FSS 315 Research Methods Module

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UN
P A U L ’
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SE R
VANT
S OF GO D AND HUMANI
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ST. PAUL’S UNIVERSITY
SPU Distance Learning Course Handbook
FSS 315: RESEARCH METHODS AND

SEMINAR
[EDNAH MAINA]
SPU Distance & E - Learning Program
© 2016
_________________________________________
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Prepared by: Maina Ednah
Email: emaina@spu.ac.ke
Mobile: 0724 771 617
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COURSE OUTLINE
Course overview
To main goal of this unit is to equip students with skills and knowledge on the application
research and its application. It involves in the processes of obtaining, interpreting, and using
information for effective research for development. At the end of the course learners should be
able to
Expected Learning Outcomes:
By the end of the course, students will be able to:
1. Be able to explain systematically and illustrate essential components of the research
process
2. Acquire specialized skills in a range of research tools relevant for people engaged in a
variety of research and development efforts;
3. Apply the acquired skills in seminar presentations, and research project writing.
Instructional goals
Research is widely accepted as a means of getting information for decision making and policy formulation.
The course is therefore designed to produce competent researchers who have
1. Have research skills which they can apply effectively.
2. Have interest in research to enhance reading and evaluation.
3. Write a research proposal
4. Collect data on the research proposal analyze and write a research report.
5. Recognize the need for relevance and importance of research in their field.
6. Present the study report outcomes
Course content
Week Topics Subtopics
1 Introduction and Definitions of Research, Purpose of Research, Social
overview science research, Sources of knowledge, Research process
3 Types of research Classifying research methods and procedures , research
designs
4-5 Topic selection and Identification of Research Area, Defining the research
proposal writing problem, Sources of Research Topics, Problem
Formulation, Selecting Topics for Research
How to Develop Research Questions, Statement of
problems, Purpose, Objectives, Research question, Types
of hypothesis, Justification /rationale, Significances,
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Assumptions, Limitations and delimitations, study scope,
Definition of terms
6 Literature review Literature review, purpose of literature review, types of
data, sources of data, theoretical framework, types of
variables
7 Types of research Classification of research research
Research designs
8 Sampling and Population, Sample \sample size, Sampling techniques
sampling technique Probability and nonprobability sampling
9& 10 Data collection tools Primary data collection methods, Reliability, validity,
and reliability and Internal and external validity
validity Threat to internal and external validity
11 Research ethics Ethical considerations in research studies
12 Data Analysis and report writing
Definition, importance of data analysis, Quantitative data analysis, Qualitative data
analysis, Report writing
13 EXAMS
Required background skills: Academic writing and basic application and interpretation of
statistical techniques.
Mode of assessment:
Continuous assessment test (CAT I), research proposal marked as CAT II and final exam.
Course work 30%
Final exam 70%
CAT one will be posted in the portal while cat II should be done for the start to the end of the
semester (week 12 and 13).
Timelines
Topic approval Week 3&4 Send topic and study
objectives
Chapter one Complete by week 7 Review is continuous
Chapter two Week 8&9
Chapter three 10&11
Week 12 revision No reviews
Check appendix for the guidelines on CAT II
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
COURSE OUTLINE ...................................................................................................................... v
WEEK 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH ......................................................................... 1
1.0 Introduction and overview ........................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Learning Outcomes ................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Definitions of Research............................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Research and the Scientific Method ......................................................................................... 1
1.4 Purpose of Research .................................................................................................................. 2
1.5 Social science research ............................................................................................................. 3
1.6 Relationship between Research and the Manager .................................................................... 4
1.7 Sources of knowledge ............................................................................................................... 5
1.8 References ................................................................................................................................. 5
1.11 Reflections Questions ............................................................................................................. 6
Week 2: RESEARCH PROCESS AND QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH ................ 7
2.3 Characteristics of a good research ............................................................................................ 8
1.4 References ............................................................................................................................... 10
2.5 Reflections Questions ............................................................................................................. 11
WEEK 3: RESEARCH PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND TOPIC SELECTION ...... 12
3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 12
3.1 Learning objective .................................................................................................................. 12
3.2 Research problem.................................................................................................................... 12
3.3 Identifying a Research Problem .............................................................................................. 13
3.4 Sources of Research Topics .................................................................................................... 14
3.5 Problem Formulation .............................................................................................................. 14
3.6 Selecting Topics for Research ................................................................................................ 15
3.6.1 Factors that Affect Topic Selection in Research.................................................................. 15
3.7 Activity ................................................................................................................................... 16
3.8 References ............................................................................................................................... 16
3.9 Reflection questions ................................................................................................................ 16
WEEK 4: PROPOSAL WRITING: CHAPTER ONE ............................................................ 17
4.0 Introduction and overview ...................................................................................................... 17
4.1 learning Objective ................................................................................................................... 17
4.2 Components of chapter one .................................................................................................... 17
4.3 Background to the study ......................................................................................................... 17
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4.4 Statement of problem .............................................................................................................. 17
4.5 Purpose of the study ................................................................................................................ 18
4.6 Objectives of the study............................................................................................................ 19
4.7 Research question ................................................................................................................... 20
4.8 Hypothesis............................................................................................................................... 20
Types of hypothesis ...................................................................................................................... 21
4.9 Justification/rationale of the study .......................................................................................... 22
4.10 Significances of the Study .................................................................................................... 23
4.11 Assumptions of the Study ..................................................................................................... 23
4.12 Limitations and Delimitations of the Study .......................................................................... 24
4.13 Scope of the Study ................................................................................................................ 25
4.14 Definition of Terms............................................................................................................... 26
4.15 References ............................................................................................................................. 26
4.16 Activity ................................................................................................................................. 27
3.17 Reflection question ............................................................................................................... 27
WEEK 5 &6: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................. 28
5.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 28
5.1 Learning objectives ................................................................................................................. 28
5.1 Literature Review Defined ...................................................................................................... 28
5.2 Types of data and their sources ............................................................................................... 28
5.3 Types of literature review ....................................................................................................... 30
5.4 Purpose of literature review .................................................................................................... 31
5.6 Theoretical orientation ............................................................................................................ 32
5.7 Variables ................................................................................................................................. 32
5.8 Theoretical framework ............................................................................................................ 35
5.9 Writing chapter two ............................................................................................................... 36
5.10 References ............................................................................................................................. 37
5.10 Activity ................................................................................................................................. 38
5.11 Reflection questions .............................................................................................................. 38
WEEK 7: CLASSIFYING RESEARCH BY METHODS AND PROCEDURES ................ 39
7.0 Introduction and overview ..................................................................................................... 39
7.1 Learning objectives ................................................................................................................. 39
7.2 Different types of research .................................................................................................... 39
7.2.1 Classification by approach ................................................................................................... 39
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7.2.2 Classification by method of analysis ................................................................................... 42
7.2.3 Classification by purpose ..................................................................................................... 43
7.2.4 Classification by type ........................................................................................................... 46
2.3 Research Designs .................................................................................................................... 52
2.4 Distinguishing Characteristics of the Major Research Methods/Procedures .......................... 52
7.3 References ............................................................................................................................... 53
7.5 Reflection Questions .............................................................................................................. 54
CHAPTER 8: SAMPLING AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE .............................................. 55
8.2 Population ............................................................................................................................... 55
8.3 Sample and sample size .......................................................................................................... 56
8.4 Census Method........................................................................................................................ 56
8.5 Sampling ................................................................................................................................. 56
8.5.1 Probability sampling ............................................................................................................ 57
8.5.2 Non probability sampling .................................................................................................... 61
8.6 References ............................................................................................................................... 62
CHAPTER 9 & 10 : DATA COLLECTION TOOLS/RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS ....... 64
10.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 64
10.1 Learning Objectives .............................................................................................................. 64
10.2 Primary data collection tools ................................................................................................ 64
10.2.2.1 Methods of recording ...................................................................................................... 68
10.2.3 Focus groups discussions ................................................................................................... 69
10.2.3.1 Uses of focus group discussions ..................................................................................... 69
10.2.4 Observation ........................................................................................................................ 70
8.2.4.1 Advantages and disadvantages of observation ................................................................. 71
10.3 Pre-Testing ............................................................................................................................ 71
10.4 Reliability and Validity ......................................................................................................... 71
10.4.1 Reliability......................................................................................................................... 72
10.4.2 Validity ............................................................................................................................. 73
10.5 References ............................................................................................................................. 75
10.6 Activity ................................................................................................................................. 75
10.8 Reflection questions ............................................................................................................. 75
WEEK 11: RESEARCH ETHICS ............................................................................................ 76
11.1 Learning objectives ............................................................................................................... 76
11.2 Ethics..................................................................................................................................... 76
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11.3 Ethical considerations in research ......................................................................................... 76
11.5 References ............................................................................................................................. 81
10.5 Reflections Questions ........................................................................................................... 81
WEEK 12: DATA ANALYSIS AND REPORT WRITING .................................................. 82
12.0 Introduction and overview .................................................................................................... 82
12.1 Learning outcomes ................................................................................................................ 82
12.2 Description of data analysis and definition ........................................................................... 82
12.3 Importance of data analysis .................................................................................................. 82
12.4 Steps in Quantitative Data Analysis ..................................................................................... 82
11.5 Quantitative Data Analysis ................................................................................................... 86
11.8 Activity ................................................................................................................................. 87
11.9 References ............................................................................................................................. 87
11.9 Reflection Questions ............................................................................................................. 88
APPENDIX I: GUIDELINE ON PROPOSAL WRITING ..................................................... 89
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WEEK 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
1.0 Introduction and overview
This chapter gives a general introduction to the research and the research process.
1.1 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this topic the learner should be able to:
1. Explain research
2. Understand the purpose of research
3. Describe sources of knowledge
4. Discuss the relevance of research in a business setup
5. Describe research has a scientific method
6. Describe the research process
1.2 Definitions of Research
Research simply put an attempt to answer a set of questions, what, how and why relates to a
given phenomena. Research starts from the known to the unknown. A researcher in trying to
answer the questions above finds out what is unique in a situation. The environment is the lab of
a researcher. Unknown are research finding meant to solve a problem known. Research therefore
seeks to give solutions to gaps on what exists in the environment or what has been provided and
the ideal situation.
Research is defined by different authors as follows:
 Research is carrying out diligent inquiry or a critical examination of a given phenomenon.
 Research is the process of arriving at effective solutions to problems through systematic collection,
analysis and interpretation of data.
 Research is the process of arriving at effective solutions to problems through systematic collection,
analysis and interpretation of data.
 Research is a form of disciplined inquiry that generates knowledge. It upholds objectivity and
evidential test.
1.3 Research and the Scientific Method
What is Science?
Science is difficult to define primarily because it offer people confuse the content of science with
its methodology. Every study of phenomena is not science e.g. astrologists look at the positions
of the stars and various events in human life and try to relate. Relations between them in order to
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predict future events but this goals and activities do not qualify astrology for admission into the
family of science. This is because the methodology used by astrologists is considered
unscientific. Therefore the term science does not refer to any general or particular body of
knowledge but to a distinct methodology.
Definition: It is a systematic knowledge of natural or physical phenomena. It is truth ascertained
by observation, experiment and induction. It is ordered arrangement of facts known under classes
or heads/theoretical knowledge as distinguished from practical. Therefore science is concerned in
things that can be publicly observed and tested. If propositions or questions do not contain
implications for such public observations in testing than they are not scientific questions. The
scientific approach is grounded on a set of basic assumptions and are necessary prerequisites for
the conduct of scientific discourse. These assumptions qualify the scientific approach as superior
over other approaches to knowledge.
Research is about finding out what one already knows and collecting facts to serve useful
purpose. The scientific method encourages a rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated by
the demands of logic and objective procedure. Science provides an objective and factual account
of the world we live in. It is based on the following basic postulates.
 It relies on empirical evidence: research entails a complex philosophical ideas that have
been rigorously contested. This is because research is based on what has been observed.
 It utilizes relevant concepts.
 It is committed to only objective considerations. The results of the study are based on the
true observed records.
 It presupposes ethical neutrality i.e. it aims at nothing but making only adequate and correct
statements about population objects.
 It results into probabilistic predictions: the results in a research study are used to estimate
the characteristics of the population based on the probability of occurrences observed in the
sample.
 Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny and for use in testing
the conclusions through replication.
 It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.
1.4 Purpose of Research
1. To gain familiarity with a given phenomenon.
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2. To discover new knowledge.
3. To describe a phenomenon. Investigation of events calls for thorough description hence
providing information that lays foundation for other research purposes. It therefore helps
in assigning characteristics to a given phenomenon.
4. To enable prediction.
5. To enable control. After diagnosing a problem, researchers then seek to provide solutions
or regulate the phenomenon under study.
6. To enable the explanation of a phenomenon. Research enables diagnosis through accurate
observation and measurement of a given phenomenon. Conditionalities describe, predict
its occurrence and observe factors that cause its occurrence and reasonable degree of
accuracy. Cause effect relationships- hypotheses testing studies to find out whether there
is a casual relationship between a variables i.e. street children and background.
7. To enable theory development and validation of existing theories. Theory development
involves formulating concepts, laws and generalizations about a given phenomenon.
8. Research provides on with the knowledge and skills needed for the fast-paced decision
making environment.
1.5 Social science research
Social science deals with individuals within a certain set up. Social science research are studies
conducted by social scientists. They are described as studies of the way people live and interact.
It refers to studies on the society and how it interacts with the surrounding. In the course of the
interactions, some observable and non observable results will be derived e.g. pollution
desertification, crime. After research study, researchers give recommendations which give
practical ways of controlling the negatives while enhancing the positives in the environment.
Social science research examines a societies attitude assumption, believes, trends, stratification
and roles. The scope of social science research can be small large ranging from the self or a
simple individual to spanning an entire or country. Notably scope varies; one can take a small
resource is to or persons or long but depends on researchers- resource, time. Popular topics in
social research may include poverty, war, racism (South Africa) and class issues; other may
include sexuality, voting patterns, gender distribution among others.
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Social research determines the relationships between one or more variables i.e. sex, income
level, poverty etc. it takes a good researcher to know how to manipulate the variables for the
success of the research exercises.
Therefore a researcher must first be able to:
1. Identify where a problem area exists in the environment and to identify as clearly and as
specifically as possible the problem that need to be studied and resolved.
2. Information is gathered.
3. The data from the collected information is analyzed.
4. Factors associated with the problem are determined and the problem solved by taking
collective measures.
The above entire problem is called research.
Research encompasses the process of inquiry, investigation examination an experiment. These
processes have to be carried out systematically, diligently, critically, objectively and logically.
Research is a process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough study after analysis and
situational factors. It provides the needed information that guides managers to make informed
decisions and successfully deal with problems. This information may be from a careful analysis
of data gathered first hand or of data that are already available in the industry archives among
others. This data can either be quantitative (gathered through structured questions) or qualitative
(generated from broad answers) from specific questions or responses from open ended questions
in a questionnaire or through observation or through available information gathered from various
sources.
1.6 Relationship between Research and the Manager
Social workers constantly engage themselves in study and analyzing issues and are therefore
involved in some form of research activity as they make decisions in the community and
workplace. Those with knowledge in research have an advantage over those without. The
difference between good decisions and committing blunders lies in how executing tasks go about
the decision process. This is:
i. Do the social workers identify where the problem lies.
ii. Do they correctly recognize the relevant factors in the situations needing correct
investigation.
iii. Do they know what type of information are to be gathered and how.
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iv. Do they know how to make use of information so collected and draw appropriate
conclusions to make right decisions?
v. Do they know how to implement the results of this process to solve the problem?
Hence for one to make right decisions he must know the various steps involved in finding
solutions to problematic issues.
Knowledge about research and research methods helps professional managers to:
1. Identify and effectively solve minor problems in the work setting.
2. Help to discriminate good from bad research.
3. Appreciate and being constantly aware the multiple influences a multiple effects of facts
impinging (relate) to a situation.
4. Take calculates risks in decision making knowing full well the probabilities associated
with the different possible outcomes.
5. Prevent possible vested interests from exercising their influence in a situation.
6. Relate to hired researchers and consultants more effectively.
7. Combine experience with scientific knowledge while making decisions.
1.7 Sources of knowledge
One main function of research is creation of new knowledge. There are five sources of
knowledge. These are:
1. Research
2. Experience: empiricists attempt to describe, explain and make predictions through
observation.
3. Tradition: rationalists believe all knowledge can be deduced from known laws or basic truths
of nature.
4. Authority: They serve as important sources of knowledge, but should be judged on integrity
and willingness to present a balanced case.
5. Intuition: it is the perception, explanation or insight into phenomena by instinct.
1.8 References
Bryman, A (2001). Social research methods. Great Britain: Oxford University Press.
Bryman, A. (1990). Quantity and quality in social research. Edited by Bulmer, M.. London: Loughborough
University.
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Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2003). Business research methods (9th Ed.). Illinois: McGraw-Hill.
Kavulya, J. M. (2007) How to write Research and Term Papers: guidelines for selecting topics,
conducting research, writing and referencing sources. Kenyatta University, Nairobi,
Kenya
Kothari, C. R. (2008). Research methodology (2nd Ed.). New Delhi: New Age International Publishers.
Mikkelsen, B. (2005). Methods for development work and research: a new guide for
practitioners. London: Sage Publications
Ngechu, M. (2006).Understanding the research process and methods. Nairobi: Nairobi

University Press.
Peter, C. B. (2008) (reprint). A Guide to Academic Writing. Eldoret: Zapf Chancery.

1.11 Reflections Questions
1. Differentiate research from research methods.
2. Explain any five functions of research.
3. Explain the relevance of scientific method used in research.
4. Discuss five ways in which research be applied in a social set up?
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WEEK 2: RESEARCH PROCESS AND QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH
2.1 introduction
This chapter gives the research process and characteristics of a good research.
1. Study objectives: to understand the research process.
2. To create understanding on the qualities of a good research.
2.2 Research process

It is the overall skim of activities in which scientists engage in order to produce knowledge. It is
the paradigm of scientific inquiry. It is cyclic in nature usually starts with a problem and ends
with a tentative empirical generalization. It is also self-collecting. Scientists tests tentative
generalization or hypothesis about research problems logically and empirically. It consists of the
following stages;
i. Problem identification and selection.
ii. Hypothesis.
iii. Research design.
iv. Measurement of variables.
v. Data collection.
vi. Data analysis.
vii. Generalization.
Another stage by Mugenda and Mugenda (2003)
i. Problem identification and formulation and selection.
ii. Purposes
iii. Objective
iv. Process of stages
v. Hypothesis
vi. Research design
vii. Sample design
viii. Measurement of data
ix. Data collection
x. Analysis and interpretation of data
xi. Generalization
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xii. Reporting
In the preliminary stage of problem identification the researcher is expected to collect data.
Preliminary data collection includes gathering information through interviewing or carrying out a
survey an issues e.g.
i. The background information of the environment (organization, NGO, CBO, such
background may include’ the origin and history, when it came to be business. It is
growth rate ownership among others
ii. Its size in terms of employees, beneficiaries, assets or growth.
iii. Its charter i.e. its purpose and ideology.
iv. Its location regional or national
v. Its resources in terms of human and others.
vi. Interdependent relationships and collaboration with other institutions.
vii. Financial position the previous 5-10 years; details resources available.
2.3 Characteristics of a good research
1. Purposiveness: All research must have an aim. This means that it should be problem-based,
unified and directed, not pointless and random. To achieve this testable hypothesis is should
be developed to determine the exact purpose of study. This also narrows the project to a
manageable size, and is essential in order to complete the project in a limited time. The first
thing that you should do is establish a research question that is meaningful, narrow and clear.
2. Rigor: connotes carefulness, scrupulousness, and the degree of exactitude in research
investigation. The research project should have sound methodological design. It should be
scientific and logical, that is, conclusions must follow from accepted premises that are
defended and tested in the course of the research. One cannot base conclusions on a few
interviews with company employees.
Rigor is also ensured by an appropriately wide search and discussion of the literature in the
area. This not only helps in making the study rigorous as it can help avoid problems in these
areas that others might have made, but it also ensures that the study is unique.
3. Clarification of variables: Being clear about your variables is critical. You must distinguish
between your:
a. Dependent variables: the things you are looking at
b. Independent variables: the things that influence the dependent variable(s)
c. Moderating variables: the things that modify relationships between the
dependent and independent variables.
d. Intervening variables: the things that may turn up after the moderating variables
have had their effects, but do not change that relationship.
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4. Replicability: Your research must be able to be repeated by others. This requires that the
experimental / case aims and procedures are sound, and the report is written in clear and
comprehensible manner so others can follow it. This means that the methodology or methods
section needs to be included. A project which both stands alone as a sound piece of research
and can also be repeated by others in other situations is obviously better than one which can’t
be repeated.
5. Precision and Confidence: Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to reality while
confidence refers to the probability that our estimations are correct. The more precision and
confidence we aim for in our research, the more scientific the investigation, and the more
useful the results (Sekaran, p. 12) .This simply means that the results must be as close as
possible (precise) to the actual state of affairs that you are studying and that others can rely on
those results to a high degree. These requirements are obviously not static; that’s why
research needs to be done constantly to improve our knowledge and experimental accuracy in
a changing world.
6. Objectivity: the conclusions should be based on the facts of the findings derived from actual
data, and not on our own subjective or emotional values. Conclusions should not be based on
subjective or emotional values but rather the facts resulting from the data analysis. There is no
point in doing a serious experiment or case study if the conclusions you make are not based
on data, but your pre-judged opinion of what should have happened. What happens if you do
not support your hypothesis as expected? Providing you have adequately set up experimental
conditions and used a number of data sources, and/or interpreted the data correctly, the project
is not a failure.
7. Hypothesis formation: A clear hypothesis, even if not explicitly stated in the dissertation,
will ensure that your dissertation has a focus or purpose and direction. It also ensures that you
answer a research question of some kind, rather than ramble from one topic to another.
Hypotheses are the connecting membranes that hold the research together.
8. Testability: The project aim must be testable. It is no good having a clear purpose if it is not
testable. Never use one measurement alone as individually the tests may be misleading. A
way of increasing the likelihood that you have precise data is to use convergent validity as a
test. Use a number of tests of the same data and see if the results of those tests can be
correlated. This is called triangulation.
9. Parsimony: Economy of explanation is preferred in research work that you are undertaking.
Aim to uncover a small but meaningful result in your work, not something vast and complex.
Making a small, simple but significant point forcefully (using a number of independent tests)
is better than trying to do too much and over-extending yourself. Parsimony I also describe as
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simplicity in explaining the phenomena or problems that occur, and in generating solutions
for the problem, is always preferred to complex research framework that considers an
unmanaged number of factors.
10. Generalizability: Refers to the scope of applicability of the research findings in one
organization setting to other settings. The more that a given research project can be
generalized to other situations, the better. ‘If a researcher’s findings that participation in
decision making enhances organizational commitment, is found to be true in a variety of
managerial, industrial and service organizations and not merely in the one organization
studied by the researcher, then the generalizability of the findings to other organizational
settings is widened’ (Sekaran, p. 13). There is a tension here, of course, with other aims. The
aim to complete a project that is both generalizable and also manageably narrow in focus is a
tall order. The aim of generalizability is a regulative ideal rather than one that is essential. If
your research project is generalizable as well as narrowly focused, well and good.
These characteristics can be summarized as follows:
 Purpose is clearly defined
 Research process is detailed and systematic

 Research design is thoroughly planned
 Limitations are frankly revealed
 High ethical standards are observed
 Findings are presented unambiguously
 Conclusions are justified
 Researcher’s experience is reflected
 Entailed adequate analysis to meet decision maker’s needs
1.4 References
University.
Kavulya, J. M. (2007) How to write Research and Term Papers: guidelines for selecting topics,
conducting research, writing and referencing sources. Kenyatta University, Nairobi,
Kenya
10
Mikkelsen, B. (2005). Methods for development work and research: a new guide for
practitioners. London: Sage Publications
Ngechu, M. (2006).Understanding the research process and methods. Nairobi: Nairobi

University Press.
Peter, C. B. (2008) (reprint). A Guide to Academic Writing. Eldoret: Zapf Chancery.

1. Formulate steps followed when undertaking a research study.
2. Analyze any five characteristics of a good research process
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WEEK 3: RESEARCH PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND TOPIC SELECTION
3.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the steps taken in research problem identification and topic selection. It
clearly describe what a research problem is and what v passes as a research problem.
3.1 Learning objective

By the end of this chapter the learner should
1. Explain what a research problem is
2. Identify a research problem
3. Formulate a research problem
4. Identify a research topic
3.2 Research problem
Research problem so I think. What is a research problem? To figure out the answer to this
question erase the meaning of the word problem and figure it out differently. Embrace this new
description of a problem. A research problem refers to some difficulty which the researcher
experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a
solution for the same. It is that which warrants investigation. By investigation here we mean
scientific investigation; going through a whole research process. Note that the only most suitable
way to getting solutions or answers to questions raised should be through research.
For instance are traffic jams, poverty, insecurity problems in Nairobi? All these are issues of
concern and they exist within a context. But I want us to fix our eyes on the research process
starting from problem identification all the way to report writing are there areas steps that we can
skip?
Looking at the causes off traffic jams, insecurity and poverty for instance in Nairobi or any other
city? Do we have to ask people everyone to get answers? Not exactly let visit the already written
documentation on poverty, insecurity and traffic jams. The information within these areas will
overwhelm us. If we were to look at the ‘positive’ side of traffic jams some venders get
themselves a place to sell their merchandise and quit of them would feel sad if there is not any
traffic snarl up on the roads; they cannot eel their merchandise. These two illustrations show the
two of the existing positions and possible research problems resulting from one example traffic
jams. Yet with it comes theft signifying insecurity, and poverty. Look though the traffic jam ad
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you would see one or two beggars. These aspect of the three subject areas are not brought out in
the topics; traffic jams, insecurity and poverty. We will have no choice but to choose an aspect of
each one of them we want to study. To decide which aspect of the three area we want to study,
we need to know and fully understand the characteristics of a good research problem.
A research problem exists if the following conditions are met:

1. There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
2. There must be some objective(s) to be attained.
3. There must be alternative means or courses of action for obtaining the objective(s) one
wishes to attain.
4. There must be some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of
alternatives.
5. There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.
This basically means the problem should exist. See it in an organization, an institution a sector
and then project to a problem.
3.3 Identifying a Research Problem

The first step in selecting a research problem is to identify the broad area that one is interested
in. Such area should be related to the professional interests and goals of the researcher e.g. low
cost housing, productivity of workers, small-scale businesses among others as leadership student
you are expected to select an area in leadership the same would apply to students taking
community development.
The second step is to identify a specific problem within it that will form the basis of the research
study. The research problem should be an important one i.e. it should;
1. Lead to findings that have widespread implications in a particular area. They can be used
in decision making and would affect different stakeholders.
2. Challenge some commonly held truism; there is information that exists on a given area.
The results should challenge the existing position. For example it is known that
employees who earn low salaries may leave for another job given an opportunity, but not
all would leave. Those who wouldn’t leave are challenging the existing truism; those who
earn less would leave their jobs for new more paying jobs.
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3. Review the inadequacies of existing laws, views or policies. You would know which
gaps exists until you get people involved or affected. Remember the wearer of the shoe
knows where it pinches? It is also true in research. When you collect data from people
affected you get to knowing more; you get detailed information and this would bring you
to the realization of the gaps in laws, policy and views. The position you held before the
study is most likely going to change.
4. Cover a reasonable scope e.g. not too narrow or too general. Looking at traffic jam that is
a general area, insecurity too general. What if you picked an aspect of these areas. Let us
look at poverty it is general it is a topic and a course one can pursue the same applied to
leadership very wide. If you picked on poverty alleviation programs it is not the same as
poverty alleviation. Leadership can result in many problem areas: leadership role,
leadership positions, leadership styles name them. They are as many as they can get.
3.4 Sources of Research Topics
Researchers get their topics through:
1. Discussion with experts
2. Media
3. Personal/life experience
3.5 Problem Formulation

Scientific investigations always start with a problem or a question that can be solved or answered
empirically (commonly observed or tested or validated). This can be a long and difficult process.
Experienced as well as noviced researchers begin with a vague notion of the problem or they
may be motivated by a question so broad that it provides little or no immediate direction for
research therefore to provide direction for research, the start of the research problem should
always suggests observations that offer some solutions to the problem hence it should:
a) Express or ask a question about a relationship between two or more variables.
b) The variables in the research should be observable.
A research problem is an intellectual stimulus calling for a response in the form of scientific
form. A problem that cannot be empirically grounded or identified in an observable behavior are
concerned with subjective preferences beliefs values or tastes are not amenable (subjective) to
empirical search. Therefore, research problems have to be clearly or specifically articulated. E.g.
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what incentives from what performance at work place. The problem is too general and
ambiguous because it does not specify the types of incentives e.g. economic, social etc.
3.6 Selecting Topics for Research
All research begins with a problem. Anything that is social and empirical is a relevant topic for
research. This may be:
a) Entities
b) What aspects or characteristics of these entities are of interest.
c) What kinds of relationship among the characteristics are anticipated.
A good research topic should give the scope of the study, and concepts to be studies
(independent and dependent variables)
Example:
Topic: Factors that affect the implementation of community based projects in Kenya:
case of Kajiado county
The independent variables are the factors
Dependent variable is the implementation of community-based projects
Scope: Kajiado County
This implies that whereas there are many known factors that affect implementation of
projects in a given place, the focus is on the CBO projects. On its own these two
concepts can be studied by social scientists but to make the study researchable a scope
must be given that is, Kajiado county. Giving the study location helps the researcher to
focus on an areas where the recommendations will be applied.
3.6.1 Factors that Affect Topic Selection in Research
1. The structure and state of the scientific discipline most researchers select topics suggested by
the ongoing development of theory and research in their particular fields of study.
2. Social problems- problems associated with the human conditions e.g. urban crowding,
racism, social evils etc can be sources of research problems.
3. Personal values of the researcher. Personal motivations and interest also guide a researcher in
selecting a research problem.
4. Social premiums- how a researcher socializes.
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5. Practical considerations- limited resources e.g. cost time and personal skills of the researcher
and the availability of relevant data will shape both the nature and scope of the research
problem.
6. Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to
bring out any new light in such a case.
3.7 Activity
A t this point you are required to come up with a research topic and write Before you start
writing on any topic you must seek approval from your lecturer.
3.8 References
University.
Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2003). Business research methods (9th ED.). Illinois: McGraw-Hill.
Mugenda, A. G. (2008). Social science research: Theory and principles. Nairobi: ACTs Press.
3.9 Reflection questions

1. What is a research problem?
2. What are the factors considered in the selection of a research topic?
3. Describe the characteristics of a good research problem?
4. What are the sources of a research problem?
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WEEK 4: PROPOSAL WRITING: CHAPTER ONE
This section gives the components of chapter one in a research study and describes the various
components.
4.1 learning Objective
At the end of this chapter the learner should be able to write a chapter one with the all the
components in line it the approved researcher topic.
4.2 Components of chapter one

Chapter one’s title is introduction and background to the study. It contains the following:
Background to the study, Statement of problem, Purpose of the study, Objectives of the
study, Research questions, Justification/rationale of the study, Significances of the study,
Assumptions of the study, Limitations and delimitations of the study, Scope of the study,
and Definition of terms.
4.3 Background to the study
Under discussed this heading scholarly information/literature review on the concepts/variables
under study and the research location are presented. The researcher starts by presenting
information on the study concepts and then goes to the study location or organization. The aim of
this section is to provide the reader with the understanding of the research problem.
For instance in the study on the factors that affect the implementation of CBOs in Kajiado county
the researcher will first define CBOs, historical development, activities undertaken, then give
status at Kajiado county. The next step is to give detailed information on Kajiado county the
location, economic activities, population, CBO interventions among others. This section is
written in 3 to 5 pages
Note: all scholarly material and publications must be refenced throughout the document
4.4 Statement of problem
Researcher should try to narrow down the question and focus on the actual problem of
investigation. The research problem is a very clear and specific statement which indicates more
or less the purpose of the study. At this point the researcher describes the factors that make the
stated problem a critical issue to warrant an investigation.
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The researcher tries to make a case for the study; however the problem statement should be brief
and précis, often written in 2 to 3 paragraphs.
Components of a research problem:
1. General observation
2. Scholarly support for the observation
3. Evidence from study location
4. Problem to be addressed written in one sentence (written as the second last sentence)
5. Purpose of the study written in a disguised manner (written as the last sentence)
Note: the second and the third components can be interchanged. Any of the two can come
first.
Characteristics of a good research problem
 Should be clearly written to interest the reader
 Stated problem is objectively researchable
 Scope to the specific problem is indicated
 Must give the purpose of the research.
 Should be precise ; It is written in 2 to 3 paragraphs
4.5 Purpose of the study
This one statement which indicates what is to be achieved through investigation.
Statement should be declarative and brief. The purpose of the study should
 Conveys the focus of the research study in one or two sentences.
 Be clearly stated in a declarative manner
 Indicate the concepts and variables under study
 State possible relationships when they exist
 State the target population
 Proper word choices helps convey the focus of the study
e.g. if the research topic under investigation is: Factors that affect the implementation of
Community based Project in Kenya: Case of Kajiado county The purpose of the study will be
written as follows:
The purpose of this study is to determine the factors that affect the implementation of
Community based Project in Kenya focusing on Kajiado County.
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4.6 Objectives of the study
This one statement which indicates what is to be achieved by the research study. Objective
should be derived from the purpose of the study. Good objective would guide in further
development of relevant research question. They also indicate data collection and analysis
procedures to be adopted. They refer to:
 Specific issues with the scope of the stated purpose that the researcher wants to focus upon and
examine in the study. What are the factors that affect project implementation? List them down.
 They help the researcher to keep the scope of the study by defining the area of knowledge that
the researcher is focusing on.
 They also guide the researcher in formulating testable hypothesis. Note that these are things
that re testable; understanding and knowledge are not
 They are formulated from the purpose.
How do you develop research objectives?
1. Know the area clearly- Must be familiar with the area in which your area focuses discussing
it with colleagues whose comments you respect helps a great deal.
2. Widen the base of your experience- Do not limit your research and research questions to your
current field only but explore other sources.
3. Enhance creativity and innovation by brainstorming and wing focus groups and by enlisting
the help of others by for additional information and comments.
4. Avoid pitfalls e.g. passing questions that cannot be answered.
5. Asking questions that have already been answered satisfactorily in other researchers.
Objectives should start with:

1. To determine the influence of…………….on project implementation among CBOs in Kajiado
County.
2. To find out the effect of ………………on project implementation among CBOs in Kajiado
County.
3. To establish the extent to …….. affect project implementation among CBOs in Kajiado
County.
4. To assess the role of ………….. in project implementation among CBOs in Kajiado County.
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In the dotted line you insert the complement generated from the word affect (influence, ole,
effect and extent to which it affects) from the topic and the independent variables; listed
factors.
Note that
1. The objective are very specific they are telling you where …. among CBOS in Kajiado.
2. Determine, find out, establish, assess… all these are measurable.
3. They are also precise and are generated from study topic/purpose.
4.7 Research question

It refers to the investigative question that a researcher will like answered by undertaking the
study. Research questions should be very specific and guiding. Their characteristics are similar
to those of the research objectives. Therefore, they are derived from the research objectives.
Each objective is turned to a question without changing its meaning. Hence objective one give
rise to research question one and the same applies to all the other objectives.
Question should start with:

1. How does the…………. among CBOs in Kajiado County?
2. To what extent……….. among CBOs in Kajiado County?
Research objective number one turn it to a question without changing any word and there you
go. Do not break it into sub-questions, it has all the characteristics of study objectives.
4.8 Hypothesis
It states possible relationships, differences or causes between two variables or concepts. They are
derived from existing theories previous research, personal observation and experience. A study
can have one hypothesis or multiple hypothesis if the study involves multiple variables.
It is a prediction of the outcome of the study-It is an anticipated explanation or opinion regarding
the results of the study-sound review of literature or existing theories leads to good hypothesis. It
should generate many ideas as possible and examine purpose of hypothesis-each statement
critically before stating hypothesis it is done after review.
a) Provides direction by bridging the gap between the problem and the evidence need for its
solution.
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b) Ensure collection of evidence necessary to answer the questions posed in the statement of the
problem.
c) Enable the researcher to assess the information collected in terms of relevance and its
organization.
d) To sensitize the investigator to certain aspects of the situation that is relevant regarding the
problem at hand.
e) Permit the researcher to understand the problem with greater clarify and use the data collected
to find solutions to the problem.
f) Form the framework for the ultimate conclusions.
g) Guide the collection of data and provide the structure for the meaningful interpretation in
relation to the problem under investigation.
Types of hypothesis
a) Null hypothesis (Ho)
It is also referred to as statistical hypothesis. A null hypothesis always states that there is no
relationship or difference exists. This means that any relationship between two variables or
difference between groups is merely due to chance or error.
b) Alternative hypothesis (Ha-directional/non-directional)
This is a hypothesis that states that there is a relationship or differences but the researcher does
not know the nature of such a difference or relationship.
ii) Alternative directional hypothesis.
It specifies the nature of the relationship or differences between variables. This means that a
relationship may be stated as being greater than, less than, increased, decreased, higher than or
lower than, among others.
High alcohol content in the blood decreases reaction time of drivers in Kenya.
The use of fertilizers increases maize yield per acre in Kenya.
Note : They are used as alternatives to research objectives and research questions. In some
cases one may use all but come up with two or three research hypothesis.
In a research proposal you put in the null hypothesis. In every objective you can generate
the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis. Assuming the objective one is:
To find out the effect of resource allocation on project implementation among CBOs in
Kajiado County.
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Null hypothesis: Resource allocation has no effect on project implementation among CBOs in
Kajiado County.
Alternative: Resource allocation has effect on project implementation among CBOs in Kajiado
County.
In the title research hypothesis in the proposal which comes after research questions to put
in the null hypothesis only not both null and alternative hypotheses.
Hence
1. Resource allocation has no effect on project implementation among CBOs in Kajiado
County.
4.9 Justification/rationale of the study

This section brings out the importance of the study. It brings out the necessity to carry out the
study showing the research gaps the study seeks to fill with reference to the other studies done
and/or status of the problem. It is written in 2 or 3 paragraphs. References are required. To do
this, clearly identify the research gap an do a critical review.
What is research gap? Research gap is the void that your study is to fill. This means that the
study you are undertaking should create new knowledge. But note that there is no area of study
that id being done for the first time. Some literature exists within the given area of study meaning
some research has been done. Therefore to demonstrate your research gap, what you need to do
is survey the studies that are related to yours and identify what gaps they filled in order to
clearly bring out what gap your study will fill. In your writing you need to make reference to past
studies on the same area quoting the researchers, topic under study and findings. This will not be
complete without having a critical review.
Critical review? A critical review is the examination or analysis of variables in your study topic
and objectives to bring out their relative importance. Each one of them has a fit or relatedness to
the others. Therefore, you need to refer to what other scholars have written to bring out their
relationships and importance. (refer to the article by Leicester University given in the
references)
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4.10 Significances of the Study
There are different stakeholders to a research study: the set up where the study is carried out, its
sector or industry, the employees, beneficiaries of the setup such as customers, shareholders, and
the public. Generally speaking they are groups of people or individuals who are affected by the
research study. Other stakeholders are the management of institutions, similar institutions,
scholars and researcher, and government.
These stakeholders use study results different e.g. researchers and scholars would use it as a
reference or basis for further studies, management and similar organizations would use it for
decision making, government would also use it for policy development while shareholders would
be interested in the profitability of the company. This section of the proposal therefore is written
in paragraphs and clearly brings out who the different stakeholders are and how they would use
the findings. No references are required.
For example: the primary stakeholders in the study to determine the factors that affect the
implementation of community based projects in Kajiado county include: CBOs, Kajiado
residence (beneficiaries of the CBO and participants), the county government, government
of Kenya, NGOS, Researchers, and scholar among others.
Note: When writing this section, it is important that the researcher starts with the primary
stakeholders and moves on to other stakeholders.
4.11 Assumptions of the Study

An assumption is any fact that a researcher takes to be true without actually verifying it.
Assumptions sets boundary in the study around the study and provides the reader with vital
information which influences the way the results of the study are interpreted.
Examples of assumptions that can be made in a research study:
 Adequacy of data collected using the set out tools such as questionnaire. When you develop
a tool the assumption that it would yield adequate results to enable generalization of results.
 Subjects cooperation in providing the required information. As you start you are anticipating
goodwill from the respondents and authorities but this is not confirmed.
 Since you cannot carry out a honesty test; you assume the information given are truthful and
are representative of the true status of the phenomenon under investigation
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 Authorization by relevant authorities: you would be granted permission to carry out the
study in the chosen location among others.
Assumptions on the study on factors that affect the implementation of community based
projects in Kajiado county may include:
1. There are factors that affect the implementation of CBOs (note that this assumption made
front e topic not objectives).
2. Different CBOs will give authorization to collect data. (this is the assumed cooperation)
3. Respondents will give accurate information on the questions asked.
4.12 Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
A limitation is an aspect of the researcher that may influence the results negatively but over
which the researcher has no control while delimitations are the solutions to the likely challenges.
When coming up with the challenges the researcher should visualize the likely hindrances they
will face when collecting primary data or getting access to the data required.
Limitations common in social studies is relating to;

i) Scope of the study which may not allow generalizations e.g. geographical location, period of
coverage. This may limit the accuracy of the representativeness of the data collected.
ii) The respondents may decline to provide the required information. As you state such
limitations give reasons why they would decline… this would include fear of intimidation
and witch hunting. The solution to this limitation is provision of introduction letters,
explanation of the purpose of the study in order to iron out any doubt arising from the
respondents and assurance of the confidentiality of information collected.
iii) The respondents may present ideal situation instead of actual situation. Some of the reasons
why respondents may give ideal situation is because they want to present exposing the ‘bad
image’ of the company or their self image. To overcome this assurance of confidentiality is
critical since it will act as a motivation to give accurate information.
iv) Time and finances are two challenges which may inhibit the researchers reach to all
respondents especially when dealing with a hard terrain with large and dispersed populations.
Therefore sampling would help deal with this challenge. The sample selected should by all
means be representative. How much time is available to cover the study. These two factors
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are valid theoretically speaking, but in actual sense they are not viable. They speak
negatively of the researchers’ planning skills. Undertake a study paying attention to the
resources and time available.
This section is numbered. The numbering used are 1,2,3 under each number a limitation is stated,
an explanation of why it is a challenge is given and the solution to the likely challenge is
provided.
In your project avoid duplicating the examples given in the module.
The likely the challenges in the study to determine the factors that affect the
implementation of community based projects in Kajiado County may include among
others:
1. The respondents in the study may be unable to read and write due to the low literacy
levels among the pastoralist communalities. To overcome this challenge the researcher
will make read and translate the questions to the respondents and write the answers given.
2. Language may be a barrier in this study. This is attributed to the low literacy levels.. to
overcome this challenge, the researcher will recruit and train Maasai speaking research
assistants to assist in the collection of data.
4.13 Scope of the Study

Scope is the strength of the study in terms of coverage relating to
1. Concept/theory
2. Geographical location
3. Time that I if you are doing a time series.
4. The choice of respondents and time the study should cover should be justified.
To provide the scope of the study the study topic is put down as follows:
The study on the factors that affect the implementation of community based projects will
be carried out in Kajiado County. Respondents will include employees from all the CBOs
that have been operational for the past one year in Kajiado County. Then the choice for
this set of respondents is because they have experience in the implementation of CBO
projects.
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Note that the reason for the choice of the category of respondents provide. This could be
determined by their knowledge levels on the subject matter or are involved in the activities under
investigation. It is written in one paragraph.
Scope of the study may also give time periods. Projects that are evaluating benefits of programs
should give the periods to be assessed. For instance a study on the assessment of the effects of
feeding programs in Nairobi’s Kibera slum, one of the objectives is to find out the effect on
mortality rate. One of the measures is recorded deaths relating to lack of food. To effectively do
this the periods covered must be stated from 1999 to 2014.
4.14 Definition of Terms
Researcher defines an important and peculiar concept that has been used in the study. They
should be defined in the contents of study. The definition is given with reference to authoritative
sources/scholarly sources. If the definition will be used differently in the study the researcher
states how it would be used in the study; this is referred to as operationalization of terms.
Operationalization of key terms refers to defining terms in the way in which they will be used
in the study. It gives the meaning in the context.
Example: a study on the factors that affect the implementation of community based
projects in Kajiado County will have the following terms defined
Factors, projects, project implementation, community-based projects, among others.
All the key words in the research topic, objectives and those used regularly in the study must be
defined.
4.15 References
Bryman, A (2001). Social research methods. Great Britain: , Oxford University Press.
University.
University of Leiceister. (2010). Research skills. Available at
https://www2.le.ac.uk/projects/oer/oers/ssds/oers/research-skills/Research%20skillscg.pdf
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4.16 Activity
To this point all the contents of chapter one have been covered chapter one of a research
proposal. By now you should have had your research topic approved.
3.17 Reflection question
Outline the components of chapter one of the research proposal describing the characteristics and
function of each of the component
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WEEK 5 &6: LITERATURE REVIEW
5.0 Introduction
This chapter discusses information on literature review and its purpose in a research study. It also
describes different types of data and their advantages and disadvantages.
5.1 Learning objectives
By the end of this chapter the learner should be able to
1. Describe literature review as a process.
2. Types of data and their sources.
3. Types of literature review
4. Explain the functions of literature review.
5. Construct a theoretical framework.
6. Discuss the pros and cons of using primary and secondary data
5.1 Literature Review Defined

Literature review is the documentation of the review of published and unpublished work from
the secondary source of the data. The purpose of this section is to ensure that no important
variable that relate to the investigation are ignored. A good literature review also provides the
foundation for developing a comprehensive theoretical framework from which hypothesis can be
developed for further testing.
Literature review is also a title to the second chapter of a research proposal. The topical
contents of literature review are deduced from the key words in the study topic, and the
objectives. Added to it are theoretical orientation and theoretical framework.
5.2 Types of data and their sources

Data is defined as interpretations placed by social scientists on their observations. There are
different types of data:
1. Primary sources. It refers to data generated by the researcher i.e. using primary data/
qualitative and qualitative. They are collected using Questionnaire, interviews, schedules,
case study (primary tools).
2. Secondary sources. This is data that has been already been collected. Either analyzed or not.
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3. Tertiary data: this is data that has been analyzed by either the researcher who generated them
or an analyst of secondary data. Secondary and tertiary data may be sourced from other
writings including: books, magazines, journals, internet, encyclopedia, organizational
documents records and publications, newspapers, among others.
Secondary data is the data that have been already collected by and readily available from other
sources. Such data are cheaper and more quickly obtainable than the primary data and also may
be available when primary data cannot be obtained at all.
Other types of data
a) Qualitative. This is a set of data that come in form of narrations and descriptions and cannot
be quantified. These sets of data result from open-ended questions, observing as a situation
unfolds.
b) Quantitative data: these are data sets that can be quantified or measured. They are mainly
collected from close ended questions.
Advantages and disadvantages of secondary data

Advantages of Secondary data
1. It is economical. It saves efforts and expenses.
2. It is time saving.
3. It helps to make primary data collection more specific since with the help of secondary data,
we are able to make out what are the gaps and deficiencies and what additional information
needs to be collected.
4. It helps to improve the understanding of the problem.
5. It provides a basis for comparison for the data that is collected by the researcher.
Disadvantages of Secondary Data
 Secondary data is something that seldom fits in the current study
 Accuracy of secondary data is not known.
 Data may be outdated.
Due to its limitations secondary data should be evaluated against the following for requirements
to ensure its validity:-
i. Availability- It has to be seen that the kind of data you want is available or not. If it is not
available then you have to go for primary data.
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ii. Relevance- It should be meeting the requirements of the problem.
iii. Accuracy- In order to find how accurate the data is Specification and methodology used,
Margin of error should be examined, and the dependability of the source must be considered.
iv. Sufficiency- Adequate data should be available.
5.3 Types of literature review
The seven types of research literature addressed here are:
1. Research Articles: These type of articles are a write-up of a single, relatively small
experiment and/or study. Generally a specific phenomenon is studied, a discovery is
made and then test and from these results a hypothesis is formed.
2. Review Articles: Review articles quite simply are a summary, or information gathered
on a single research topic from a variety of sources. The review article will often sum-up
and evaluate the collected information to form or back-up a given theory and/or
argument. The relative validity or strength of a review article depends largely on the
amount of data gathered beforehand. A good example of a review article is:
3. Systematic reviews: similar to review articles in that they serve as an overview of topic-
related data; however, there are significant differences between the two. First of all
systematic reviews tend to be more exhaustive during the data gathering
process. Additionally the collected information is rigorously evaluated for quality and
subjected to precise statistical methodologies. Finally the results are based on clear,
objective conclusion - generally resulting from the application of statistical tools
mentioned above. An example of a systematic review is:
4. Qualitative Research: deals in relative intangibles rather than quantitative research
which centers on numbers and statistical evidence. Collecting qualitative data includes
such devices as interviews, observation and subjective, human interpretation of
events. The resulting data is presented in narratives (words and objects). Qualitative data
tends toward the subjective. when the data is gathered what is sought are patterns and/or
themes; the research objectives are ones of description, exploration and discovery.
5. Qualitative research: quantitative data is focused on numbers and statistics gathered by
validated, structured tools such as surveys and questionnaires. These pre-designed
statistical gathering tools are the primary data gathering instruments, collecting
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information that is largely objective and measurable. Analysis of quantitative data
identifies statistical relations, and studies of these kind focus on description, exploration
and prediction. An example of each type of research studies is included below:
6. A meta-synthesis: it is a comprehensive gathering of qualitative research on a given
topic providing a more subjective overview of a given topic.
7. Meta analysis: It is a systematic review that uses quantitative methods to synthesize and
summarize the results. It employs statistics to organize and evaluate collected information
numerically. This implies that it goes beyond critique and integration and conducts
secondary statistical analyses on the outcomes of similar studies. In this regard its
approach is objective due to the statistical evaluation of done. However this may not be
possible for all topics. It is also considered a critical component of systematic review …..
Meta-analysis is different from meta-synthesis since meta-analysis is a way of testing a

hypothesis while meta-synthesis is a way of developing a new theory.
5.4 Purpose of literature review

i. Determine what has been done already related to the research problem being studied. This
will help the researcher to avoid unnecessary and unintentional duplication, form framework
within which the research findings are to be interpreted, and allow researchers to demonstrate
familiarly with the existing body of knowledge thus increasing the researcher’s confidence in
their professional ability.
ii. Reveals strategies, procedures and measuring instruments found useful in investigating the
problem in question. This ensures avoidance of problems made by earlier researchers.
iii. They also help clarify how to use some procedures.
iv. Suggest other procedures and approaches especially it they will improve the research study.
v. Determine new approaches and stimulate new ideas based on areas overlooked in the past.
vi. Determination of feasibility of approaches by pointing out approaches which have been
ineffective in the past.
vii. Pulls together, integrates and summarize what is known in an area.
viii. Make the researcher familiar with previous studies which is helpful in the interpretation of
findings.
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ix. Suggest other procedures and approaches. The researcher can try out the suggested
approaches.
x. Helps the researcher narrow down or limit the research problem and define it. This is true
especially when literature review is done on topics which have not been narrowed down.
5.6 Theoretical orientation
Triangulation in research is used in order to have a balanced view of the concepts under study. It
refers to the use of multiple lines of sight to a given phenomenon. In order to have a better view
a social scientist to fully comprehend, describe, measure and manipulate a concept, one must use
multiple view points. This is attained by using multiple data collection sources, use of literature
review which gives views from different scholars, and theories.
Under the theoretical orientation, a researcher presents theories that are relevant to their studies.
This is done by presenting the what the theories state and indicating what they explain in the
study or their relevance in the study. You are expected to give at least two theories that are
relevant to your study.
5.7 Variables
It is a measurable characteristic that assumes different values among the subjects.
Obtaining these different values for each subject on a particular variable is referred to as
operational definition of the variable.
How the variables are measured or how the operational definition of variables is a critical step in
research. It determines the results. Some variables have standard measures such as gender, age,
time while other do not have standard measures such as happiness, satisfaction from a good etc.
Therefore scales are developed to measure different variables.
1. Independent variables / predictor variables: .
This is a variable that a researcher manipulate in order to determine its effects or influence on
another variable. They are called predictor variables because they predict the amount as variation
that occurs in another variable.
The effect of rainfall in land productivity / maize harvest rainfall=independent variable
Rainfall may influence the growth of maize amount of moisture available for plants influences
the ability of plants to absorb nutrients from the soil. Independent variables have already
occurred and cannot be influenced or manipulated e.g. gender, soil type.
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2. Dependent variables/criteria variables
Attempt to indicate the total influence arising from the effects of the independent variables. They
vary depending on the independent variable. The distance between the supply centre influences
the cost of building materials.
3. Control variables
If a researcher suspects that a certain variable is likely to influence the research results-the
variable is controlled. However, there are many variables that may influence results of a study
out the researcher’s knowledge. Researcher can identify some variables which may significantly
influence the results. This can be identified based on previous studies and theories.
Extraneous variables: Influence the results of the study when they are not controlled.
When possible extraneous variable are built into the study they are reserved to as extraneous
variables.They are also called concomitant, covariate or blocking variables.
The introduction of controlling variables results in more valid data and results in more
convincing, generalizations. Ways of controlling extraneous variables.
i) Building them into the study-add type of seeds as independent variables.
ii) Holding them constant or considering one level or category of the variable.
iii) Removal of the effects of extraneous variables by use of statistical procedures-covariances
and partial correlation.
The amount of rainfall influence the maize grain harvest and also be type of seedlings.
4. Extraneous variables/confounding variables

Variables that affect the outcome of a research study either because the researcher is not aware or
has no control for them. Therefore extraneous variables will influence the results of study unless
they are controlled through an appropriate procedure. Generalization of research findings
depends on the degree to which extraneous variables are accounted for. If they are not accounted
for it is difficult to determine how much influence on the dependent variable is due to extraneous
variables how much is due to independent variables.
5. Intervening variables
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Considered as a very special case of an extraneous variables. The difference is more of
theoretical than statistical issue. Difference lies in the assured causal relationships among the
variables. With extraneous variables there is no causal link between the independent and
dependent variable. However independent and dependent variable is associated with a third
variable the extraneous variable.
Intervening variables are known to be caused by being caused by independent variable and as
being a determined of independent variable. It comes in between a dependent and independent
variable.
6. Antecedent variables
Logic of introducing antecedent variable is probably the way as introducing intervening
variables. However antecedent variables come before independent variables. It does not
influence the relationship between independent and dependent variables.
It explains the relationship that precedes such a relationship.
1) Variables must be related to some logic sequence
2) It antecedent variable is controlled the relationship between independent and dependent
variable should not disappear. It should be enhanced.
3) If the independent variable is controlled or its influence removed there should be not any
relationship between antecedent variables and the dependent variable.
7. Suppressor variables
Some false relationship may consist between two variables due to intrusion of another
uncontrolled variable. There could be a true relationship between dependent and independent
variable simply because they are related to a 3rd variable. Once the 3rd variable is controlled the
relationship disappears.
Definition:-It is an extraneous variable which if not controlled it removes a relationship between
two variables-if not controlled it intercedes to cancel out a true relationship between the
independent and dependent variable.
7. Distort variables
34
A variable that converts what was thought of as a positive relationship into a negative
relationship and vice versa leads to drawing erroneous conclusions from the data, It controlled, a
true relationship is obtained.
5.8 Theoretical framework

It is a conceptual model of how one theory or makes logical sense of the relationships among the
several factors that have identified as important to the problem. It discusses the inter-
relationships among the variables that are deemed to be integral to the dynamic of the situation
being investigated. Theory formulation so as to examine all the critical variables and their
contributions influence in explaining why the problem occurs and how it can be solved.
A researcher cannot simply rely on the information in previous studies during its survey a theory
has to be formulated each time a problem is formulated. This is because of the following.
Different studies might have been identified different variables some of which may be relevant to
the situation at hand. In the previous studies some of the hypothesis might have been substantive
and others not it is necessary for researchers to formulate theories in every problem situation.
From the theoretical framework, testable hypothesis can be examined whether the theory
formulated is valid or not even if testable hypothesis are not necessarily generated. Duping a
good theoretical framework is central to examine the problem under investigations. It is the
foundation on which the entire research project is based. Therefore theoretical framework is
simply identifying the network of relationships among the variables considered important
to the study of any given problem situation.
The dependent variable in the variable of primary interest to the researcher. The goal of each
researcher is to understand and describe it, to explain its variability or predict it. In a theoretical
framework, it is the main variable that is put under investigation. By analyzing the dependent
variable (finding what variables influence it) then solution to problem can be found. A research
can have more than one dependent variable e.g. Determinants of resource absorption among
CBO. A researcher wants to study the causes for absorption of funds among CBOs. An
independent variable is one that influences that dependent variable either positively or negatively
35
e.g. Research studies indicate that absorption of funds is affected by such factors as project
acceptance, effective needs assessment among others.
Needs assessment, suitability of the project, community participation- independent
variable]
Absorption of funds in CBO- dependent variable
This relationship between independent and dependent variable can be expressed as;
Needs assessment, Efficient absorption of

suitability of the funds in CBOs
project, community
participation
Therefore literature survey provides a solid foundation for duping a theoretical framework. It
indentifies the variable that might be important as defined by previous research findings. A good
theoretical framework will identify and label the important variable in the situation that are
relevant to the problem defined. The relationship between the independent and dependent
variable are well elaborated. Any inter-relationships among the independent variables themselves
or among dependent variables should also be adequately and clearly explained.
Features to be incorporated in any Theoretical Framework

1. The variables considered relevant to the study should be clearly be identified and labeled.
2. The researcher should explain or discuss how two or more variables are related to one
another.
3. If the nature and direction of relationships can be theorized on the basis of previous
findings of other researchers then there should be am indication in the explanation or
discussion as to whether the relationship should be positive or negative.
4. There should be clear explanation of why we would expect these relationships to exist
based on previous research findings.
5. A diagram of the theoretical framework should be given so that the reader can see and
easily comprehend the theorized relationships.
5.9 Writing chapter two
The outline for chapter two is near standard. The title of chapter two is Literature review.
Starts with the introduction followed by topics derived from each of the study objective. We
36
will take a thematic approach in covering the topics from the research objectives. This is how
you do it: Assuming your objective number one is
1. To determine the effect of resource allocation in project implementation among CBOS in

Kajiado county
The resulting topic will be resource allocation and project implementation. What is
covered under this topic is a discussion starting from the definition of the resource allocation
and presentation of relevant literature and the relationship between the two ; resource
allocation and project implementation. This should be done in 0.75-1.5 pages.
Outline Example
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Resource allocation and project implementation
2.3 Objective derived two title
2.4 Objective derived three title
2.5 Objective three derived title
2.6 Theoretical orientation (presents two to three theories related to the study)
2.7 Theoretical framework. (Has all the components except empirical literature )
2.8 Summary
Note that every title derived from study objectives will carry both theoretical and empirical
literature. To present empirical literature starts the author and year of study , research topic and
study location, and the findings. Include at least one per subtitle.
5.10 References
Bryman, A (2001). Social research methods. Great Britain: , Oxford University Press.
University.
37
Georgia State University. (2016). Literature review: Types of literature review. Available at
http://research.library.gsu.edu/c.php?g=115595&p=1940435.
Harvard University. (2008). Foundations of qualitative research in education: Literature review. Available at
http://isites.harvard.edu/icb/icb.do?keyword=qualitative&pageid=icb.page350640.
University of wilconsin, Masdison. (2015). Types of literature review. Available at

http://researchguides.ebling.library.wisc.edu/c.php?g=293229&p=1953452.
5.10 Activity
At this point you are expected to write the chapter two of your research proposal
1. Discuss the importance of literature review in proposal writing bringing out the challenges
faced in carrying out literature review
2. Discuss any four types of literature review.
3. Identify different variables in your research topic; independent, dependent and intervening
variables and discuss how they relate to each other.
38
WEEK 7: CLASSIFYING RESEARCH BY METHODS AND PROCEDURES
In this section different types of research and research designs are discussed.
By the end of this chapter the learner should
1. Describe different types of research
2. Differentiate one type of research from the other
3. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of different types of research
4. Identify the procedures used in different types of research
7.2 Different types of research
Research can be classified in four ways: by method of analysis, by approach, by purpose and by
type
7.2.1 Classification by approach

A good research blends the two because it is hard to find a purely one design.
1. Qualitative Research –It includes designs, techniques and measures that do not produce
discrete numerical data. Qualitative data can be collected through direct observation,
participant observation or interview method. It is often regarded as a precursor to
quantitative research in that it is often used to formulate the realistic and testable
hypotheses. The hypotheses can then be comprehensively tested and mathematically
analyzed c standard, qualitative research methods. Qualitative research design
emphasizes on personal experiences, intervention and self knowledge. It can give
recommendations based on how a researcher feels are populations being observed.
2. Quantitative Research – It includes designs, techniques and measures that produce
discreet numerical or quantifiable data. This is a specific design which attempt to reduce
social phenomena to quantifiable data which can be statically analyses, focusing on the
links and attributes across several cases. Example of relationships between variables can
be expresses using effects, statistics such as correlations, relative frequencies or
difference between means.
Unlike in qualitative design where reality is socially constructed in quantitative research, social
facts have objective reality that is, occurrences are observed several and measured. Social facts
have objectives reality. Variables identified and relationships measures. In quantitative research,
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random sampling is done to ensure representativeness of the sample. Some of the research
designs which may be categorized as quantitative are experimental designs, causal comparative
research and correlation research etc.
Advantages of quantitative research

1. Proving disapproval the hypotheses: quantitative research is an excellent way of finding
results and providing or disapproving the hypotheses. The structure has not changed for
centuries, so is standard across many scientific fields and discipline.
2. Results can be discussed or published; it filter out external factors hence results can be as real
and objectives or unbiased.
3. After statistical analysis of the results, a comprehensive answer is reached and the results can
be legitimately discussed and published. Quantitative experiments filters out external factors
it properly designed and so the result gained can be seen as real and objective or unbiased.
4. Useful for testing the results gained: quantities experiments are useful for testing the results
gained by a series of experiments leading to a final answer and narrowing down of possible
directions for follow research to take. It is more of a formula of figures and any person who
wants to test it can use the formula to fill the gaps.
Disadvantages of quantitative research
1. Exploiting and time consuming: Quantitative experiments can be difficult and expensive and
require a lot of time to perform. They must be carefully planned to ensure that there is
complete randomization and correct designation of control group.
2. Quantitative studies usually require extensive statistical analysis which can be difficult due to
more scientists not being statisticians. The field of statistical study is a whole scientist
discipline and can be difficult for non-mathematical
3. Quantitative research design tends to generate only proved or unproven results with there
being very little room for grey areas and uncertainty. For social sciences education
anthropology and psychology, human nature is a lot more complex than just a simple yes or
no response.
Advantages of applying qualitative
40
1. Qualitative techniques are extremely useful when a subject is too complex to be answered by
a simple yes or no hypothesis. These types of designs are much easier to plan and carried out
and are useful when budgetary decisions have to be taken into account.
2. Useful in complex subjects that do not lapse of time to plan and try out useful when
budgetary decisions are to be made.
3. Not dependent upon sample size as qualitative case study can generate meaningful results.
4. They are not as dependent upon sample sizes as quantitative methods. A case study for
example can generate meaningful results with a small sample group.
Disadvantages of qualitative research
1. Requires careful thoughts and plan to ensure the results contained are as accurate as possible.
Whilst not as time and resource consuming as quantitative experiments, qualitative method
still require a lot of careful thoughts and planning to ensure that the results obtained are as
accurate as possible.
2. Does not use statistical techniques thus is involves subjective judgment hence can be prone to
error. This means that mathematically analyzed, can only give a guide to the general trends.
Open to personal opinion and judgment hence can only give observation rather than results.
3. Qualitative data cannot be mathematically analyzed in the same comprehensive way as
quantitative results; can only give a guide to general trends. It is a lot more open to person
opinion and judgment and so can only ever give observations rather than results.
4. It is unique and cannot be recreated meaningfully. Any qualitative research design is usually
unique and may not be exactly recreated meaningfully. Two research done c two different
people using different methods may not be able to give the same result.
Advantages of using both qualitative and quantitative methods

1. Since in many cases a researcher has several objectives, some of these objectives are better
assessed using quantitative methods.
2. Both methods supplement each other i.e. qualitative methods provide the in-depth
explanations while quantitative methods provide the data needed to test hypothesis.
3. Since both methods have a bias, using both types of research helps to avoid such bias in that
each method can be used to check the other.
Disadvantages of using both qualitative and quantitative methods
41
1. It is expensive.
2. Researchers may not have sufficient training in both methods to be able to use them
effectively.
7.2.2 Classification by method of analysis
1. Descriptive Study
This is a scientific method of investigation that involves collection and analysis of quantitative
data in order to determine the current status of some phenomenon. In a descriptive study, the
researcher determines the status, relative incidence and conditions of a problem at the present
time. In some cases, casual relationships may be involved. Descriptive research uses survey
designs as a strategy for collecting and analyzing data to answer research questions about the
current status of the stated problem. In the data collection process, questionnaires, interviews and
observations are predominantly used. Descriptive study primarily uses the quantitative research
methodology. However, qualitative data is sometimes collected and used.
2. Correlational research
A scientific method of investigation, which involves collection and analysis of quantitative data
with the purpose of determining relationship between variables. In a Correlational study, the
researcher specifies two or more variables and formulates hypotheses about the presumed
relationships among/between them. Data is collected using structured questionnaires, structured
interviews or structured observation. These methods of data collection are designed to generate
quantitative data. The resulting data is then analyzed using the statistics of correlation.
Correlational statistics are used to determine how a change in one variable is associated with
changes in another variable. However, iIt does not, however, imply cause-effect relationship.
Correlational research uses a survey design.
The use of correlation statistics is designed to provide two measures namely:

i.) The magnitude or strength of relationship
ii.) The direction of relationship.
The researcher computes the coefficient of correlation,. In assuming the strength of relationship,
you will determine the magnitude (size) of the correlation coefficient, .
NOTE: The magnitude of  varies between 0 and 1.
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In measuring the direction of relationship, you will determine if the resulting correlation
coefficient has positive or negative value.
Example: If the coefficient has a positive value, we conclude that the relationship is direct.
Taking two variables, A and B, we conclude that an increase in A is associated with an increase
in B, and vice versa. If, on the other hand, the value of  is negative, we conclude that the
relationship is inverse. This is to say that an increase in A is associated with a decrease in B, and
vice versa.
 The researcher should, however, test the significance of relationship using inferential
statistics
3. Causal-comparative research
It is used to explore relationships between variables. It determines reasons or causes for the
current status of the phenomenon under study. The variables of interest cannot be manipulated
unlike in experimental research.
Steps in causal-comparative research
 Define the research question
 Select a group that posseses the characteristics, which the researcher wants to study.
 Select a comparison group which does not display the characteristics under study but
which is similar to the group in other respects.
 Collect data on both the experimental and control groups.
 Analyze the data.
Advantages of causal-comparative study
 Allows a comparison of groups without having to manipulate the independent variables.
 It can be done solely to identify variables worthy of experimental investigation.
 They are relatively cheap.
Disadvantages of causal-comparative study
 Interpretations are limited because the researcher does not know whether a particular
variable is a cause or result of a behaviour being studied.
 There may be a third variable which could be affecting the established relationship but
which may not be established in the study.
7.2.3 Classification by purpose
1. Basic/Pure/Fundamental Research
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Basic researchers are interested in deriving scientific knowledge i.e. they are motivated by
intellectual curiosity and need to come up with a particular solution. It focuses on generating new
knowledge in order to refine or expand existing theories. It does not consider the practical
application of the findings to actual problems or situations.
2. Applied Research
It is conducted for the purpose of applying or testing theory and evaluating its usefulness in
solving problems. It provides data to support a theory, guide theory revision or suggest the
development of a new theory.
3. Action research
It is conducted with the primary intention of solving a specific, immediate and concrete problem
in a local setting e.g. investigating ways of overcoming water shortage in a given area. It is not
concerned with whether the results can be generalized to any other setting.
4. Evaluation research
Evaluation research is a method of investigation that involves collection and analysis of data,
either quantitative, to assess projects or programmes.
A project can be said to represent a set of activities designed deliberately to fulfill certain
objectives or outcomes. For instance, an HIV awareness promotion campaign in schools can be
launched to help improve the students’ awareness of its negative effects. The purpose of the
project is to increase awareness among the students. Projects are short-term activities and
terminal. They are intended to last a specified time frame; that is, when the objectives are
expected to be attained.
Programmes are continuous and long-term activities designed to fulfill specified purposes. For
example educational programmes in schools are continuous aver years. Projects may form part of
such programmes e.g. community development projects, project for social change and
sensitization, empowerment among others.
a. Situation Analysis studies. These are designed to investigate the viability or practical
relevance of intended projects or programmes. They seek to establish the needs, problems
and resource requirements of the intended programme/ project. They also check on whether
the programme/ project will succeed or not. Examples include: Feasibility studies, Training
Needs Assessment study, among others.
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b. Performance Evaluation study. Represent another type of evaluation research. This is
initiated when the projects or programme is already in place. It determines the extent to
which the methods, resources and personnel used are performing according to expectations.
For example, you may want to assess the extent to which Free-Education programmes are
performing in schools. This type of evaluation is sometimes referred to as formative
Evaluation.
c. Impact Assessment study. This is the type of evaluation research that seeks to establish the
impact of a specified programme/ project. It is carried out after the completion of the
project, or after a long period of programme implementation. The aim is to determine the
extent to which the programme/ project objectives have been attained. It is sometimes
referred to as Summative Evaluation.
How to conduct evaluation studies

You can carry out evaluation research by using two major approaches, namely; Quantitative
evaluation study, and Qualitative evaluation study.
i. Quantitative evaluation study could be carried out when there is need to collect numerical
data and analyze such data using statistical methods. In this process, data is collected using
structured or semi- structured questionnaires, structured or semi-structured interviews, and
structured observation.
ii. The survey research design is therefore used in this type of evaluation study.
For any evaluation study of this type, there must be some criteria for judging programme/ project
feasibility, performance or impact. Consider the following evaluation model: The context is
context – inputs – process and product (CIPP) Evaluation methods
This model is mainly applied in quantitative evaluation approach.
a. The Context Analysis: examines the project/ programme needs, gaps which were to be
filled, the location among other pre-requisite for implementations.
b. The Impact Analysis: Examines the adequacy of the resources, funding, personnel and
other factors that were considered necessary to enable the implementers to make the
programme pr project to finish successfully.
c. The Process Analysis examines the techniques or methods used during the project/
programme implementation.
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 Were the methods relevant?
 How well was the project/ programme managed?
Such questions may be asked to focus on process analysis.
d. Product Analysis: It examines the adequacy of the project outcomes. It assesses the extent to
which the objectives were attained. New lessons can be learned for future activities.
iii. Participatory evaluation:

In this evaluation study, the researcher seeks to assess the viability, performance or impact of
the project/ programme from the perspectives of the participants or beneficiaries. More feedback
is drawn from the perceptions and interpretations of the participants to judge on the relevance,
and success of the programme/project.
Participatory evaluation approaches have become very popular with NGO’s and donor related
programmes or projects. They are considered to promote higher sustainability levels after
project/programme completion. It gives the participants an opportunity to define their own
agenda about their needs and expectations. This is synthesized with the project/ programme
implementors’ plans to enhance collaboration and success.
In the quantitative evaluation research:
 In depth textual data is collected using: in depth interviews, key informant interviews,
participant observation, focus group interviews and content analysis.
 Exploratory research design is used as a strategy for collecting and analyzing qualitative
data in order to answer research questions about the feasibility and impact of the project
or programme.
 Qualitative analysis techniques are used to analyze the textual data.
 The most commonly used qualitative evaluation approach is: Participant Oriented
Evaluation Model. (POEM)
7.2.4 Classification by type

1. Historical Research
Involves the study of a problem that requires collecting information from the past.
Purpose of historical research
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 Aims at arriving at conclusions concerning causes, effects or trends of past occurrences that
may help present events and anticipate future events.
 Attempts to interpret ideas or events that had previously seemed unrelated.
 Synthesizes old data or merges old data with new historical facts that the researcher or other
researchers have discovered.
 To reinterpret past events that have been studied.
Steps involved in historical research
 Identifying and delineating the problem
 Developing hypothesis or hypotheses that one is interested in testing.
 Collecting and classifying resource materials, determining facts by internal and external
criticism.
 Organizing facts into results.
 Interpreting data in terms of stated hypothesis or theory.
 Synthesizing and presenting the research in an organized form.
2. Experimental research
Experimental research is a scientific method of investigation which involves collection and
analysis of quantitative data to establish CAUSE-EFFECT relationship between/among
variables.
In experimental study the researcher specifies two or more variables and formulates hypotheses
about the presumed cause-effect relationship amongst them. One variable is presumed to cause
or influence the other variable(s) to change. This is called the independent variable. The other
variable is presumed to be the effect by responding to changes in the previous variables. This is
called the dependent variable.
During the experimental study, the researcher deliberately manipulates the independent variables
by changing or altering its values or levels, or its specified categories. At the same time, the
researcher carefully observes and measures any resulting changes in the dependent variables.
This is examined and analyzed to establish the cause-effect relationship. In most experimental
studies, the researcher selects two or more groups of subjects.
Subjects are the population units or individuals selected to participate in a research study. A
group of subjects constitute a sample.
The subjects are then assigned to two major groups called:
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i.) Experimental group
ii.) Control group
Experimental group: Comprises the subjects who will be exposed to experimental treatment, that
is, to the influence of the independent variable(s).
Control group: Comprises subjects who will not be exposed to the influence of the independent
variable. Instead, they are used as a baseline measure or a comparison group to measure the
extent of change resulting from the independent variable.
It is important to note at this stage that, some experimental studies use only one group
(experimental group) while others could use four or more groups. This depends on the nature and
complexity of the experimental design.
In more efficient experimental studies, deliberate efforts are made to minimize the influence of
other variables that could negatively affect the outcome(s) of the experimental study. These
variables are commonly referred to as extraneous variables (see chapter five). The method used
to control extraneous variables is called randomization.
NOTE: Randomization: Is a procedure used in selecting subjects. In this case the subjects are
selected at random from the target population. The subjects are then assigned to experimental
and control groups, at random. Random selection and random assignment of groups is expected
to minimize the influence of extraneous variables.
The next stage is to assign the students to experimental and control groups at random assignment
is highly likely to equally distribute the characteristics in the two groups, as shown below.
3. Case Study
Case study is a method of investigation that involves in depth collection and analysis of data to
determine the characteristics of a unit, such as an individual, a group or organization/institution.
The rationale of a case study is that the selected unit has some unique or special characteristics
that need to be unveiled or understood.
A case study in education may target a school, a group of students with special characteristics or
individual learners whose characteristics differ significantly from others. Since a case study is
specific to a unit or specific location, generalization of results may not be possible or extensive.
Majority of case studies in education use qualitative methods. In this case, majority of data
collected is in textual form. Data collection techniques commonly used in case study is an in-
48
depth interviews, key informant interviews, focus group interviews and participants observation.
Other instrument may, however, be used depending on the research requirement.
4. Survey Research
Studies large and small populations (or universe) by selecting and studying samples chosen from
the population to discover the relative incidence, distribution and interactions of variables.
Survey research designs employ a flow plan or chart to outline the design and subsequent
implementation of a survey. The flow plan starts with the objectives of the survey, lists each step
to be taken and ends with a final report. The steps are:
1. Formulation of objectives
2. Sampling design and sampling
3. Designing methods of data collection and constructing instrument
4. Collection of data
5. Data analysis that is Processing, coding, tabulation/entry and analysis of data
6. Data interpretation and reporting of findings
Purpose of survey research
i. It seeks to obtain information that describes existing phenomena by asking individuals
about their perceptions, attitudes, behaviour or values.
ii. Can be used for explaining or exploring the existing status of two or more variables, at a
given point in time.
iii. It is the most appropriate to measure characteristics of large populations.
Limitations of survey research
i. They are dependent of the cooperation of respondents.
ii. Information unknown to the respondents cannot be tapped in a survey e.g. amount saved
per year.
iii. Requesting information which is considered secret and personal, encourages incorrect
answers.
iv. Surveys cannot be aimed at obtaining forecasts of things to come.
5. Exploratory Design
They are mainly used in qualitative studies. They are non experimental scientific investigation
aimed at discovering the relation and interaction between variables in real social structures. The
investigation in a field study first looks at a social or institutional situation and then studies the
49
relation among the attitude, values, perceptions and behaviors of individuals and groups in the
situation. Data is mainly collected through observation and interviews. It provides insight into,
an understanding of, and the problem confronting the researcher.
Exploratory research addresses the need that certain inquiries focus on questions that require
answers in order to understand people, events and situations. It is often used when the researcher
does not have enough information on the topic and wants the flexibility to explore the issue. In
an exploratory research there are few guidelines to follow. The approach to this design is to
formulate research questions that are addressed through scientific inquiry or investigation such as
a survey. For this reason this design is called formulative design. This design is mainly
qualitative as it allows flexibility in all the aspects of the process.
Purpose of exploratory study
1. To discover significant variables in the field situation
2. To discover relation among variables.
3. To lay groundwork for later, more systematic and vigorous testing of hypothesis.
4. It primarily uses qualitative research
6. Observation research
Research where the researcher observes what is going on and documents the observations. It is
also defined as the current status of phenomenon determined by observation. Its aim is to collect
objective information.
Types of observational research
a) Participant-observer takes an active part of the people under observation.
b) Non-participant-Researcher does not take an active part in participating. Observer is silent.
c) Naturalistic observation-Researcher does not control what is happening.
Disadvantage-Useful when dealing with natural state but not humans.
Advantages-Observers and records things the way they occur.
Advantages observation design
 It is least expensive research design
 It takes shorter time and can cover a large number of people, items or events.
 It is also free from response bias whereby the respondent’s answer to a question is erroneous
due to failure to clearly understand question or concept.
Limitations
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It limits the scope of inquiry and is not free from the observation error that may be contributed
by the investigator. The design is also used to describe characteristics of the people, events and
situations in the absence of probing
Distinguishing Characteristics of the Major Research Methods/Procedures

Method Source of Data Research Methodology Typical Purposes Typical
Design forms
stating
results
1. Historical Direct observation, as Exploratory Qualitative Accurate record of Verbal
an eye-witness; design past events. Status exposition
indirect observation of phenomena at and
through documents, given times. interpretati
remains an eye Interpretation of on.
witness’ account present day
problems and
procedures.
Determination of
causal
relationships.
2. Normative Direct observation, as Survey Quantitative Status and Measures
Survey in the interview and design comparison of of central
(Descriptive) measurement; objects and tendency
indirect observation conditions at the and
through present time. (in variability.
questionnaires, check some cases causal
lists etc relationships may
be involved)
3. Direct observation Experiment Quantitative Determination of Amounts
Experimental and measurement al Design causal and
relationships, reliabilities
evaluation and of
comparison experiment
experimentally of ally
educational produced
procedures changes.
4. Causal- Direct observation Survey Quantitative Determination of Group
comparative and measurement design causal relationships likeness
and
differences
6. Direct observation Survey Quantitative Determination of Correlation
Correlational and measurement Design relationships and co-efficient
prediction and
51
regression
equations
7. Case Direct and indirect Explanatory Qualitative Special Individual
Study observation, design characteristics of a case
measurement and single group or histories
documentary organization
evidence
8. Evaluation Direct observation Uncontrolla Qualitative Assessment of Descriptive
and measurement ble and status against
observation quantitative expected
2.3 Research Designs

A research design is the overall strategy used by the researcher as a means of collecting and
analyzing data in order to test research hypotheses or answer research questions. Read
through the table below to see the differences. Also read article at
(http://researchguides.ebling.library.wisc.edu/c.php?g=293229&p=1953454)
2.4 Distinguishing Characteristics of the Major Research Methods/Procedures
Method Source of Data Research Methodology Typical Purposes Typical

Design /Approach forms
stating
results
1. Historical Direct observation, as Exploratory Qualitative Accurate record of Verbal
an eye-witness; design past events. Status exposition
indirect observation of phenomena at and
through documents, given times. interpretati
remains an eye Interpretation of on.
witness’ account present day
problems and
procedures.
Determination of
causal
relationships.
2. Normative Direct observation, as Survey Quantitative Status and Measures
Survey in the interview and design comparison of of central
(Descriptive) measurement; objects and tendency
indirect observation conditions at the and
through present time. (in variability.
questionnaires, check some cases causal
52
lists etc relationships may
be involved)
3. Direct observation Experiment Quantitative Determination of Amounts
Experimental and measurement al Design causal and
relationships, reliabilities
evaluation and of
comparison experiment
experimentally of ally
educational produced
procedures changes.
4. Causal- Direct observation Survey Quantitative Determination of Group
comparative and measurement design causal relationships likeness
and
differences
6. Direct observation Survey Quantitative Determination of Correlation
Correlational and measurement Design relationships and co-efficient
prediction and
regression
equations
7. Case Direct and indirect Explanatory Qualitative Special Individual
Study observation, design characteristics of a case
measurement and single group or histories
documentary organization
evidence
8. Evaluation Direct observation Uncontrolla Qualitative Assessment of Descriptive
and measurement ble and status against
observation quantitative expected
7.3 References
Bryman, A. (1990). Quantity and quality in social research. London: Loughborough University.
Cooper D. R. , & Schindler P. S. (2003). Business research methods (9th ED.). Illinois: McGraw-Hill.
Kothari, C. R. (2008). Research methodology (2nd ED.). New Delhi: New Age International Publishers.
Mugenda A. G. (2008). Social science research: Theory and principles. Nairobi: Applied Research and
Training Services.
Mugenda O. M., & A. G. Mugenda. (2003). Research methods: Quantitative and qualitative approaches.
Nairobi: ACTS Presss.
Robson, C. (2002). Real world research (2nd ED.). Cornwall, United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing.
53
Sekaran, U. (2003). Research methods: A skill building approach (4th ED.). New Jersey: John Wiley and
Sons.
7.5 Reflection Questions

1. Classify different types of research and describe them?
2. Using your research topics as a case
i. How would your classify your research?
ii. what is the rationale for the classification?
2. Describe any five research designs?
54
CHAPTER 8: SAMPLING AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
8.0 Introduction
This section brings out the sampling techniques and their advantages and disadvantages.
By the end of this lesson the learner should be able to
1. Explain the need for sampling in a research study
2. Analyze different scenarios where probability and non probability sampling are used in a
research study.
3. Identify population and samples to be used by your study
4. Come up with the sampling techniques to be used in your study
8.2 Population
Population is also defined as a complete set of individuals, cases and objects with some common
observable characteristics. Therefore refers to the total number of items or units or persons under
study. Of interest in the identification of the unit of analysis: the individual, cases, objects.
Therefore, a population allows the identification and specification of the individuals to be studied
and the reasons behind their selection. The population should focus on the category where the
problem exists.
Target population is that population to which the researcher wants to generalize the results of
the study. They represent a proportion of the population that has the desired characteristics.
Accessible population: part of the target population that are available to the researcher for the
provision of responses.
Note: A population can have a population, a target population and an accessible population e.g. a
study carried out in a medical clinic to find out the effects of drug abuse among the elderly
people would have its population as all the people that go to the clinic young people and the
children included the target population ate the elderly people. If the study will be carried out in
the clinic the bedridden elderly people will not be included thus the accessible population will
refer to the elderly people who can come to the clinic during the study period.
Example a study on the factors that affect the implementation of CBO projects in Kenya: case of
Kajiado County will have the population to include all CBO in Kajiado and in individuals all
employees in all CBOs in Kajiado County
55
Target population will have all the employees in the CBOs and all employees in CBOs in
Kajiado County that have information on project implementation. So anyone who does not know
will not be included in the target population.
Accessible population: includes all the employees that have information on project
implementation of CBO projects in Kajiado that are reachable; those that can be accessed.
8.3 Sample and sample size

A sample is a set of entities drawn from a population with the aim of estimating the
characteristics of a population. Sampling error should be minimal. A sample is a selected portion
of the population for conducting a study in order to represent the population adequately since it is
impossible to take the entire population. Sampling error refers to the difference/discrepancy
between the sample and the population characteristics.The sample must be large enough to
represent the salient characteristics of the accessible population and hence the target population.
It should neither be too large, nor too little. Sampling error is attributable to the selection method
in the sample; the greater the sample size the greater the accuracy.
Note: Sample size is a figure of the sample; the number e.g. 20 students.
In cases where all the members of a population are used, a census is carried out.
8.4 Census Method
A census is an enumeration of all individuals, elements or items in the population. In a census
the data collected is in relation to the entire population and not a sample. When a census is
carried out all members of the population are included hence sampling is not done. It has an
advantage of obtaining higher level of accuracy since all items are covered.
8.5 Sampling
 Sampling is a method of selecting a sample from a population.
 sampling procedure may be defined as a systematic process of individuals or elements for a
study to represent the larger group from which they are selected
 The selection of elements from a population should be in such a way that the descriptions of
those elements accurately portray the characteristics of the population from which they were
drawn. Another important goal is to yield maximum precision or minimum variance which is
only possible if a sample represents its population in all respects.
56
Sampling frame: It is a listing of elements that the sample will be selected from.
Importance of sampling
 Cost
 Time: Greater speed of data collection
 Destructive nature of certain tests
 Greater accuracy of results
 Physical impossibility of checking all items in the population
 Availability of population elements
There are two methods used to select study samples. These methods are probability and
non-probability sampling methods.
Cases where large samples are required
1. When many variables are held constant.
2. When hypothesized relationships or differences between variables’ anticipated effect is very
small in real life.
3. When the study requires the sample to be subdivided into subgroups.
4. When it is expected that many subjects in the sample will not respond, die or drop out of in
the case of plants and animals.
5. When a high level of statistical significance is expected.
6. When the accessible population is highly heterogeneous on the variables under study-
population not homogenous.
8.5.1 Probability sampling

Probability sampling methods also known as random sampling is a method where every
sampling unit has a known non-zero chance of being included in the study sample. Therefore, the
selection and inclusion of the study elements in the study is purely random occurrence and not
subject to the researcher’s judgment. The main objective of probability sampling is the
representation technique.
1. Simple random sampling
It involves giving a number to every subject or member of the accessible population placing the
numbers in a container and picking them randomly. The subjects that correspond to the numbers
57
picked are included in the study. Alternatively random numbers can also be generated using the
computer.
Advantage
 Easy to implement
 The probability of selection remains constant in successive selections.
 most appropriate in research situations where the representation of the population by a
sample is critical and the population is not structured or its structure does not necessarily
affect the random manner of selection
 Economical compared to other methods
Disadvantages:
 Requires a listing of population elements
 Takes more time to implement
 Uses larger sample sizes
 Produces larger errors
 Expensive
2. Systematic random sampling
The items or individuals of the population are arranged in some manner. A random starting
point is selected and then every nth member of the population is selected for the sample. To
obtain a truly random sample using this method, the list of members in the sampling frame must
be randomized by arranging them in alphabetical order or numerical order. Elements can also be
arranged based on characteristics such as colour and size. Systematic Sampling method is
appropriate in populations in which individuals or units follow a natural arrangement or where a
natural arrangement can be done.
Advantages
 Simple to design
 Easier to use than the simple random
 Easy to determine sampling distribution of mean or proportion
 Less expensive than simple random
Disadvantages
 Periodicity within the population may skew the sample and results
58
 It the population list has a monotonic trend, a biased estimate will result based on the starting
point.
3. Stratified random sampling
Stratified random sampling involves the division of the population into strata/subgroups. In this
method of sampling subjects are selected in such a way that the existing subgroups in the
population are more or less reproduced in the sample. This means that the sample will consist of
two or more subgroups. This method is appropriate to a population in which the population units
have some similarity of characteristics such as age, gender among others. Stratified sampling
ensures that a sample is drawn from a homogenous subset of the population that has similar
characteristics.
There are of two kinds of stratified sampling techniques: proportional stratified and simple
stratified. Proportional stratified is when the cases in a population fall into distinctively different
categories/strata of the population. Proportional stratified sampling is used when the proportion
of the different strata in the population are known hence the need to represent each stratum in the
population. Simple random stratified is whereby the researcher randomly selects the sample from
each stratum separately to ensure that each stratum is represented. The different samples selected
are then combined to form
Steps involved in stratified sampling

1. Identification of the population
2. Define the criteria for stratification
3. List the population according to the define strata or subgroups
4. Determine the required sample size and the appropriate representation in each stratum. This
can be proportionate or equal.
5. Select using random numbers an appropriate number of subjects from each stratum.
Advantages of Stratified sampling

 Researcher controls sample size in strata
 Increased statistical efficiency
 Provides data to represent and analyze subgroups
 Enables use of different methods in strata.
59
Disadvantages
 Increased error will result if subgroups are selected at different rates
 Expensive especially if strata on the population have to be created.
4. Cluster sampling
It is used when it is not possible to obtain a sampling frame because the population is either too
large or scattered over a large geographical area. cluster sampling involves the division of a
population into large number of groups called cluster and a sample which represents the
population is selected. Each cluster is mentioned to include individuals or units and all of them
are included in the sample, though not selected directly e.g. to carry out a study on the impact of
HIV/AIDs in Kenya based on the support groups all the support groups in Kenya are under
consideration therefore they are listed down based on the administrative locations and based on
the sample required a number of administrative locations are picked and the support groups in
those locations are all selected as part of the sample.
Unlike in stratified sampling where the population is stratified according to certain criteria,
cluster sampling involves selection of clusters that are heterogeneous.
The population is divided into internally heterogeneous subgroups and some are randomly
selected for further study. A multi-stage cluster sampling method can also be used.
Steps in cluster sampling
1. Identify the population
2. Define the cluster forming the population
3. Determine the required sample size
4. List all the clusters in random order
5. Using the table of random numbers, select the required numbers of clusters according to the
sample size required.
6. all members in the selected clusters are included in the sample as units of observation
Advantages
 Provides an unbiased estimate of population parameters if properly done
 Economically more efficient than simple random
 Lowest cost per sample, especially with geographic clusters
60
 Easy to do without a population list
Disadvantages
 More error (Lower statistical efficiency) due to groups being homogenous rather than
heterogeneous.
6. Multistage sampling
It is a complex form of cluster sampling in which two or more levels of units are embedded one
in the other. At first a random number of districts chosen in all elements drawn from the
population. You then select from the selected sample in stages. In the example we have assuming
a study is to be done representing households in Kajiado county, the first selection is sub-county,
then location, then sub-location then villages then households selected from the villages.
Technically, this method would involve the process of taking random samples of preceding
random samples. It is not as effective as true random sampling, but probably solves more of the
problems inherent to random sampling. Its effectiveness is represented by true randomization
through the stages in the selection of a sample. However, it is not possible when a complete list
of the ample does not exist. Also, samples in all the clusters may not be used since it avoids large
samples associated with the traditional cluster sampling.
8.5.2 Non probability sampling

Non probability sampling is used when researcher is not interested in selecting a sample that is
representative of the population.
1. Purposive sampling
It is a sampling technique that allows a researcher to use cases that have the required information
with respect to the objectives of the study. Cases of subjects are therefore hand picked because
they are informative or they possess the required characteristics. The researcher specifies the
criteria for choosing the particular cases.
Advantages
 Less costly
 Easily approachable
 Ensures the selection of elements considered important for the research
Disadvantages
 Results of the research study cannot be generalized
61
 It lacks randomness therefore inferential statistics cannot be used
 Requires prior knowledge of the research area and the sample
2. Snowball sampling
In this method initial subjects with the desired characteristics are identified using purposeful
sampling technique. The few identified subjects name other s that they know have the required
characteristics until the researcher gets the number of cases required.
Advantages
 Saves on cost and time given that only the respondents that are informative are chosen as part
of the sample
 Enables the identification of the subjects who are not known
Disadvantage
 The findings cannot be generalized to the whole population
 Inferential statistics cannot be used
3. Quota sampling
It is similar to stratified random sampling. The objective is to include various groups or quotas of
the population in the study based on some criteria.
4. Convenient/accidental sampling
As the name suggest respondents are identified by convenience. Their inclusion as part of the
sample is done without pre-specified or know probabilities of being selected. It involves the
selection of cases or units of observation as they become available to the researcher. It is also
referred to as ‘volunteer sampling’ or accidental sampling.
Advantages
 Easy sample selection
 Easy data collection
Disadvantages
 It is difficult to tell the representativeness of the sample
8.6 References
62
FAO. (2012). Examples of sampling. Available at
http://www.fao.org/ag/humannutrition/32428-0613f516cb07eade922c8c19b4d0452c0.pdf
pennstate Eberly collage of science. (2016). Simple random sampling and other sampling
methods. Available at https://onlinecourses.science.psu.edu/stat100/node/18.
Chaturvedi, K. (2011). Sampling methods. Available at www.pitt.edu/~super7/43011-
44001/43911.ppt.
Odama, O. (2014). Sampling methods in social research. Available at

http://www.academia.edu/9757531/SAMPLING_METHODS_IN_SOCIAL_RESEARCH.

1. Explain the need for sampling in a research study
2. Analyze different scenarios where probability and non probability sampling are used in a
research study.
3. Identify population and samples to be used by your study
63
CHAPTER 9 & 10: DATA COLLECTION TOOLS/RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
10.0 Introduction
This section explains different primary data collection tools, their development, administration
and their contents.
10.1 Learning Objectives
By the end of this lesson the learner should be able to
1. Choose suitable research tools to be used in various studies
2. Construct data collection tools
3. Understand how to carry out data collection process
4. Differentiate validity from reliability
5. Understand the relevance of a valid and reliable research design
6. Analyze the threats of internal and external validity
7. Explain ways of promoting the validity and reliability of a given research study
10.2 Primary data collection tools
10.2.1 QUESTIONNAIRE
Each item in the questionnaire is developed to address a specific objective, research question or
hypothesis of the study. The researcher must also know how information obtained from each
questionnaire item will be analyzed.
Types of questions used in questionnaires
1. Structured or closed-ended questions
They are questions, which are accompanied by a list of possible alternatives from which
respondents select the answer that best describes their situation.
Advantages of structured or close-ended questions
 They are easier to analyze since they are in an immediate usable form
 They are easier to administer
 They are economical to use in terms of time and money
Disadvantages of structured or closed-ended questions
 They are more difficult to construct
 Responses are limited and the respondent is compelled to answer questions according to
the researcher’s choices.
2. Unstructured or open-ended questions
64
They refer to questions which give the respondent complete freedom of response. The
amount of space provided is always an indicator of whether a brief or lengthy answer is
desired.
Advantages of Unstructured or open-ended questions
 They permit a greater depth of response
 They are simple to formulate
 The respondent’s responses may give an insight into his feelings, background, hidden
motives, interest and decisions.
Disadvantages of Unstructured or open-ended questions
 There is a tendency of the respondents providing information, which does not answer the
stipulated research questions or objectives.
 The responses given maybe difficult to categorize and hence difficult to analyze
quantitatively
 Responding to open ended questions is time consuming, which may put some respondent off.
3. Contingency questions
In particular cases, certain questions are applicable to certain groups of respondents. In such
cases, follow-up questions are needed to get further information from the relevant sub-groups
only. These subsequent questions, which are asked after the initial questions, are called
‘contingency questions’ or ‘filter questions’. The purpose of these kinds of questions is to
probe for more information. They also simplify the respondent’s task, in that they will not be
required to answer questions that are not relevant to them.
4. Matrix questions
These are questions which share the same set of response categories. They are used
whenever scales like likert scale are being used.
Advantages of matrix questions

i. When questions or items are presented in matrix form, they are easier to complete and
hence the respondent is unlikely not to be put off.
ii. Space is used efficiently
iii. It is easy to compare responses given to different items
Disadvantages of matrix questions
65
i. Some respondents, especially the ones that may not be too keen to give right responses,
might form a pattern of agreeing or disagreeing with statements.
ii. Some researchers use them when in fact the kind of information being sought could better
be obtained in another format.
Rules for constructing questionnaires and questionnaire items

1. List the objectives that you want the questionnaire to accomplish before constructing the
questionnaire.
2. Determine how information obtained from each questionnaire item will be analyzed.
3. Ensure clarity and avoid ambiguity
4. If a concept has several meanings and that concept must be used in a question, the
intended meaning must be defined.
5. Construct short questions
6. Items should be stated positively as possible
7. Double-barreled items should be avoided
8. Leading and biased questions should be avoided
9. Very personal and sensitive questions should be avoided
10. Simple words that assume facts with no evidence should be avoided
11. Questions that assume facts with no evidence should be avoided
12. Avoid psychologically threatening questions
13. Include enough information in each item so that it is meaningful to the respondent.
Tips on how to organize or order items in a questionnaire

1. Begin with non-threatening, interesting items
2. It is not advisable to put important questions at the end of a long questionnaire
3. Have some logical when putting items together
4. Arrange the questions according to themes being studied
5. If the questionnaire is arranged into content sub-sequent, each section should be
introduced with a short statement concerning its content and purpose
6. Socio-economic questions should be asked at the end because respondents may be put off
by personal questions at the beginning of the questionnaire.
66
Presentation of the questionnaire
1. Make the questionnaire attractive by using quality paper. It increases the response rate.
2. Organize and lay out the questions so that the questionnaire is easy to complete.
3. Brief but clear instruction must be included
4. Make your questionnaire short.
Pretesting the questionnaire
The questionnaire should be presented to a selected sample, which is similar to the actual
sample, which the researcher plans to study. This is important because: -
a) Questions that are vague will be revealed in the sense that the respondents will interpret
them differently.
b) Comments and suggestions made by respondents during pretesting should be seriously
considered and incorporated
c) Pretesting will reveal deficiencies in the questionnaire
d) It helps to test whether the methods of analysis are appropriate.
Ways of administering questionnaires
Questionnaires are mainly administered using three methods:
(i) Self administered questionnaires: Questionnaires are sent to the respondents through mail
or hand-delivery, and they complete on their own.
(ii) Researcher administered questionnaires: The researcher can decide to use the
questionnaire to interview the respondents. This is mostly done when the subjects may not
have the ability to easily interpret the questions probably because of their educational level.
(iii)Use of the internet: The people sampled for the research receive and respond to the
questionnaires through their websites or e-mail addresses.
The letter of transmittal/Cover letter
The letter of transmittal /Cover letter should accompany every questionnaire.
Contents of a letter of transmittal
i. It should explain the purpose of the study
ii. It should explain the importance and significance of the study
iii. A brief assurance of confidentiality should be included in the letter.
iv. If the study is affiliated to a certain institution or organization, it is advisable to have an
endorsement from such an institution or organization.
67
v. In a sensitive research, it may be necessary to assure the anonymity of respondents.
vi. Be careful about the appearance when note taking. That is, if you jump to take a note, it
may appear as if you’re surprised or very pleased about an answer, which may influence
answers to future questions.
vii. Provide transition between major topics, e.g. “we have been talking about (some topic)
and how I would like to move on to (another topic).
viii. Don’t lose control of the interview. This can occur when respondents stray to another
topic, take so long to answer a question that times begins to run out, or even begin asking
questions to the interviewer.
10.2.2. Interviews
Interviews offer a flexible approach and can be used to collect a wide variety of data ranging
from user perceptions and reactions, to usability and error related data. Interviews are conducted
in a one-on-one basis with the interviewer using probe questions to elicit the required
information. Interviews can be face-to-face, telephone, or group interviews.
Fully structured interview has predetermined questions with fixed wording, usually in a pre-set
order. Semi-structured interview has predetermined questions, but the order can be modified
based upon the interviewer’s perception of what seems most appropriate. Question wording can
be changed and explanations given; particular questions which seem inappropriate with a
particular interviewee can be omitted, or additional ones included. In unstructured interviews, the
interviewer has a general area of interest and concern, but the conversation develop within this
area can be completely informal.
An interview as a research method has benefit of allowing the research to follow up on
interesting responses and also allows further probing. The structured interview is appropriate in a
study where just one set of questions are asked to selected respondents. This ensures that the
same aspects are sought from the different respondents. Research interviews in both qualitative
and quantitative research designs even if a small number taken for open-ended interviews in
order to enter in an empathic way, they lived experiences of the employees or group being
studied.
10.2.2.1 Methods of recording: Tape recording, note taking, video recording
Immediately after interview
68
i. Verify if the tape recorder, if used, worked throughout the interview.
ii. Make any notes on your written notes, e.g. to clarify any scratchings, ensure pages are
numbered, fill out any notes that don’t make senses, etc
iii. Write down any observations made during the interview. For example, where did the
interview occur and when, was the respondents
Advantages
i. They yield a higher response rate
ii. Is flexible for use for any type of population particularly with illiterate respondents
iii. Are appropriate for complex situations that may need in-depth information
iv. Enable the collection of data on social characteristics such as facts, beliefs, expectations
and values among others
v. Yield classified data that is ready for use by the researcher
vi. The presence of interviewer encourages the respondents
vii. Allows researcher to deal with sensitive topics
Disadvantages
i. Respondents may feel their responses are not really anonymous since they are known to the
interviewer
ii. Language barrier in case of difference in ethnic backgrounds and languages
iii. The interviewer may be inexperienced
iv. Interviews require careful training
v. Appointments may not be kept by either parties
vi. Time consuming
vii. costly
10.2.3 Focus groups discussions
A focus group could be defined as a group of interacting individuals having some common
interest or characteristics, brought together by a moderator, who uses the group and its
interaction as a way to gain information about a specific or focused issue. They are also called
group depth interviews. Social scientists and program evaluators find focus groups to be useful
in understanding how or why people hold certain beliefs about a topic or program of interest.
10.2.3.1 Uses of focus group discussions
a. Obtaining general background information about a topic of interest
69
b. General research hypothesis that can be submitted to further research and testing by other
approaches
c. Stimulate new ideas and creative concepts
d. Diagnosing potential for problems with new program, service or product
e. General impressions on an area of interest
f. Learn how respondents talk about phenomenon of interest
g. Interpreting initially obtained quantitative results
Advantages and disadvantages of interviews
Advantages
i. Data is collected much faster from respondents
ii. Less costly
iii. Allow researcher’s direct interaction with respondents
iv. Allows clarification of responses
v. Allows observation of nonverbal communication
vi. Allows collection of large and rich amounts of data
vii. Allows respondents to build and react on responses
viii. they are flexible and can be used for a wide range of topics
ix. Resulting data is easy to understand
Disadvantages
i. The selection of respondents may limit generalizability of the results
ii. The interaction between the researcher may lead to undesirable results
iii. the interaction with respondents may result to placing much faith in data which is
unwarranted
iv. Yields a lot of data which is difficult to summarize and interpret
v. The moderator may unknowingly or knowingly provide clues to the participants hence
introducing bias
10.2.4 Observation
Observation is another method where people can be observed in their natural work environment
or in lab setting, and their activities and behaviours or other items of interest can be noted and
recorded. Although a seemingly straight forward technique, the observation must be pursed in a
systematic way, following scientific rules, to ensure relevance and quantifiable data is obtained.
70
8.2.4.1 Advantages and disadvantages of observation
Advantages
i. They focus on verbal and non verbal behaviour
ii. Enable researcher to explain differences that occur in mannerisms since they take place
over time.
iii. Provide deeper and more insightful data
iv. Enable the study of behavior which other forms of methods cannot
v. Observation is mostly done by qualified persons as opposed to other methods
Disadvantages
i. Possible effects of observer bias
ii. the researcher may go native or over identify with the participants
iii. Replication of data since hey lack structure
iv. Data collected is difficult to quantify
v. There are ethical concerns in observation since informing the respondents may influence
the results while informed consent is required by ethics
vi. Researcher has little control over the variables in the setting
vii. Cannot be used for large populations
10.3 Pre-Testing
It refers to the testing of one’s instruments with participants who match the participants to be
involved in the actual study. Pre-testing serves the following purpose:
a. Ensures consistency of the understanding of the questions asked among the respondents.
b. Pre-testing of the instrument enables the researcher to assess the clarity of the instrument
and its ease of use hence allows errors to be discovered
c. Acting as a tool from training a research team before the actual collection of data begins.
10.4 Reliability and Validity
The two essential characteristics of research designs, in terms of the arrangement of conditions
that ensures relevance to the research purpose and accuracy of result, are:-
i) Reliability
ii) Validity
Reliability and validity refers to the quality or trustworthiness of data. Qualitative researchers
should be concerned about validity and reliability while designing study, analyzing the results
71
and judging the quality of the study. Reliability is concerned with the consistency of findings.
This means that in a reliable study the same results/finding would be realized if the study was to
be repeated. Validity on the other hand focuses on the appropriateness of the study scale or the
instrument in assessing what the study is to measure.
10.4.1 Reliability
Reliability refers to the consistency or accuracy of the research instrument, in measuring
whatever it measures. It is a measure of the degree to which a research instrument yields
consistent/similar results or data after repeated trials. i.e. if one instrument is used each day to
measure different set of data the results should remain the same. The instrument should be
understandable to all the respondents.
Reliability is influenced by random error or systematic error. . Statistically, or in any
measurement process, theory assumes that there is an ‘error’ contained in all forms of
measurements.
An observation score can be seen as consisting of two parts,
Namely: - the individual’s ‘true score’ and, an ‘error score’, which is due to the inaccuracy in
measurement.
‘True score’ + ‘error’ = ‘observation score’
Reliability is related to these. If scores have large error components, then reliability is low, but if
there is little error in the scores, then reliability is high. Reliability is a statistical concept based
on the association between two sets of scores representing the measurement of individuals on
two different occasions. Results that are unreliable cannot permit validity hence instruments
must be reliable to permit valid results.
Causes of instrument unreliability
(a) Fatigue on the part of the researcher and respondent if either is tied the data collection
process will be affected.
(b) Bias-both respondent and researcher
(c) Research instruments- are very important in capturing introduction required so as to give
results. Results aspired must be accurate, testable, and consistent with theories hence
need for reliability and validity.
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10.4.2 Validity
Validity refers to the extent to which a measurement does what it is supposed to do. Validity may
be determined by use of well-devised research designs which: -
1) Provides a good strategy for the hypothesis (es) or answering research questions.
2) This means an adequate plan of procedures for data collection and analysis that should
be undertaken to evaluate a particular theoretical perspective: accurately and
purposefully.
Internal validity of a study depends on the degree to which extraneous variables have been
controlled in the study. There are two methods of controlling extranets variables
1. Make assumption that all other factors are constant and are not going to affect our study.
2. Take all the variables deal with them and in data analysis use multiple liner regression
analysis that is research will use both correlation between all the variables and in linear
regression you know the extent to which each one of them influence the study. Clearly state
clearly the influence of each factor on the subject under study.
Factors that hinder internal validity include:
(i) Subject characteristics- Subjects or individuals will differ in terms of age, gender, strength,
maturity, ethnicity, intelligence, maturity, social economic status, religious beliefs, reading
ability, attitudes among others. Therefore, it would be important to capture the background
information of the respondents e.g, if age affects important factor have age groups and make
analysis based on age groups.
(ii) Location-The particular locations in which data is collected, (will affect) may create
alternative explanation for results, views from people in different locations have influence
because of the surrounding environment.
(iii)Instrumentation-Questionnaire, interview schedule have issues these include
a. The use of one instrument throughout, if you are using one instrument and you change to
another in the middle of collection it would negatively influence the internal validity,
b. Data collection characteristics e.g. gender, ethnicity, factors/attributes
c. Data collection bias-Collectors mind fixed in one direction and you want to fix it in one
direction. Don’t change any data
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d. Testing-when testing instruments of data collection don’t go to the same group leave
them out in the final study because they might take the question for granted and fail to
give the interest necessary.
e. History-unplanned/unexpected results that will interfere with the instruments of data
collection-may have a negative effect on the respondents they may loose the interest on
the questionnaire-Plan for unexpected results get in touch with the respondent
immediately.
Minimizing threats to validity
(i) Standardize conditions under which the study will occur. This means controlling the location,
instrumentation and always remain even as a researcher.
(ii) Obtain more introductions on the subjects of the study. This would control subject
characteristics and the issue of maturation.
(iii)Obtain more information on the details of the study-where and when will the study take
place, Are there outside factors that will influence the study? This will control the issue of
instrumentation, history and implementation/data collector threats.
(iv) Choose an appropriate design- implementer threats, testing and history.
External validity
External validity refers to the degree to which research findings can be generalized to
populations and environments outside the experimental setting. Generalizations to other
populations cannot take place. Research enables generalization of the findings; the results
applicable to other similar areas and can be used for generalization. If it does not allow
generalization, it suffers external validity and are not externally valid.
Threats to external validity include:
(a) Accessible and target population.
(b) Universal population
(c) Target population
(d) Accessible population
Accessible population and target population should have similar characteristics. Before
narrowing down to accessible population they should have similar characteristics with target
population.
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10.5 References
Mugenda, O. M. and Mugenda, A.G. (2003): Research methods. Quantitative and qualitative
Approaches. Nairobi: Acts.
Bryman, A. (2001). Social research methods. Great Britain: Oxford University Press.
.
Mugenda, A.G. (2008). Social science research: Theory and principles. Nairobi: Applied Research and
Training services.
Robson, C. (2002). Real world research (2nd Ed.). Cornwall, United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing.
Sekaran, U. (2003). Research methods: A skill building approach (4th Ed.). Illinois University, USA: John
Wiley and Sons Ltd.
10.6 Activity
Develop data collection tools and carry out questionnaire pre-test.
10.7 Read assignment

Methods of checking for reliability and validity of a questionnaire

1. What factors determine the choice of each of the following data collection tools: interview,
questionnaire, focus group discussions, and observations?
2. What are the factors considered in the construction of a questionnaire?
3. Explain the relevance of a transmittal letter.
4. Discuss the factors that are likely to affect the validity and reliability of your research
design? How would these challenges be overcome?
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WEEK 11: RESEARCH ETHICS
11.0 Introduction
This chapter discusses the place of ethics in research and how it affects the behavior of different
stakeholders.
1. By the end of this lesson the learner should be able to
2. Explain the relevance of ethics in research
3. Explain ethical expectations of different staholders
11.2 Ethics
Ethics are norms and standards of behaviour that guide moral choices about our behaviour and
our relationship with others. Ethics differ from legal constraints, in which generally accepted
standards have defined penalties that are universally enforced. The goal of ethics in research is to
ensure that no one is harmed or suffers adverse consequences from research activities.
11.3 Ethical considerations in research
As the research is designed, several ethical considerations must be balanced e.g.
 Protect the rights of the participant or subject
 Ensure the sponsor receives ethically conducted and reported research
 Follow ethical standards when designing research
 Protect the safety of the researcher and team
 Ensure the research team follows the design
1. Ethical treatment of participants

In general, the research must be designed in such a manner that the respondent does not suffer
physical harm, discomfort, pain, embarrassment or loss to privacy. To safeguard against these,
the researcher should follow the following guidelines:
 Explain the study benefits
 Obtain informed consent.
 Explain respondents rights and protection
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a. Benefits
Whenever direct contact is made with a respondent, the researcher should discuss the study
benefits, being careful to neither overstate nor understate the benefits. An interviewer should
begin an introduction with his or her name, the name of the research organization and a brief
description of the purpose and benefits of the research. This puts the respondent at ease, lets
them know to whom they are speaking and motivates them to answer questions truthfully.
Inducements to participate, financial or otherwise, should not be disproportionate to the task or
presented in a fashion that results in coercion.
Deception occurs when the respondents are told only part of the truth or when the truth is fully
compromised. The benefits to be gained by deception should be balanced against the risks to the
respondents. When possible, an experiment or interview should be designed to reduce reliance of
deception. In addition, the respondent’s rights and well being must be adequately protected. In
instances where deception in an experiment could produce anxiety, a subject’s medical condition
should be checked to ensure that no adverse physical harm follows.
b. Informed consent
Securing informed consent from respondents is a matter of fully disclosing the procedures of the
proposed survey or other research design before requesting permission to proceed with the study.
There are exemptions that argue for a signed consent form. When dealing with children, it is
wise to have a parent or other person with legal standing sign a consent form. If the researchers
offer only limited protection of confidentiality, a signed form detailing the types of limits should
be obtained. For most business research oral consent is sufficient.
In situations where respondents are intentionally or accidentally deceived, they should be
debriefed once the research is complete. Debriefing involved several activities following the
collection of data e.g.
 Explanation of any deception.
 Description of the hypothesis, goal or purpose of the study.
 Post study sharing of results.
 Post study follow-up medical or psychological attention.
According to Neuman and Wiegand (2000), a full blown consent statement would contain the
following:-
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 A brief description of the purpose and procedure of the research, including the expected
duration.
 A statement of any risks, discomforts or inconveniences associated with participation.
 A guarantee of anonymity or at least confidentiality, and an explanation of both.
 The identification, affiliation and sponsorship of the research as well as contact
information.
 A statement that participation is completely voluntary and can be terminated at any time
without penalty
 A statement of any procedures that may be used.
 A statement of any benefits to the class of subjects involved.
 An offer to provide a free copy of a summary of the findings.
c. Rights to privacy
All individuals have a right to privacy and researchers must respect that right. The privacy
guarantee is important not only to retain validity of the research but also to protect respondents.
Once the guarantee of confidentiality is given, protecting that confidentiality is essential. The
researcher can protect respondent’s confidentiality in several ways, which include;
 Obtaining signed non-disclosure documents
 Restricting access to respondent’s identification.
 Revealing respondents information only with written consent.
 Restricting access to data instruments where the respondent is identified.
 Non-disclosure of data subsets.
Researchers should restrict access to information that reveals names, telephone numbers, address
or other identifying features. Only researchers who have signed non-disclosure, confidentiality
forms should be allowed access to the data. Links between the data or database and the
identifying information file should be weakened. Individual interview response sheets should be
inaccessible to everyone except the editors and data entry personnel.
Occasionally, data collection instruments should be destroyed once the data are in a data file.
Data files that make it easy to reconstruct the profiles or identification of individual respondents
should be carefully controlled. For very small groups, data should not be made available because
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it is often easy to pinpoint a person within the group. Employee satisfaction survey feedback in
small units can be easily used to identify an individual through descriptive statistics.
Privacy is more than confidentiality. A right to privacy means one has the right to refuse to be
interviewed or to refuse to answer any question in an interview. Potential participants have a
right to privacy in their own homes, including not admitting researchers and not answering
telephones. They have the right to engage in private behaviour in private places without fear of
observation. To address these rights, ethical researchers can do the following:-
 Inform respondents of their right to refuse to answer any questions or participate in the study.
 Obtain permission to interview respondents.
 Schedule field and phone interviewers.
 Limit the time required for participation.
 Restrict observation to public behaviour only.
2. Ethics and the sponsor

There are ethical considerations to keep n mind when dealing with the research client or sponsor.
Whether undertaking product, market, personnel, financial or other research, a sponsor has the
right to receive ethically conducted research.
a. Confidentiality
Sponsors have a right to several types of confidentiality including sponsor non disclosure,
purpose non disclosure and findings non disclosure.
i. Sponsor non disclosure: companies have a right to dissociate themselves from the
sponsorship of a research project. Due t sensitive nature of the management dilemma or
the research question, sponsors may hire an outside consulting or research firm to
complete research project. This is often done when a company is testing a new product
idea, to avoid potential consumers from being influenced by the company’s current image
or industry standing. If a company is contemplating entering a new market, it may not
wish to reveal it s plans to competitors. In such cases, it is responsibility of the researcher
to respect this desire and device a plan to safeguard the identity of the sponsor.
ii. Purpose non disclosure: it involves protecting the purpose of the study or its details. A
research sponsor may be testing a new idea that is not yet patented and may not want the
competitor to know his plans. It may be investigating employee complaints and may not
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want to spark union activity. The sponsor might also be contemplating a new public stock
offering, where advance disclosure would spark the interest of authorities or cost the firm
thousands of shillings.
iii. Findings non disclosure: if a sponsor feels no need to hide its identity of the study’s
purpose, most sponsors want research data and findings to be confidential, at least until
the management decision is made.
b. Rights to quality research
The arrangement and resources allocated will be used for the collection of high quality and
accurate data. Arrangements proposed by the work should b consistent to government rules and
regulation. Intellectual property rights and their management are appropriately addressed in
research contracts or grants award the awardees are accountable to the organization offering
grants.
4. Ethical issues in social research summarized

1. Voluntary participation. No respondent should be forced and participate in the study.
2. Seek all the necessary authorization from the respondents and/or the organizations the
respondents are drawn.
3. Withholding information about the true nature of the research. In the introducing remarks let
respondents know the purpose of the study.
4. Deceiving the respondents; Be truthful to respondents as you give introduction about affect
research.
5. Inducing participants to commit acts that demean their self esteem. It should respect the
respondents dignity.
6. Exposing participants to physical or mental stress. No harm to participants
7. Intuition on privacy. Information sought should not intrude the privacy of the respondents.
8. Holding benefits from your participants. If there are any benefits to the participants it should
be known and be given to the respondents. All respondents should be given equal treatment
in terms of the benefits offered.
9. Not treating participants fairly or with considerable respect; respect respondents.
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10. Maintaining confidentiality and limits of confidentiality. If the study deals with confidential
information all information should be treated with confidentiality and be used for the
purpose of the study only.
11. Analysis and reporting-make the short comings of our research and findings known to our
reader.
12. Maintenance of high level of integrity in the entire research process to ensure quality
throughout the research process.
13. Preferring and ownership of data recorded.
11.5 References
Mwiria, K, and Wamahiu, P.S. (1995). Issues in Educational Research in Africa. Nairobi:
EAEP.
Mugenda, O. M. and Mugenda, A.G. (2003): Research methods. Quantitative and qualitative
Approaches. Nairobi: Acts.
Which ethical issues would you observe in your research study?
What is the place of ethics in research?
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WEEK 12: DATA ANALYSIS AND REPORT WRITING
This chapter defines data analysis and outlines the steps and procedures of data analysis.
12.1 Learning outcomes
1. Explain data analysis procedures
2. Describe what is data analysis
3. Explain the importance of data analysis
12.2 Description of data analysis and definition
Social research results in data in many forms. Data refers to facts that have been collected which
are independent of values but since the researcher value system is inherent in the observation, it
cannot be independent. Other definition of data results:
a. Interpretations placed on observations by researchers/social scientists.
b. Something collected and analyzed in order to arrive at conclusions.
It cannot be useful unless it is put into a useful format; that is, it is transformed into information.
Information is data put in a form that can b interpreted. To change data into information, data is
transformed from unstructured to structured format. Data analysis is the process that starts at the
completion of data collection.
12.3 Importance of data analysis
As discussed in earlier, different data collection methods yield different forms of data. Data
analysis results in the description of a phenomenon, explain patterns or relationship between
variable. Through data analysis, the characteristics of the population can be estimated.
The analysis of quantitative data varies from that used to analyze qualitative data.
12.4 Steps in Quantitative Data Analysis
Upon completing data collection process, the next step is data analysis. This process follows a
number of steps
1. Data grouping; once all the data has been collected, the researcher needs to separate
different data sets, that is where different data collection tools were used in the collection
of data. This ensures that similar sets of questionnaires, observation schedules or notes
taken in interviews are put together.
2. Data cleaning or data editing: this step ensures completeness of questionnaires and
consistency of the responses.
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a. Completeness: To check for completeness the researcher picks out the incomplete
questionnaires. the criteria used in determining which questionnaires are complete and
which ones are incomplete is whether the respondents answered questions in the
questionnaire that provide information related to a research objective. Any questionnaire
which has responses to questions directly linked to the research objectives must be
included in the study even if no all questions have been answered. On the contrary,
questionnaires where respondents have provided background information and have not
answered any questions linked to the research objectives should be excluded.
b. To check for consistency; This term is used to refer to the truthfulness or accuracy of the
data the researcher reads through the respondents answers to weed out any conflicting
information provided by the respondents. For instance a question is asked of the class
three pupils in a given study where responses were given in a classroom setting and they
were not assisted to provide answers. The pupils were asked whether they know how
Kenya International Conference Center (KICC) looks with the options yes or no. The
second question is to describe how it looks. If a pupil answers no and gives an accurate
description of KICC, it means the first answer is wrong you are at liberty to change it to
yes, this is because it is more likely for respondents to provide inaccurate information in
closed ended questions than in open ended questions.
3. Data Coding: This refers to the process of assigning discrete numeric values to different
answers/choices to each question in the questionnaire. For instance a question asking the
gender of the respondents; Male can be assigned 1 and female 2. When this is entered to
the statistical software it will always interpret 1 to be able and 2 to be female. This makes
data entry easy, instead of typing male one just type in the figure 1.
4. Data entry: this is where the data is input in to the computer using statistical software.
Excel can be used in basic analysis of data as it can enable sorting of data.
5. Data processing: this refers to the process of carrying out different statistical tests that
the researchers so desires based on the already entered data. This is dependent on the
study objectives. This results in the generation of results which are then presented in
tables and figures/graphs.
6. Once the data has been presented in tables and figures the next steps the researcher takes
is to present the data in an organized manner; report writing. The researcher gives
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sub-headings to questions a they were organized in the data collection tools. The
researcher gives the data inform of narratives/in sentences gives contextual interpretation
and gives support from literature review. Presentation and interpretation. This step will
finally lead to drawing conclusions and making recommendations.
Example:
Gender
In relation to gender of the respondents, the results presented in figure 1 show 64% of the
respondents were female while 36% were male. These findings mean that there were more males
than female students in ST Paul’s University. This implies that there were more female students
in private universities in Kenya. This finding is in line with Kaswende’s (2010) findings in a
study conducted in three selected private universities which showed that 57% of the student
population was female.
Female , 36,
36%
Male , 64%
Figure 1 Gender
From the example the first sentence refers the reader to the figure, give the data presentation. The
second sentence gives interpretation based on where the data was collected and followed by
industry/sector analysis and finally scholarly support by citing what other scholars have written
on the concepts under study.
Another example;
Data analysis
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Response to a query on how to analyze likert scale questions
Sample example
What is your level of agreement on the following statement
Statements Very little Little Average Large Very

extent (1) extent (3) extent large
(2) (4) extent
(5)
1. The rewards I receive motivate
me to work harder
Assume those are the two questions and here are the results
If you used your presentation will look like this
4.5 Effects of rewards on Motivation
This study sought to find out the effect of rewards on employee motivation. The findings are
presented in table 4.7
Table 4.7 Effects of rewards and employee performance

The rewards I receive motivate me to work harder Frequency Percent
Very little extent 1 5.0
Little extent 1 5.0
Average 3 15.0
Large extent 5 25.0
Very large extent 8 40.0
No response 1 5.0
Total 20 100.0
Mean 3.78
From the findings presented in table 4.7, 40% (8) gave a very large extent response followed by
25.0% (5) who gave a large extent response. Average rating was reported by 15.0% (3) of the
respondents while little extent and very little extent had an equal response off 5.0% (1). From
these findings it is evident that most of the respondents at least gave a large extent response. The
resulting mean was 3.78 which ranges between average (3) and very large extent (4) but tends
towards large extent (4). This means that the rewards received motivated employees in XYZ
company Limited to a large extent. This implies that the rewards offered to employees at XYZ
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company Ltd were commensurate to the job done. These finding are in line with the argument by
Kottler and Keller (2013) that rewards yield motivation to employees when they are aligned to
the jobs done. This argument was made in the backdrop on analysis of effect of rewards
alignment on employee performance.
1. Conclusion and recommendations: From report writing conclusion and

recommendations can be drawn which is the last step in research. conclusions refers to
the generalizations that the researcher makes from the study findings which should be
based on the research objectives while recommendations presents the course of actions
that should be taken to remedy the conclusion events/status. This is the point where
answers the research objectives are provided in form of conclusions and recommended
courses of action provided.
Example:
Conclusion: there are more female than male students in private universities in Kenya
Recommendations: Emphasis of equal education opportunity to both genders; male and female
children.
Note that:
step 3,4, and 5 are computer-aided with the use of statistical software such as SPSS, STATA
among others
Presentation and interpretation of study results from chapter four of your report while
conclusions and recommendations form chapter five.
11.5 Quantitative Data Analysis
Contrary to quantitative data analysis, qualitative data which come in form of narrations and
descriptions are analyzed based on the emerging themes. To do this the data analyst reads
through the responses given and counts the number of times some themes have been raised. This
are put down in form of narrations/in sentences but percentages can be attached on how many
respondents mention the same theme. For instance a question on the reasons for the choice of St
Paul’s University by first year E-learners: quality of education, and Christian affiliation ma e
among the many themes that would arise the analyst can count the number of times these themes
are mentioned and calculate the percentage. In the analysis the researcher should give details to
every explanation. Ensure that no explanations should be left out.
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Example:
11.6 data analysis and report compilation
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF
FINDINGS
This section includes a summary of the research findings obtained after data analysis as per
specific topics or hypotheses. Results should be interpreted as they are presented to avoid
repetition and maintain conciseness. The best method of organizing the findings is to follow the
research questions or hypotheses systematically. For example, after a brief introduction of the
section, you state the first research question/hypothesis as it appears in section 1 and then you
present all the findings pertinent to the question or hypothesis. This same technique is then
repeated for each question or hypothesis immediately before describing the results. You can use
tables and figures to summarize the information. You could easily and quickly use computers
and relevant statistical packages to analyze the data.
Now we come to the really challenging part of the findings: when presenting the results, give all
the evidence relevant to the research objectives and questions: (if any). In Quantitative research,
you are sometimes expected to test hypotheses stating whether each hypothesis is supported by
the data or not. You should begin this section with a short introduction describing the general
procedures followed in data analysis, as well as the objectives or hypotheses of the study.
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This is usually the last chapter in academic reports. In which the researcher has the opportunity
to summarize the processes of study undertaken the major findings of the study conclude and
make recommendations based on the study findings. A summary of a research is in many ways
similar to an abstract, hence must reflect as accurately as possible the body of your report.
11.8 Activity
Analyze data collected and compile your research report and prepare to for presentation. Data
analysis should be carried out using statistical software such as SPSS, Stata among others.
11.9 References
Hall, R. (2008). Applied social research: Planning, designing and conducting real-world
research. Australia: McMillan Education.
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Hatch. A. J. (2010). Doing a qualitative research in education settings. New York: sunny Press.
Blaikie, N. (2003). Analyzing quantitative data: From description to explanation. London: Sage
Publications.
11.9 Reflection Questions

1. Justify the need for data analysis
2. Describe steps taken in the analysis of quantitative data.
3. Explain the variations between quantitative data analysis and qualitative data analysis.
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APPENDIX I: GUIDELINE ON PROPOSAL WRITING
Preliminary Pages
before chapter one there are preliminary pages. They include cover page, declaration,
acknowledgement, dedication, table of contents, list of tables, list of figures, list of
abbreviations and acronyms, and the abstract.
Cover page
Declaration
Acknowledgement
In this sub-section, the researcher expressed gratitude to those people who have significantly
contributed to the completion of the study by name such as donors, professional colleagues,
supervisors, institutions of affiliation, research assistants and all the respondents collectively.
Make a general statement to recognize all contributors. Keep this section as short as possible.
Dedication
Dedications are especially common in academic research reports [thesis, dissertations]. Some
researchers dedicate their work, to a person(s) they consider special in their lives. You could do
the same to a person of your choice for example a spouse, children, parents or very dear friends.
Sometimes the author may give a reason for the dedication.
Table of contents
It should be computer generated. It gives the exact location of various contents of the proposal.
The same applies to the list of tables and figures
List of tables
List of figures
List of abbreviations and acronyms
Acronyms are words with English meaning which are used to refer to other things other than the
meaning of the word e.g the Parents it is both a magazine and refers to fathers and mothers.
While abbreviations are words that can be represented by initials e.g SPU to mean St Paul’s
University
Abstract
It should enable the reader to determine the problem of the study, the purpose of the study the
population studied, and methods of a data collection and analysis.
Note: in the final report: it should contain the major findings and recommendations
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References come at the end of chapter three before the appendices. Contents of appendices
include : Introduction letter, questionnaire, interview guide, proposed action plan, budget
estimate
Each of them is presented in a new page and carried appendix number and title as follows:
Appendix 1: Introduction letter
Appendix 2: questionnaire
Appendix 3: interview guide
Note:
1. Preliminary pages are number in roman numbers i, ii, iii …. Starting from declaration at
ii. Cover page is not numbered while chapter one are numbered 1,2,3 starting from 1.
2. Each content of a preliminary pages and appendices start on a new page.
3. Each chapter carries chapter number and chapter title e. g. chapter one: introduction and
background to the study
4. All contents should follow as they appear in the guide above.
5. Referencing and format should conform to the APA format.
6. All chapters must have an introduction and summary
7. all the section in chapters one to three are written in proper paragraphs except research
objective, research questions, assumptions of the study, and limitations and delimitations
which are numbered using 1,2,3 form of numbering.
8. In the definition of key terms, each term and its definition is presented in its own
paragraph.
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Background of the study
1.3 Profile of study location
1.4 statement of problem
1.5 purpose of the study
1.6 objectives of the study
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1.7 research questions
1.8 justification/rationale of the study
1.9 significances of the study
1.10 assumptions of the study
1.11 Limitations and delimitations of the study
1.12 Scope of the study
1.13 Definition of terms
1.14 Summary
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
10.8Introduction
10.9Resource allocation and project implementation
10.10 Objective derived two title
10.11 Objective derived three title
10.12 Objective three derived title
10.13 Theoretical orientation (presents two to three theories related to the study)
10.14 Theoretical framework. (Has all the components except empirical literature )
10.15 Summary
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Research design
3.3 Population
3.4 Sample size
3.5 Sampling method
3.6 Data collection method
3.7 pre-test of data collection instruments
3.8 data collection
3.9 Data analysis and presentation techniques
3.10 Ethical considerations in this research
3.11 Summary
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APPENDICES
Appendix one: questionnaire
Appendix three: interview guide
Appendix four: time plan
appendix five: budget
GUIDELINES ON CHAPTER THREE CONTENT

Research Methodology
Chapter three’s title is research methodology. Research methodology framework is used in
research to outline possible courses of action or preferred approach to an idea and/or thought. It
is dictated by the nature of the data needed to answer the research questions. It covers study
design, target population, sample size, the sampling method, data collection method, pre-test of
data collection instruments, data collection, data analysis and presentation techniques, and the
ethical considerations in this research.
Research design
Research design constitutes the blue brand for the collection and analysis of data processing. The
researcher identifies the procedure and techniques that will be used in the collection, processing
and analysis of data. Indicate the type of research to be adopted in the investigation e.g. survey,
case, and experimental study. Justify why you choose the type of research and explain the type of
research. (see to chapter two)
Population
The population is where the sample is to be drawn. It is important for the researcher to give
reasons for the choice of a specific population and its’ general contribution towards the
achievement of the research objective and purpose target population (workers, management and
customers). Take time and describe the characteristic of the subjects interns of age, education
etc. the numbers must be provided (see chapter six)
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Sample Size
Give the percentage of target population/accessible population or population to be selected as
study sample (see chapter six)
Sampling procedure
Provide a detailed explanation of the subjects to be involved in the investigation and how these
are to be selected from the target population. The researcher at this time discusses about the size
of the sample and indicates clearly how that sample will be selected. It is also important to justify
for the choice of the sampling technique proposed ((see chapter six)
Data collection Tools/techniques/instruments

These are the tools of collection data. The techniques that would be used for the collection of
data should be described in detail. These are methods (questionnaire, interview, observation, and
focus ground discussion). The choice of any instrument proposed should be justified (give
reasons for using). Each instrument should be described in details indicating the structure of the
instrument and the kind of information that will be gathered using specific instrument. It’s also
important for the researcher to propose methods of validating the instrument selected. (see
chapter seven)
Data collection procedure

This section gives a step by step account on how the data will be collected starting from the point
the questionnaire is ready or interview guide/observation schedule is ready to the time the filled
questionnaires or interview notes are availed. Give a narration of each activity you will do and if
you will engage research assistants explain their engagement, training and supervision until the
completion of data collection process.
Questionnaire Pretest
This section explains the need for pre]testing, how many questionnaires will be pre tested with
whom and details how the results will be used. (see chapter seven)
93
Ethical considerations
In every study, there are ethical concerns that the researcher observes. In this section you are
expected to discuss the ethical issues you will observe in your study. (see chapter eight)
Data analysis and presentation

The objective of this section is to describe how data collected and analysis and propose methods
of analysis should be describe in details, again justifying for the choice made and the forms of
data presentation which are mainly in narrative, tables and figures. (see chapter nine)
94

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Private Bag 00217 LIMURU, KENYA Tel Office: +254 (0)20 – 2020505/10

Email: distancelearning@spu.ac.ke Mobile: +254 (0)728 - 669000

Website: www.spu.ac.ke (0)736 - 424440

ST. PAUL’S UNIVERSITY

SPU Distance Learning Course Handbook

FSS 315: RESEARCH METHODS AND

SPU Distance & E - Learning Program

Check appendix for the guidelines on CAT II

Ngechu, M. (2006).Understanding the research process and methods. Nairobi: Nairobi

Peter, C. B. (2008) (reprint). A Guide to Academic Writing. Eldoret: Zapf Chancery.

2.2 Research process

These characteristics can be summarized as follows:

 Purpose is clearly defined

 Research process is detailed and systematic

Ngechu, M. (2006).Understanding the research process and methods. Nairobi: Nairobi

Peter, C. B. (2008) (reprint). A Guide to Academic Writing. Eldoret: Zapf Chancery.

2.5 Reflections Questions

3.1 Learning objective

A research problem exists if the following conditions are met:

3.3 Identifying a Research Problem

3.5 Problem Formulation

3.9 Reflection questions

4.2 Components of chapter one

Objectives should start with:

4.7 Research question

Question should start with:

4.9 Justification/rationale of the study

4.11 Assumptions of the Study

Limitations common in social studies is relating to;

4.13 Scope of the Study

5.1 Literature Review Defined

5.2 Types of data and their sources

Advantages and disadvantages of secondary data

The seven types of research literature addressed here are:

Meta-analysis is different from meta-synthesis since meta-analysis is a way of testing a

5.4 Purpose of literature review

4. Extraneous variables/confounding variables

5.8 Theoretical framework

Needs assessment, Efficient absorption of

Features to be incorporated in any Theoretical Framework

1. To determine the effect of resource allocation in project implementation among CBOS in

University of wilconsin, Masdison. (2015). Types of literature review. Available at

7.2.1 Classification by approach

Advantages of quantitative research

Advantages of using both qualitative and quantitative methods

The use of correlation statistics is designed to provide two measures namely:

How to conduct evaluation studies

iii. Participatory evaluation:

7.2.4 Classification by type

Distinguishing Characteristics of the Major Research Methods/Procedures

2.3 Research Designs

2.4 Distinguishing Characteristics of the Major Research Methods/Procedures

Method Source of Data Research Methodology Typical Purposes Typical

7.5 Reflection Questions

8.3 Sample and sample size

8.5.1 Probability sampling

Steps involved in stratified sampling

Advantages of Stratified sampling

8.5.2 Non probability sampling

Odama, O. (2014). Sampling methods in social research. Available at

8.7 Reflection questions

Advantages of matrix questions

Rules for constructing questionnaires and questionnaire items

Tips on how to organize or order items in a questionnaire