CLASS -12

In 1880, Charles Laveran a French army medical officer, discovered

Malarial parasites in the blood of a malarial patient. He was awarded
Nobel prize for his discovery.

On August29, 1897, Sir Ronald Ross of the Indian Medical Service,

established that Malarial parasite is transmitted by the bite of a
Female Anopheles Mosquito ,ever since the day is called
MOSQUITO DAY.

August 29 is celebrated as the MOSQUITO DAY .

He was awarded Nobel prize for his discovery in 1902.

EPIDEMIC: Disease which spreads within a region at a particular

time. Example: Cholera, Meningitis

ENDEMIC: Disease which belongs to only a specific region or country.

Example :Malaria

PANDEMIC: Disease which spreads to a large area affecting

populations of many countries. Example: COVID -19
AUTOIMMUNITY

In this abnormality, the immune system of the body starts attacking the body’s
own cells.

The immune disorder in which the antibodies produced by an organism act

against its self –cells (own cells) and tissues, is called Auto-immunity. It causes
severe diseases. The diseases caused due to Auto-immunity are called
Auto- immune diseases.

Examples

(1) Rheumatoid Arthritis – is a chronic inflammation of the lining of the joints,

leading to pain and swelling typically in the hands and feet.

(2) Chronic anemia (destruction of own RBC)

(3) Chronic hepatitis (destruction of liver cells)

(4) Myasthenia gravis (destruction of muscles)

(5) Hashimoto’s Disease – It is an autoimmune disease in which Thyroid gland

is attacked.
 LYMPHOCYTES
White Blood Cells are an important part of the immune system.
Lymphocytes are the smallest WBC. They are Agranulocytes.
In Lymphocytes, the nucleus is large and rounded. Lymphocytes form the main
cells involved in immune system.

There are two classes of lymphocytes:

T – lymphocytes and B – lymphocytes.
Both types of lymphocytes are formed from the stem cells, called
Haemocytoblasts. [Stem cells in the red bone marrow are called
Haemocytoblasts. They give rise to all of the formed elements in
blood]
B-LYMPHOCYTES

B – Lymphocytes or B – cells are short lived cells of the immune system. They
survive for a few days or weeks. They are named B- lymphocytes because they
were first studied in Bursa of Fabricius (a lymphatic organ near Cloaca found in
the birds only).

In Mammals, B cells mature in the Bone marrow.

B- Lymphocytes are responsible for Humoral or Antibody –Mediated Immune

System(AMI).
When B – Lymphocytes or B – cells gets matured ,it produces Plasma cells.
Plasma cells produce Antibodies. The B cells produce antibodies that are used
to attack invading bacteria, viruses, and toxins.

Antibodies (Immunoglobulin-Ig) produced by B- lymphocytes in the blood.

They do not react against Cancer cells and Transplants.

B – Lymphocytes or B – cells are normally seen in Inactive forms, thus B – cells

have to be activated.
B – Lymphocytes or B – cells have separate receptors on their surface called
B- cell Receptor or BCR.

Antibodies are found tightly attached to the B- cell Receptor.

These Antibodies that are present on the surface of B- cells ,they can bind
specifically with an Antigen or pathogenic fragments. (Antigens are foreign
particles coming from outside the body.)

B- cells can find out the specific antigens and bind with the antigen.
T-LYMPHOCYTES

A T-cell is a type of lymphocyte. T – Cells originate in the bone marrow but are
matured in the Thymus. T – Cells directly attack pathogens. (Once they leave
the Thymus ,they circulate throughout the body until they recognise their
Antigen on the surface of antigen.

T cells derive their name from the Thymus.

A T cell is a type of lymphocyte, which develops in the Thymus gland (hence

the name) and plays a central role in the immune response.

T cells originate in the bone marrow and mature in the Thymus.

T –lymphocytes or T- cells have a long life span surviving for months or years.
T –lymphocytes are responsible for Cell mediated Immune System
(Cell mediated immunity). T –lymphocytes mature in Thymus.

T cells are not activated until they find their specific antigen.
Each T –lymphocyte has a T –cell receptor (TCR) which is specific to a particular
antigen.

T –lymphocytes are divided into three types on the basis of their function.
They are Natural Killer –T or Cytotoxic –T cells (Killer –T-cells), Helper T-cells,
and Suppressor T- cells.

Cytotoxic T cells : Killer T cells also known as CD8 + T cells are Cytotoxic, this
means they are able to kill virus infected cells, as well as cancer cells.

Memory T cells :remain afterwards to help the immune system respond more
quickly if the same organism is encountered again. Memory cells are unique
because they remember the pathogens and infectious cells faster than others
allowing them to fight off bacteria and viruses quickly. Memory cells are the
reason ,vaccines can create immunities in the body.
Helper T-cells or CD4+ T cells direct the rest of the immune system by
releasing Cytokines.

Helper T cells are the most numerous of T cells (about 75% of T- cells).
Helper T cells release a variety of compounds called Cytokines.

Suppressor T- cells or Regulatory cells : suppress the immune response so that

it does not get out of control and destroy normal cells once the immune
response is no longer needed.

[Reference - Cellular differentiation is the process in which a cell changes from

one cell type to another. Usually, the cell changes to a more specialized
type. Differentiation occurs numerous times during the development of a
multicellular organism as it changes from a simple zygote to a complex system
of tissues and cell types.]

T- Lymphocytes and B- lymphocytes together, generate two types of specific

immunity. They are Cell Mediated Immunity and Humoral or
Antibody Mediated Immunity.

CELL MEDIATED IMMUNITY

In this type of immunity , T- lymphocytes directly attack the pathogens that

have entered the body or grafts such as transplanted kidney or skin grafts
taken from another person. So to decrease the chances of rejection of
transplant organ, Tissue matchings and Blood group compatibility must be
done before transplantation. This is the reason that organ can not be
transplanted from any body.

The Cell mediated immunity is responsible for the graft rejection.

T-lymphocytes are responsible for graft rejection.
In this type specific antibodies are produced in response to specific antigen
stimulus. The Antibodies bind and inactivate the particular antigen.

B- lymphocytes differentiate in Peyers patches, tonsils and appendix of

mammals and bursa of fabricus in the birds. T- lymphocytes differentiate in
the Thymus gland. [Peyer's patches are small masses of lymphatic tissue found
throughout the ileum region of the small intestine.]
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN B- LYMPHOCYTES and T-LYMPHOCYTES

B lymphocytes or B cells mature in the Bone marrow,

whereas T – lymphocytes mature in the Thymus.

In B- cells, Surface antibodies are present,

but in T- cells Surface antibodies are absent.

The Membrane receptor for Antigen in B- cells are BCR, and the
Membrane receptor for Antigen in T- cells are TCR.

Life span of B-cells are short and life span of T cells are long.

B cells secrete Antibodies and T cells secrete Lymphokines.

T cells are involved in Cell-mediated immunity, whereas B cells are

primarily responsible for Humoral immunity (relating to antibodies)
LYMPHOID ORGANS

The Immune system consists of lymphoid organs, tissues, cells, and

Antibodies.

“The organs where the maturation and proliferation of lymphocytes take place
are called lymphoid organs”

Or lymphoid organs are those of the body where lymphocytes originate,

mature, proliferate and differentiate.

[Reference: Proliferation is a rapid multiplication of parts or the increase in the number of

something. The proliferation of any living thing will often create an overpopulation

problem and cause an environmental imbalance. വ്യാപനം)

Differentiation. Differentiation is simply the process of becoming different.

modification of body parts for performance of particular functions.

Differentiation in (developmental biology) refers to the normal process by

which a less specialized cell undergoes maturation to become more distinct in
form and function. It is also called cell differentiation.

These are the organs where origin, maturation and proliferation of

Lymphocytes occur.

The Immune system consists of lymphoid organs, tissues, cells, and

Antibodies.

“The organs where the maturation and proliferation of lymphocytes take place
are called lymphoid organs”

Or lymphoid organs are those of the body where lymphocytes originate,

mature, proliferate and differentiate.
There are two types of lymphoid organs. They are Primary lymphoid organs
and Secondary lymphoid organs.

Primary Lymphoid organs

These are the sites where immature lymphocytes mature and acquire their
antigen- specific reception or These are those lymphoid organs where
immature lymphocytes differentiate to antigen –sensitive lymphocytes. The
Primary lymphoid organs are Bone marrow (site of B-lymphocytes maturation)
and Thymus (site of T- lymphocytes maturation).

After maturation, B- lymphocytes and T- lymphocytes migrate to the

Secondary lymphoid organs through the circulatory system (blood vascular
system and lymphatic system).

In birds, Bursa of fabricius is the Primary lymphoid organ and is considered

equivalent to bone marrow of mammals.

Bone marrow is the lymphoid organ, where all the blood corpuscles including
lymphocytes are produced. Bone marrow

Bone marrow is the main Primary lymphoid organ where all types of
blood cells including lymphocytes are formed.

Thymus is a lobed organ beneath the breast bone near the heart. This gland
keeps reducing in size with age and by the time puberty is attained it reduces
to a very small size. It also provides development and maturation of
T-lymphocytes.

Thymus secretes a hormone called Thymosine, which helps in development

and maturation of T- lymphocytes of immune system.
BONE MARROW
Secondary Lymphoid organs

These are the lymphoid organs where the fully differentiated lymphocytes
migrate and interact with specific antigens and then proliferate to form
Effector cells which show immune response.

These are the sites for proliferation and differentiation of lymphocytes into
Effector cells, in response to specific antigens.

OR Secondary lymphoid organs (spleen, lymph nodes, mucosal

associated lymphoid tissue) provide the environment for the proliferation and
maturation of cells involved in the adaptive immune response, for filtering and
trapping antigens.

Examples of Secondary lymphoid organs are : Lymph nodes, Spleen,

Mucosa –Associated lymphoid Tissues(MALT) , Tonsils , Peyers patches of
small intestine and Appendix. The acquire immune response to antigens
develops in these organs.

[These are the lymphoid organs where the fully differentiated lymphocytes
migrate and interact with specific antigens and then proliferate to form
Effector cells which show immune response.

(1)Spleen

The Spleen is the largest lymphoid organ of the body and lies just behind the
stomach. It is a large bean shaped organ which mainly consists of lymphocytes
and phagocytes. It acts as a filter of the blood by trapping blood borne
microbes or It also acts as a Filter and traps the blood born micro-organisms.
Spleen acts as a Blood Bank because it helps in storage of both RBC and WBC.
It is also the Graveyard of RBCs.
(2)Lymph nodes

Lymph nodes are small solid structures ,found at different points along the
lymphatic system. They act as filters and trap the microbes that have entered
the lymph and tissue fluid. Antigens trapped in the lymph nodes activate the
lymphocytes present in them and produce an immune response.

Lymph nodes are small, oval or bean like bodies placed in the course of
lymphatic vessels. These act as filters and are the sites of formation of the
lymphocytes. These mainly lie in the neck, axilla, thorax, abdomen, and groin.

Lymph nodes are maximum in arm pit and groin. Lymph nodes are the sites of
formation of lymphocytes which form antibodies to provide immunity.

Q. Lymph nodes are Secondary lymphoid organs .Explain the role of lymph
nodes in our immune responses?

Answer – (1)These contain Phagocytes which remove microorganisms

(11)These contain Macrophages which remove cellular debris

(111)These contain lymphocytes which, when stimulated ,form antibodies

(1V)These also destroy cancer cells

(3)MALT (Mucosal –Associated Lymphoid Tissues)

Lymphoid tissue located within the mucosal lining of the major tracts
(respiratory, digestive, urinogenital tracts), is called Mucosal –Associated
Lymphoid Tissues .It constitutes about 50 % of the lymphoid tissue in a human
body.

It is formed of masses of lymphoid tissue present in the mucosa of respiratory

,digestive, and urinogenital tracts. MALT constitutes about 50% of the
lymphoid tissue in the human body . In the respiratory tract ,these are present
in the walls of trachea and large bronchi (so called BALT – Bronchial Associated
Lymphoid Tissue )while those associated with the wall of small intestine
(especially ileum )are called Peyers patches (or Gut Associated lymphoid Tissue
or GALT).

(4)Tonsils

These are masses of lymphoid tissues present at many sites inside the human
body , example (a)Palatine tonsils – the largest sized tonsils present on either
side of oropharynx (b) Pharyngeal tonsils – are present on the posterior wall of
the pharynx (c)Lingual tonsils- are present on the dorsum of the posterior part
of the tongue.
MALT