49, 36, 29 and 21% at
94, 87, 77,
84 and67, 77%
60 and 52%
at 100 °C at 200
at 1, 2, 3 C
and 4 h duration, 82, 70, 64 and 58% at 200 °C at
300 ◦ C at 1, 32,and
1, 2, 3 and 4 h duration,
4 h duration, 67, 57,34,48 28,
and22 37%andat 16%
300 °C 1, 2,◦ C
atat400 at 1,42,h 3duration,
3 and and 4 h42, duration,
33, 27 and respectively
21% at of
400 °C
its original at 1, 2, 3 and
strength. 4 h duration,
Likewise, respectively
the residual of its original
compressive strength.
strength of CSCF is approximately 94, 87, 84
and 77% at As 100per◦ CASTM C 3330-09
and 4[32], minimum 82, strength
70, 64should be 17atN/mm200 ◦ Ctoatsatisfy
1, 2, 3the structural
2
at 1, 2, h duration, and 58% and 4 h duration,
concrete. From the results, ◦ it can be inferred that the residual strength of the mix CC at◦ 100 °C, at 200
67, 57, 48 and 37% at 300 C at 1, 2, 3 and 4 h duration, 42, 33, 27 and 21% at 400 C at 1, 2, 3 2and 4 h
°C, at 300 °C at 1, 2, 3 and 4h duration and at 400 °C at 1 h duration was more than 17 N/mm .
duration, respectively of its original strength.
Likewise, the residual strength of the mix CCF at 100 °C, at 200 °C, at 300 °C, at 400 °C at 1, 2, 3 and
As4 per ASTMwas C 330-09 [32], minimum strength shouldstrength
be 17 N/mm 2
h duration more than 17 N/mm 2. Similarly, the residual of the mixto satisfy
CSC at 100the structural
°C at 1,
concrete. ◦
2, 3From
and 4hthe results,
duration and it at
can200be°Cinferred
at 1 and that the residual
2 h duration was morestrength
than 17ofN/mmthe mix
2 CC at 100
. Likewise, the C, at
◦
200 C,residual ◦
at 300 strength
C at 1, 2, of 3the mix4 CSCF
and at 100 °C,
h duration and at at
200400 ◦
°C atC1,at2,13hand 4 h and was
duration at 300 °C atthan
more 1 and17 2 hN/mm2 .
Likewise, the residual strength of the mix CCF at 100 ◦ C, at 200 ◦ C, at 300 ◦ C, at 400 ◦ C at 1, 2, 3 and 4 h
duration was more than 17 N/mm2 . Similarly, the residual strength of the mix CSC at 100 ◦ C at 1, 2, 3
and 4 h duration and at 200 ◦ C at 1 and 2 h duration was more than 17 N/mm2 . Likewise, the residual
strength of the mix CSCF at 100 ◦ C, at 200 ◦ C at 1, 2, 3 and 4 h and at 300 ◦ C at 1 and 2 h duration
was more than 17 N/mm2 . Therefore, there is a minimum guarantee that all these four mixes offer
resistance against temperature for 2 h and hence are safe for construction.
 Buildings 2019,
Buildings 2019,8,8,x xFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 1010of of
1313
Buildings 2019, 9, 107 10 of 13
duration
durationwaswasmore
morethan
than1717N/mm
N/mm22..Therefore,
Therefore, there is a minimum
minimumguarantee
guaranteethat
thatall
allthese
thesefour
fourmixes
mixes
offer
offerresistance
resistanceagainst
againsttemperature
temperature for
for 22 hh and hence are
are safe
safe for
forconstruction.
construction.
35
35
11hh 22 hh 3h 44 hh
30
30

Residual Strength (N/mm )

Residual Strength (N/mm22)
25
25

20
20

15
15
10
10
5
5
0
0
100 °C 200 °C 300 °C 400 °C
100 °C 200 °C 300 °C 400 °C
Temperature (°C)
Temperature (°C)

Figure 8. Temperature versus residual strength of CC mix.

Figure 9. Temperature
Figure 8. Temperatureversus residualstrength
versus residual strengthof of
CCCC mix.
mix.

45
45 1h 2h 3h 4h
40
Residual strength (N/mm )

1h 2h 3h 4h
Residual strength (N/mm2) 2

40
35
35
30
30
25
25
20
20
15
15
10
10 5

50

0 100 °C 200 °C 300 °C 400 °C

100 °C Temperature
200 °C (°C) 300 °C 400 °C
Temperature (°C)
Buildings 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 13
Figure 10. Temperature
Figure 9. Temperature versus residual
versus residual strength
strength of CCF
of CCF mix. mix.

30 Figure 9. Temperature versus residual strength of CCF mix.

1h 2h 3h 4h
Residual Strength (N/mm2)

25

20

15

10

0
100 °C 200 °C 300 °C 400 °C
Temperature (°C)

Figure Temperature
11.10.
Figure Temperatureversus residualstrength
versus residual strengthof of
CSCCSC
mix.mix.

30
1h 2h 3h 4h
/mm2)

25
 0
100 °C 200 °C 300 °C 400 °C
Temperature (°C)

Buildings 2019, 9, 107 11 of 13

Figure 10. Temperature versus residual strength of CSC mix.

30
1h 2h 3h 4h

Residual strength (N/mm2)

25

20

15

10

0
100 °C 200 °C 300 °C 400 °C
Temperature (°C)

Figure Temperature
12.11.
Figure Temperatureversus residualstrength
versus residual strengthofof CSCF
CSCF mix.
mix.

6. Conclusions
5. Conclusion

This This
study study
was was
aimedaimed at durability
at the the durability performance
performance of coconut
of coconut shell
shell concrete
concrete withcoconut
with coconutfibers.
fibers. For comparison,
For comparison, conventional conventional
concreteconcrete with coconut
with coconut fibersalso
fibers was wasconsidered.
also considered.FromFromthethe
testtest
results
results onproperties
on durability durability and
properties
elevated andtemperature
elevated temperature
resistance,resistance, the significant
the significant conclusionsconclusions
drawn are:
drawn are:
In case of conventional concrete mixes without and with coconut fibers, water absorption and
In case of conventional concrete mixes without and with coconut fibers, water absorption and
volume of permeable pore voids results are better in the case of full water immersion compared to
volume of permeable pore voids results are better in the case of full water immersion compared to
site curing and air-dry curing conditions. But in the case of coconut shell concrete mixes without and
site curing and air-dry curing conditions. But in the case of coconut shell concrete mixes without and
with coconut fibers,
with coconut thethe
fibers, sitesite
curing
curing condition
conditionperformed bettercompared
performed better compared to to
fullfull water
water immersion
immersion and and
air-dry curing conditions.
air-dry curing conditions.
All the
Allmixes,
the mixes,conventional
conventional concrete
concreteand
and coconut shellconcrete
coconut shell concrete without
without andandwithwith coconut
coconut fibers,fibers,
are rated
are rated as having
as having moderate
moderate chloride-ionpenetrability.
chloride-ion penetrability.
Sorptivity
Sorptivity test test results
results on the
on the conventional
conventional concretemixes
concrete mixeswithout
withoutand
and with
with coconut
coconut fibers
fibersareare less
less than 0.1 mm/min
0.5 0.5 in case of full water immersion and site curing conditions. Sorptivity is also
than 0.1 mm/min in case of full water immersion and site curing conditions. Sorptivity is also less in
case of coconut shell concrete mix without coconut fibers under site curing condition. Therefore, it can
be stated that in these cases, the quality of concrete is high compared with other mixes.
There is a minimum guarantee that both conventional concrete and coconut shell concrete mixes
without and with coconut fibers provide resistance against temperature for 2 h and hence are safe
for construction.
Finally, this study encourages the idea that though both coconut shell and coconut fibers are wood
based in nature, these materials can be used in the production of concrete and can be used in practice
without any hesitation considering their durability properties.

Author Contributions: The conceptualization of this manuscript was initiated and methodology adopted was
also decided by both the authors A.S. and G.K. Test investigations were handled by the author A.S. and supervised
by the author G.K. Results analysis were done by the author A.S. and checked by the author G.K. Original draft
was prepared by the author A.S. under the guidance of G.K. In the same way review and editing were also done.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: Authors wish to thank the management of SRM institute of Science and Technology for their
support to complete this study. Also thanks V. Deeptha Thattai, Civil, SRM Institute of Science and Technology,
for her help rendered in language and other corrections to make this manuscript in this level.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Buildings 2019, 9, 107 12 of 13

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