1

The motion of an object is called two dimensional, if two of the Oblique Projectile
three co-ordinates required to specify the position of the object in space,
In projectile motion, horizontal component of velocity (u cosq),
change w.r.t time.
acceleration (g) and mechanical energy remains constant while, speed,
In such a motion, the object moves in a plane. For example, a velocity, vertical component of velocity (u sin q), momentum, kinetic
billiard ball moving over the billiard table, an insect crawling over energy and potential energy all changes. Velocity, and KE are
the floor of a room, earth revolving around the sun etc. maximum at the point of projection while minimum (but not zero) at
Two special cases of motion in two dimension are highest point.

1. Projectile motion 2. Circular motion (1) Equation of trajectory : A projectile is thrown with velocity
u at an angle q with the horizontal. The velocity u can be resolved into
Projectile two rectangular components.
A body which is in flight through the atmosphere under the Y
effect of gravity alone and is not being propelled by any fuel is called
projectile. P
x
Example: u y
(i) A bomb released from an aeroplane in level flight u sin q
q
(ii) A bullet fired from a gun O u cos q X
(iii) An arrow released from bow
(iv) A Javelin thrown by an athlete v cos q component along X–axis and u sin q component along
Y–axis.
Assumptions of Projectile Motion
x
(1) There is no resistance due to air. For horizontal motion x = u cosq ´ t Þ t = … (i)
u cos q
(2) The effect due to curvature of earth is negligible. 1 2
For vertical motion y = (u sinq ) t - gt …(ii)
(3) The effect due to rotation of earth is negligible. 2
(4) For all points of the trajectory, the acceleration due to gravity From equation (i) and (ii)
‘g’ is constant in magnitude and direction. æ x ö 1 æ x2 ö
y = u sinq çç ÷÷ - g ç ÷
ç ÷
è u cos q
2 2
Principle of Physical Independence of Motions ø 2 è u cos q ø
(1) The motion of a projectile is a two-dimensional motion. So, it 1 gx 2
y = x tanq -
can be discussed in two parts. Horizontal motion and vertical motion. 2 u cos 2 q
2

These two motions take place independent of each other. This is called
the principle of physical independence of motions.
(2) The velocity of the particle can be resolved into two mutually
perpendicular components. Horizontal component and vertical
component.
This equation shows that the trajectory of projectile is parabolic
because it is similar to equation of parabola
y = ax – bx2
Note : q Equation of oblique projectile also can be written as

(3) The horizontal component remains unchanged throughout the u 2 sin 2q

é xù
flight. The force of gravity continuously affects the vertical component. y = x tanq ê1 - ú (where R = horizontal range = )
ë Rû g
(4) The horizontal motion is a uniform motion and the vertical !
motion is a uniformly accelerated or retarded motion. (2) Displacement of projectile (r) : Let the particle acquires a
position P having the coordinates (x, y) just after time t from the instant
Types of Projectile Motion of projection. The corresponding position vector of the particle at time t
(1) Oblique projectile motion
!
is r as shown in the figure. Y
(2) Horizontal projectile motion
P (x, y)
(3) Projectile motion on an inclined plane
a
y
Y X q
f
X
O x
vi
q
X !
Y r = xˆi + yˆj …(i)
Y
The horizontal distance covered during time t is given as
X
x = v x t Þ x = u cos q t …(ii)

q The vertical velocity of the particle at time t is given as

v y = (v 0 )y - gt, …(iii)

Now the vertical displacement y is given as

 2

y = u sinq t - 1 /2 gt 2 …(iv) Final velocity (at highest point) u f = u cosq ˆi + 0 ˆj

Putting the values of x and y from equation (ii) and equation (iv) (i) Change in velocity (Between projection point and highest
in equation (i) we obtain the position vector at any time t as !
point) Du = u f - u i = -u sinq ˆj
! æ 1 ö
r = (u cos q ) t ˆi + ç (u sinq ) t - gt 2 ÷ ˆj When body reaches the ground after completing its motion then
è 2 ø
final velocity u f = u cos q iˆ - u sin q ˆj
2
Þ r = (u t cos q )2 + æç (u t sinq ) - gt 2 ö÷
1
(ii) Change in velocity (Between complete projectile motion)
è 2 ø !
Du = u f - ui = -2u sinq ˆi
2
æ gt ö gt sinq
r = ut 1+ ç ÷ - and f = tan -1 (y /x ) (5) Change in momentum : Simply by the multiplication of mass
è 2u ø u
in the above expression of velocity (Article-4).
æ 1 2ö (i) Change in momentum (Between projection point and highest
ç ut sinq - gt ÷
÷ or f = tan -1 ç 2u sinq - gt ÷
-1 ç 2 æ ö !
= tan ç 2u cos q ÷ point) Dp = p f - p i = - mu sinq ˆj
ç (u t cos q ) ÷ è ø
ç ÷
è ø
(ii) Change in momentum (For the complete projectile motion)
Note : q The angle of elevation f of the highest point of the !
Dp = p f - p i = - 2mu sinq ˆj
projectile and the angle of projection q are related to each other as (6) Angular momentum : Angular momentum of projectile at
1 highest point of trajectory about the point of projection is given by
tan f = tanq Y
2 é u 2 sin2 q ù
L = mvr êHere r = H = ú
ëê 2g ûú

u u 2 sin2 q m u 3 cosq sin2 q

\ L = m u cosq =
q f
H 2g 2g
Y
O X
R
P = mv
(3) Instantaneous velocity v : In projectile motion, vertical
component of velocity changes but horizontal component of velocity u r
remains always constant. q X
O
Example : When a man jumps over the hurdle leaving behind its
skateboard then vertical component of his velocity is changing, but not (7) Time of flight : The total time taken by the projectile to go
the horizontal component which matches with the skateboard velocity. up and come down to the same level from which it was projected is
As a result, the skateboard stays underneath him, allowing him to land called time of flight.
on it. For vertical upward motion 0 = u sin q – gt
Þ t = (u sin q/g)
Now as time taken to go up is equal to the time taken to come
down so
2u sinq
Time of flight T = 2t =
g
2.u y
(i) Time of flight can also be expressed as : T = (where uy
g
Let vi be the instantaneous velocity of projectile at time t, is the vertical component of initial velocity).
direction of this velocity is along the tangent to the trajectory at point P. (ii) For complementary angles of projection q and 90o – q
! T1 2u sinq /g
vi = v x i + v y ˆj Þ vi = v x2 + v y2 (a) Ratio of time of flight = =
T2 2u sin(90 - q ) /g

= u 2 cos 2 q + (u sinq - gt)2 T1

= tanq Þ = tanq
T2
v i = u 2 + g 2 t 2 - 2u gt sinq 2u sinq 2u cosq
(b) Multiplication of time of flight = T1T2 =
g g
vy u sinq - gt
Direction of instantaneous velocity tana = =
vx u cosq 2R
Þ T1T2 =
g
é gt ù
or a = tan -1 ê tanq - secq ú (iii) If t1 is the time taken by projectile to rise upto point p and t2
ë u û is the time taken in falling from point p to ground level then
(4) Change in velocity : Initial velocity (at projection point) 2u sinq g(t1 + t 2 )
t1 + t2 = = time of flight or u sinq =
u i = u cosq ˆi + u sinq ˆj g 2
 3

Y
P (iii) For angle of projection q1 = (45 – a) and q2 = (45 + a),
t1
t2 range will be same and equal to u2 cos 2a/g.
h q1 and q2 are also the complementary angles.
X (iv) Maximum range : For range to be maximum
O
1 2
and height of the point p is given by h = u sinq t1 - gt1 dR d é u 2 sin 2q ù
2 =0 Þ ê ú =0
dq dq êë g ûú
(t1 + t2 ) 1
h=g t1 - gt12
2 2 Þ cos 2q = 0 i.e. 2q = 90o Þ q = 45o
g t1 t2 and Rmax = (u2/g)
by solving h =
2 i.e., a projectile will have maximum range when it is projected at
(iv) If B and C are at the same level on trajectory and the time an angle of 45o to the horizontal and the maximum range will be (u2/g).
difference between these two Y When the range is maximum, the height H reached by the
points is t1, similarly A and D are projectile Y
also at the same level and the t1
time difference between these h B C
t2
A D u
two positions is t2 then H
8h O X 45o
t22 - t12 = O Rmax = 4 H
g X
(8) Horizontal range : It is the horizontal distance travelled by a
body during the time of flight. u 2 sin 2 q u 2 sin 2 45 u 2 R max
H = = = =
So by using second equation of motion in x-direction 2g 2g 4g 4

R = u cos q ´ T Y
i.e., if a person can throw a projectile to a maximum distance
Rmax, The maximum height during the flight to which it will rise is
= u cos q ´ (2u sinq / g)
æ R max ö
u 2 sin 2q u çç 4 ÷÷ .
= è ø
g
q X (v) Relation between horizontal range and maximum height :
u 2 sin 2q O Horizontal range u 2 sin 2q u 2 sin2 q
R= R= and H =
g g 2g
(i) Range of projectile can also be expressed as :
R u 2 sin 2q /g
2u sinq \ = 2 = 4 cot q Þ R = 4H cotq
R = u cosq × T = u cos q H u sin2 q /2g
g
(vi) If in case of projectile motion range R is n times the
2 u cos q u sinq 2u x u y maximum height H
= =
g g
u 2 sin 2q u 2 sin2 q
i.e. R = nH Þ =n
2ux uy g 2g
\ R= (where ux and uy are the horizontal and vertical
g
Þ tanq = [4 /n] or q = tan-1[4 /n]
component of initial velocity)
(ii) If angle of projection is changed from q to q ¢ = (90 – q) then The angle of projection is given by q = tan-1[4 /n]
range remains unchanged. Note : q If R = H then q = tan -1 (4) or q = 76 o .

If R = 4H then q = tan-1(1) or q = 45 o .
60o
30o
Blast (9) Maximum height : It is the maximum height from the point
of projection, a projectile can reach. Y

So, by using v 2 = u 2 + 2as

0 = (u sinq )2 - 2gH u
Max. height

u 2 sin2 q q X
2 2
H =
u sin 2q ' u sin[2(90 - q )] u sin 2q
2 o 2g O
R'= = = =R
g g g (i) Maximum height can also be expressed as
So a projectile has same range at angles of projection q and (90 – uy2
H = (where u y is the vertical component of initial
q), though time of flight, maximum height and trajectories are different. 2g
These angles q and 90o – q are called complementary angles of velocity).
projection and for complementary angles of projection, ratio of range
u2
R1 u 2 sin 2q /g R1 (ii) H max = (when sin2q = max = 1 i.e., q = 90o)
= 2 o
=1 Þ =1 2g
R 2 u sin[2 (90 - q )] /g R2
 4

i.e., for maximum height body should be projected vertically x = x 1 - x 2 = (u1 cos q 1 - u 2 cos q 2 ) t
upward. So it falls back to the point of projection after reaching the
y = y 1 - y 2 = (u1 sinq 1 - u 2 sinq 2 ) t
maximum height.
(iii) For complementary angles of projection q and 90o – q y æ u1 sinq 1 - u 2 sinq 2 ö
Now =ç ÷ = constant
Ratio of maximum height x çè u1 cos q 1 - u 2 cos q 2 ÷ø
H1 u 2 sin2 q /2g sin2 q Thus motion of a projectile relative to another projectile is a straight
= = 2 = = tan2 q
2 o
H 2 u sin (90 - q ) /2g cos 2 q line.
H1 (12) Energy of projectile : When a projectile moves upward its
\ = tan 2 q kinetic energy decreases,
H2
potential energy increases but Y
(10) Projectile passing through two different points on same u cosq
the total energy always remain
height at time t1 and t2 : If the particle passes two points situated at u K¢ = Kcos2q
constant.
equal height y at t = t1 and t = t2 , then q
If a body is projected
1 K
(i) Height (y): y = (u sinq ) t1 - gt12 with initial kinetic energy X
…(i)
2 2
K(=1/2 mu ), with angle of
1 2 projection q with the horizontal then at the highest point of trajectory
and y = (u sinq ) t2 - gt2 …(ii)
2
Y
1 1
(i) Kinetic energy = m (u cos q )2 = mu 2 cos 2 q
2 2
t = t1 t = t2
u
\ K ' = K cos 2 q
y y
q
u 2 sin2 q
O X (ii) Potential energy = mgH = mg
Comparing equation (i) with equation (ii) 2g

g(t1 + t 2 ) æ 2 2 ö
u sinq = =
1
mu 2 sin2 q ç As H = u sin q ÷
2 2 ç 2g ÷
è ø
Substituting this value in equation (i)
= K sin2 q
æ t + t2 ö 1 gt t
y = gçç 1 ÷÷ t1 - gt12 Þ y = 1 2 (iii) Total energy = Kinetic energy + Potential energy
è 2 ø 2 2
1 2 1 1
(ii) Time (t1 and t2): y = u sinq t - gt = mu 2 cos 2 q + mu 2 sin2 q
2 2 2

é 2ù
1
æ 2gy ö ú = mu 2 = Energy at the point of projection.
2u sinq 2y u sinq ê ç ÷ 2
t2 - t+ = 0Þ t = ê1 ± 1 - ç u sinq
g g g ÷ ú
ê è ø ú This is in accordance with the law of conservation of energy.
ë û
é 2ù
Horizontal Projectile
u sinq ê æ 2gy ö ú
t1 = 1+ 1-ç ÷ When a body is projected horizontally from a certain height ‘y’
g êê ç u sinq
è
÷ ú
ø ú vertically above the ground with initial velocity u. If friction is
ë û
considered to be absent, then there is no other horizontal force which
é 2 ù
u sinq ê æ 2gy ö ú can affect the horizontal motion. The horizontal velocity therefore
and t 2 = ç ÷
ê1 - 1 - ç ÷ ú remains constant and so the object covers equal distance in horizontal
g ê u sinq
è ø ú direction in equal intervals of time.
ë û u X
O
(11) Motion of a projectile as observed from another The horizontal velocity
projectile : Suppose two balls A and B are projected simultaneously therefore remains constant and so the y
from the origin, with initial velocitiesY u1 and u2 at angle q1 and q2, object covers equal distance in P(x, y)
respectively with the horizontal. A horizontal direction in equal x
u
y1 – intervals of time. Y
1
u y2
q B
(1) Trajectory of horizontal
q
2 X
projectile : The horizontal displacement x is governed by the equation
O
x
The instantaneous positions of the two balls are given by x = ut Þ t = …. (i)
u
1 2
Ball A : x1 = (u1 cosq1)t, y 1 = (u1 sinq 1 ) t - gt The vertical displacement y is governed by
2
1 2
1 2 y= gt …. (ii)
Ball B : x2 = (u2 cosq2)t, y 2 = (u 2 sinq 2 ) t - gt 2
2
The position of the ball A with respect to ball B is given by (since initial vertical velocity is zero)
 5

1 g x2 (ii) Their net velocity would be different but all three particle
By substituting the value of t in equation (ii) y = possess same vertical component of velocity.
2 u2
! (iii) The trajectory of projectiles A and B will be straight line
(2) Displacement of Projectile (r ) : After time t, horizontal displacement w.r.t. particle C.
1 2
x = ut and vertical displacement y = gt . h B
2 C A

! 1
So, the position vector r = ut ˆi + gt 2 ˆj
2

2
æ gt ö æ gt ö
Therefore r = ut 1 + ç ÷ and a = tan-1 ç ÷ (7) If various particles thrown with same initial velocity but in
è 2u ø è 2u ø
different direction then
A
æ gy ö æ 2y ö
a = tan-1 ç u÷ ç as t = ÷
ç 2 ÷ ç ÷ u u
è ø è g ø
u
A B C D E
(3) Instantaneous velocity : Throughout the motion, the u u
h
horizontal component of the velocity is vx = u.
A E
The vertical component of velocity increases with time and is
given by
(i) They strike the ground with same speed at different times
vy = 0 + g t = g t (From v = u + g t) irrespective of their initial direction of velocities.
! (ii) Time would be least for particle E which was thrown
So, v = v x ˆi + v y ˆj = u ˆi + g t ˆj
vertically downward.
2 (iii) Time would be maximum for particle A which was thrown
æ gt ö
i.e. v = u + (gt)
2 2
=u 1 + ç ÷ vertically upward.
èuø
x
Projectile Motion on An Inclined Plane
!
Again v = uˆi + 2gy ˆj O u X Let a particle be projected up with a speed u from an
inclined plane which makes an angle a with the horizontal and
a
y
i.e. v = u 2 + 2gy P (x,y)
velocity of projection makes an angle q with the inclined plane.
f
vx We have taken reference x-axis in the direction of plane.

vy v Hence the component of initial velocity parallel and

perpendicular to the plane are equal to u cosq and u sinq respectively
Y i.e. u|| = u cos q and u^ = u sinq .
vy
Direction of instantaneous velocity : tan f = The component of g along the plane is g sina and
vx
perpendicular to the plane is g cos a as shown in the figure i.e.
æ vy ö æ 2gy ö
Þ f = tan -1 çç ÷ = tan -1 ç ÷ or f = tan -1 æç gt ö÷ a|| = - g sina and a^ = g cos a .
÷ ç u ÷
è vx ø è ø èuø
Therefore the particle decelerates at a rate of g sina as it
Where f is the angle of instantaneous velocity from the moves from O to P.
horizontal.
(1) Time of flight : We know for oblique projectile motion
(4) Time of flight : If a body is projected horizontally from a
2u sinq 2u
height h with velocity u and time taken by the body to reach the ground T= or we can say T = ^
is T, then g a^
Y
1
h = 0 + gT 2 (for vertical motion)
2 P X
ax=–g sin a t =T
2h
T= q ay= g cos a
g a
O t =0
(5) Horizontal range : Let R is the horizontal distance travelled
by the body
2u sinq
1 \ Time of flight on an inclined plane T =
R = uT + 0 T 2 (for horizontal motion) g cos a
2
(2) Maximum height : We know for oblique projectile motion
2h
R =u u 2 sin2 q u^2
g H = or we can say H =
2g 2a^
(6) If projectiles A and B are projected horizontally with
different initial velocity from same height and third particle C is u 2 sin2 q
dropped from same point then \ Maximum height on an inclined plane H =
2g cos a
(i) All three particles will take equal time to reach the ground.
 6

(3) Horizontal range : For one dimensional motion

Þ Dr = 2r 2 (1 - cos q ) B
1
s = ut + at2
2 æ qö
= 2r 2 ç 2 sin2 ÷
1 è 2ø
Horizontal range on an inclined plane R = u|| T + a|| T 2 q
2 q O A
D r = 2r sin
1 2
R = u cos q T - g sina T 2
2 (ii) Distance : The distanced covered by the particle during the
2 time t is given as
æ 2u sinq ö 1 æ 2u sinq ö
R = u cos q çç ÷÷ - g sina çç ÷÷ d = length of the arc AB = r q
è g cos a ø 2 è g cos a ø
d rq
2u 2 sinq cos(q + a ) (iii) Ratio of distance and displacement : =
By solving R= Dr 2r sinq /2
g cos 2 a
q
p a = cosec (q /2)
(i) Maximum range occurs when q = - 2
4 2
(ii) The maximum range along the inclined plane when the (2) Angular displacement (q) : The angle turned by a body
projectile is thrown upwards is given by moving in a circle from some reference line is called angular
u2 displacement.
R max =
g (1 + sina ) (i) Dimension = [M0L0T0] (as q = arc /radius).
(iii) The maximum range along the inclined plane when the (ii) Units = Radian or Degree. It is some
projectile is thrown downwards is given by time also specified in terms of fraction or multiple
u2 of revolution. S
R max = q
g (1 - sina ) O r
(iii) 2p rad = 360o = 1 Revolution
Circular Motion
(iv) Angular displacement is a axial vector
Circular motion is another example of motion in two quantity.
dimensions. To create circular
Its direction depends upon the sense of rotation of the object and
motion in a body it must be given
can be given by Right Hand Rule; which states that if the curvature of
some initial velocity and a force
the fingers of right hand represents the sense of rotation of the object,
must then act on the body which is
F then the thumb, held perpendicular to the curvature of the fingers,
always directed at right angles to F
instantaneous velocity. • represents the direction of angular displacement vector.
F
F (v) Relation between linear displacement and angular
Since this force is always at
right angles to the displacement displacement s = q ´ r
therefore no work is done by the
or s = rq
force on the particle. Hence, its
kinetic energy and thus speed is (3) Angular velocity (w) : Angular velocity of an object in
unaffected. But due to simultaneous action of the force and the velocity circular motion is defined as the time rate of change of its angular
the particle follows resultant path, which in this case is a circle. Circular displacement.
motion can be classified into two types – Uniform circular motion and angle traced Dq dq
non-uniform circular motion. (i) Angular velocity w = = Lt =
time taken Dt ® 0 Dt dt
Variables of Circular Motion
dq
(1) Displacement and distance : When particle moves in a \ w=
dt
circular path describing an angle q during time t (as shown in the
(ii) Dimension : [M0L0T–1]
figure) from the position A to the position B, we see that the magnitude
! (iii) Units : Radians per second (rad.s–1) or Degree per second.
of the position vector r (that is equal to the radius of the circle)
! ! (iv) Angular velocity is an axial vector.
remains constant. i.e., r1 = r2 = r and the direction of the position
vector changes from time to time. Its direction is the same as that of Dq. For anticlockwise rotation
of the point object on the circular path, the direction of w, according to
(i) Displacement : The change of position vector or the
! Right hand rule is along the axis of circular path directed upwards. For
displacement Dr of the particle from position A to the position B is
clockwise rotation of the point object on the circular path, the direction
given by referring the figure.
! ! ! ! ! of w is along the axis of circular path directed downwards.
D r = r2 - r1 Þ Dr = Dr = r2 - r1
B (v) Relation between angular velocity and linear velocity
Dr = r12 + r22 - 2r1r2 cos q v =w´ r
q A
O
Putting r1 = r2 = r we obtain (vi) For uniform circular motion w remains constant where as for
2 2
Dr = r + r - 2r.r cosq non-uniform motion w varies with respect to time.
 7

Note : q It is important to note that nothing actually moves angular speeds wA and wB respectively, the angular velocity of B
relative to A will be
in the direction of the angular velocity vector w . The direction of w w rel = w B - w A
simply represents that the circular motion is taking place in a plane
perpendicular to it. So the time taken by one to complete one revolution around O
with respect to the other (i.e., time in which B complete one revolution
(4) Change in velocity : We want to know the magnitude and
around O with respect to the other (i.e., time in which B completes one
direction of the change in velocity of the particle which is performing
more or less revolution around O than A)
uniform circular motion as it moves from A to B during time t as shown
in figure. The change in velocity vector is given as 2p 2p TT é 2p ù
! ! T= = = 1 2 êas T = w ú
Dv = v 2 - v1 w rel w 2 - w 1 T1 - T2 ë û

Special case : If w B = w A , w rel = 0 and so T = ¥., particles will

q maintain their position relative to each other. This is what actually
B
f happens in case of geostationary satellite (w1 = w2 =
q constant)
O
A
(7) Angular acceleration (a) : Angular acceleration of an object
in circular motion is defined as the time rate of change of its angular
velocity.
! ! !
or Dv = v 2 - v1 Þ Dv = v12 + v 22 - 2v1v 2 cosq (i) If Dw be the change in angular velocity of the object in time
For uniform circular motion v1 = v 2 = v interval Dt, while moving on a circular path, then angular acceleration
of the object will be
q
So Dv = 2v 2 (1 - cos q ) = 2v sin
2 Dw dw d 2q
a = Lt = = 2
! Dt®0 Dt dt dt
The direction of Dv is shown in figure that can be given as
(ii) Units : rad. s–2
f=
180o - q
2
(
= 90o - q / 2 ) (iii) Dimension : [M0L0T–2]

(5) Time period (T) : In circular motion, the time period is (iv) Relation between linear acceleration and angular
defined as the time taken by the object to complete one revolution on its acceleration a = a ´ r
circular path.
(v) For uniform circular motion since w is constant so
(i) Units : second.
dw
(ii) Dimension : [M0L0T] a= =0
dt
(iii) Time period of second’s hand of watch = 60 second.
(vi) For non-uniform circular motion a ¹ 0
(iv) Time period of minute’s hand of watch = 60 minute
(v) Time period of hour’s hand of watch = 12 hour Centripetal Acceleration
(6) Frequency (n) : In circular motion, the frequency is defined (1) Acceleration acting on the object undergoing uniform
as the number of revolutions completed by the object on its circular circular motion is called centripetal
path in a unit time. acceleration. v
ac
(2) It always acts on the object along the
(i) Units : s–1 or hertz (Hz).
radius towards the centre of the circular path.
(ii) Dimension : [M0L0T–1] (3) Magnitude of centripetal acceleration,
Note : q Relation between time period and frequency : If n is
a=
v2 4p 2
= w 2 r = 4p 2 n 2 r = 2 r
the frequency of revolution of an object in circular motion, then the r T
object completes n revolutions in 1 second. Therefore, the object will (4) Direction of centripetal acceleration : It is always the same as
complete one revolution in 1/n second. !
\ T = 1 /n that of Du . When Dt decreases, Dq also decreases. Due to which Du

q Relation between angular velocity, frequency and time becomes more and more perpendicular to u . When D t ® 0, Du
period : Consider a point object describing a uniform circular motion becomes perpendicular to the velocity vector. As the velocity vector of
with frequency n and time period T. When the object completes one the particle at an instant acts along the tangent to the circular path,
revolution, the angle traced at its axis of circular motion is 2p radians. It therefore Du and hence the centripetal acceleration vector acts along
means, when time t = T, q = 2p radians. Hence, angular velocity the radius of the circular path at that point and is directed towards the
q 2p centre of the circular path.
w= = = 2pn ( ! T = 1/n)
t T
Centripetal force
2p According to Newton's first law of motion, whenever a body
w= = 2pn
T moves in a straight line with uniform velocity, no force is required to
q If two particles are moving on same circle or different maintain this velocity. But when a body moves along a circular path
coplanar concentric circles in same direction with different uniform with uniform speed, its direction changes continuously i.e. velocity
 8

keeps on changing on account of a change in direction. According to 90o = 0

Newton's second law of motion, a change in the direction of motion of Example : (i) When an electron revolves around the nucleus in
the body can take place only if some external force acts on the body. hydrogen atom in a particular orbit, it neither absorb nor emit any
Due to inertia, at every point of the circular path; the body tends to energy means its energy remains constant.
move along the tangent to the circular path (ii) When a satellite established once in a orbit around the earth
v
at that point (in figure). Since every body v and it starts revolving with particular speed, then no fuel is required for
has directional inertia, a velocity cannot its circular motion.
change by itself and as such we have to
F
apply a force. But this force should be F F
such that it changes the direction of F
velocity and not its magnitude. This is
possible only if the force acts v
perpendicular to the direction of velocity. v

Because the velocity is along the tangent,

this force must be along the radius (because the radius of a circle at any
point is perpendicular to the tangent at that point). Further, as this force is
to move the body in a circular path, it must acts towards the centre. This
centre-seeking force is called the centripetal force.
Hence, centripetal force is that force which is required to move a
body in a circular path with uniform speed. The force acts on the body
along the radius and towards centre.
Formulae for centripetal force :

mv 2 m 4p 2 r
F = = mw 2 r = m 4p 2 n 2 r =
r T2

Centrifugal Force
It is an imaginary force due to incorporated effects of inertia.
When a body is rotating in a circular path and the centripetal force
vanishes, the body would leave the circular path. To an observer A who
is not sharing the motion along the circular path, the body appears to fly
off tangentially at the point of release. To another observer B, who is
sharing the motion along the circular path (i.e., the observer B is also
rotating with the body with the same velocity), the body appears to be
stationary before it is released. When the body is released, it appears to
B, as if it has been thrown off along the radius away from the centre by
some force. In reality no force is actually seen to act on the body. In
absence of any real force the body tends to continue its motion in a
straight line due to its inertia. The observer A easily relates this events
to be due to inertia but since the inertia of both the observer B and the
body is same, the observer B can not relate the above happening to
inertia. When the centripetal force ceases to act on the body, the body
leaves its circular path and continues to move in its straight-line motion
but to observer B it appears that a real force has actually acted on the
body and is responsible for throwing the body radially out-wards. This
imaginary force is given a name to explain the effects of inertia to the
observer who is sharing the circular motion of the body. This inertial
force is called centrifugal force. Thus centrifugal force is a fictitious
force which has significance only in a rotating frame of reference.

Work Done by Centripetal Force

The work done by centripetal force is S
always zero as it is perpendicular to velocity
and hence instantaneous displacement. 90o
Work done = Increment in kinetic F
energy of revolving body
Work done = 0

Also W = F . S = F × S cosq = F×S cos

 9

Skidding of Vehicle on A Level Road It follows that the angle through which cyclist should bend will
be greater, if
When a vehicle takes a turn on a circular path it requires
centripetal force. (i) The radius of the curve is small i.e. the curve is sharper
(ii) The velocity of the cyclist is large.
If friction provides this centripetal force then vehicle can move
in circular path safely if Note : qFor the same reasons, an ice skater or an aeroplane
Friction force ³ Required centripetal force has to bend inwards, while taking a turn.
2
mv Banking of A Road
µ mg ³
r
For getting a centripetal force, cyclist bend towards the centre of
\ v safe £ µrg circular path but it is not possible in case of four wheelers.

This is the maximum speed by which Therefore, outer bed of the road is raised so that a vehicle
µmg mw2r
moving on it gets automatically inclined towards the centre.
vehicle can take a turn on a circular R cos q
R
path of radius r, where coefficient q
of friction between the road and tyre is µ. R sin q

Skidding of Object on A Rotating Platform q

q

On a rotating platform, to avoid the skidding of an object (mass

mg Fig.
m) placed at a distance r from axis of rotation, the centripetal force (A)
should be provided by force of friction.
Centripetal force £ Force of friction l
h
mw r £ µmg
2

q
\ w max = (µg /r) , x
Fig.
Hence maximum angular velocity of rotation of the platform is (B)
(µg /r) , so that object will not skid on it.

Bending of A Cyclist
In the figure (A) shown reaction R is resolved into two
A cyclist provides himself the necessary centripetal force by components, the component R cosq balances weight of vehicle
leaning inward on a horizontal track, while going round a curve.
Consider a cyclist of weight mg taking a turn of radius r with velocity v. \ R cos q = mg …(i)
In order to provide the necessary centripetal force, the cyclist leans and the horizontal component R sin q provides necessary
through angle q inwards as shown in figure. centripetal force as it is directed towards centre of desired circle
The cyclist is under the action of the following forces : mv 2
Thus R sin q = …(ii)
The weight mg acting vertically downward at the centre of r
gravity of cycle and the cyclist. Dividing (ii) by (i), we have
The reaction R of the ground on cyclist. It will act along a line- v2
making angle q with the vertical. tanq = …(iii)
rg
The vertical component R cosq of the normal reaction R will
balance the weight of the cyclist, while the horizontal component R sin w 2r vw
or tan q = = …(iv) [As v = rw ]
q will provide the necessary centripetal force to the cyclist. g g
R
mv 2 If l = width of the road, h = height of the outer edge from the
R sinq = …(i) ground level then from the figure (B)
r R cosq
q
and R cos q = mg …(ii) h h
tan q = = …(v) [since q is very small]
mv2/r R sinq x l
Dividing equation (i) by (ii), we have
R sinq m v2 r v2 w 2r v w h
= From equation (iii), (iv) and (v) tanq = = = =
R cos q mg mg rg g g l

or tanq =
v2
…(iii)
Note : q If friction is also present between the tyres and road
rg
v2 µ + tanq
then =
rg 1 - µ tanq
Therefore, the cyclist should bend through an angle
q Maximum safe speed on a banked frictional road
æv ö
2
q = tan -1 çç ÷÷ rg(µ + tan q )
v=
è rg ø 1 - µ tan q
 10

Overturning of Vehicle Reaction of Road On Car

When a car moves in a circular path with speed more than a (1) When car moves on a concave bridge then
certain maximum speed then it overturns even if friction is sufficient to
R
avoid skidding and its inner wheel leaves the ground first q

q v
R1 G R2
mg cosq
h Concave bridge
mg
Weight of the car = mg 2
F a
Speed of the car = v mg
Radius of the circular path = r mv 2
Centripetal force = R - mg cos q =
Distance between the centre of wheels of the car = 2a r
Height of the centre of gravity (G) of the car from the road level
mv 2
=h and reaction R = mg cos q +
r
Reaction on the inner wheel of the car by the ground = R1
(2) When car moves on a convex bridge
Reaction on the outer wheel of the car by the ground = R2
When a car move in a circular path, horizontal friction force F R
provides the required centripetal force v
q mg cosq
mv 2
i.e., F = …(i) mg
R q
For rotational equilibrium, by taking the moment of forces R1, R2
and F about G Convex bridge
Fh + R1a = R 2a …(ii)
mv 2
Centripetal force = mg cos q - R =
As there is no vertical motion so R1 + R2 = mg …(iii) r
By solving (i), (ii) and (iii) mv 2
and reaction R = mg cos q -
r
1 é v 2h ù
R1 = M êg - ú …(iv)
Non-Uniform Circular Motion
2 ëê ra ûú
If the speed of the particle in a horizontal circular motion
1 é v 2h ù changes with respect to time, then its motion is said to be non-uniform
and R 2 = M ê g + ú …(v)
2 ëê ra ûú circular motion.
It is clear from equation (iv) that if v increases value of R1 Consider a particle describing a circular path of radius r with
decreases and for R1 = 0 centre at O. Let at an instant the particle be at P and u be its linear

v 2h gra velocity and w be its angular velocity.

= g or v = ! ! !
ra h Then, u = w ´r …(i)
Differentiating both sides of w.r.t. time t we have
i.e. the maximum speed of a car without overturning on a flat road is ® ® ®

gra du dw ! ! dr
given by v = = ´ r +w ´ …(ii)
h dt dt dt
®
Motion of Charged Particle In Magnetic Field dv !
Here, = a, (Resultant acceleration)
dt at
When a charged particle having mass m , charge q enters ! ! ! ! ! a
a = a ´ r + w ´u
perpendicularly in a magnetic field B with velocity v then it describes a
® q
circular path. dw ! ac P
= a (Angular acceleration) O
Because magnetic force (qvB) works in the perpendicular direction dt
! ! !
of v and it provides required centripetal force a = a t + ac …(iii)
Magnetic force = Centripetal force ®
dr !
= u (Linear velocity)
mv 2 ´ ´ ´ ´ ´ ´ ´ dt
qvB =
r ´ ´ ´ ´ ´ ´v ´ Thus the resultant acceleration of the particle at P has two
´ ´ ´ ´ ´ ´ ´ component accelerations
\ radius of the circular path ´ ´ ´ ´ ´ ´
q (1) Tangential acceleration : at = a ´ r
F´
mv ´ ´ ´ ´ ´ ´
r= ´ ´ ´ ´ ´ ´ ´
It acts along the tangent to the circular path at P in the plane of
qB circular path.
´ ´ ´ ´ ´ ´ ´
 11

! !
According to right hand rule since a and r are perpendicular Where
to each other, therefore, the magnitude of tangential acceleration is w1 = Initial angular velocity of particle
given by
w2 = Final angular velocity of particle
| a t | =| a ´ r | = a r sin 90 o = a r. a = Angular acceleration of particle
(2) Centripetal (Radial) acceleration : ac = w ´ v q = Angle covered by the particle in time t
It is also called centripetal acceleration of the particle at P.
qn = Angle covered by the particle in nth second
It acts along the radius of the particle at P. Motion in vertical circle
According to right hand rule since w and u are perpendicular This is an example of non-uniform circular motion. In this
to each other, therefore, the magnitude of centripetal acceleration is motion body is under the influence of gravity of earth. When body
given by moves from lowest point to highest point. Its speed decrease and
! ! ! becomes minimum at highest point. Total mechanical energy of the
| ac | =| w ´u | = w u sin 90 o = w u = w (w r) = w 2 r = u 2 /r
body remains conserved and KE converts into PE and vice versa.
Table : Tangential and centripetal acceleration
(1) Velocity at any point on vertical loop : If u is the initial
Centripetal Tangential Net acceleration Type of
velocity imparted to body at lowest point then velocity of body at height
acceleration acceleration motion
h is given by
ac = 0 at = 0 a=0 Uniform
translatory v = u 2 - 2gh = u 2 - 2gl(1 - cos q )
motion
[As h = l – l cosq = l (1 – cosq)]
ac = 0 at ¹ 0 a = at Accelerated
where l is the length of the string C
translatory
motion
ac ¹ 0 at = 0 a = ac Uniform l O B
D
circular q v
motion h P
u
ac ¹ 0 at ¹ 0 Non-uniform A
a = ac2 + at2
circular
motion (2) Tension at any point on vertical loop : Tension at general
point P, According to Newton’s second law of motion.
Note : q Here at governs the magnitude of v while a c its Net force towards centre = centripetal force
C
mv 2
direction of motion. T - mg cos q =
l
(3) Force : In non-uniform circular motion the particle
simultaneously possesses two forces mv 2 D
l B
or T = mg cos q + O T
l q P
mv 2 m 2 q mg cosq
Centripetal force : Fc = mac = = mrw 2 T= [u - gl(2 - 3 cos q )]
r A + mv2/r
l mg
Tangential force : Ft = mat
[As v = u 2 - 2gl(1 - cos q ) ]

Net force : Fnet = ma = m ac2 + at2

It is clear that : TA > TB > TC and TB = TD
Note : q In non-uniform circular motion work done by
TA - TB = 3mg,
! !
centripetal force will be zero since Fc ^ v TA - TC = 6mg
q In non uniform circular motion work done by and TB - TC = 3mg
tangential force will not be zero since Ft ¹ 0 Various conditions for vertical motion
q Rate of work done by net force in non-uniform
Velocity at lowest Condition
circular motion = rate of work done by tangential force
point
dW ! !
i.e. P = = Ft .v
dt u A > 5 gl Tension in the string will not be zero at any of the
point and body will continue the circular motion.

u A = 5gl , Tension at highest point C will be zero and body

will just complete the circle.
For accelerated motion For retarded motion
w 2 = w1 + a t w 2 = w1 - a t 2gl < u A < 5 gl , Particle will not follow circular motion. Tension in
string become zero somewhere between points B
1 2 1 2 and C whereas velocity remain positive. Particle
q = w1t + at q = w1t - at
2 2 leaves circular path and follow parabolic
w 22 = w 12 + 2a q w 22 = w 12 - 2a q trajectory.

a a u A = 2gl Both velocity and tension in the string becomes

q n = w1 + (2n - 1) q n = w1 - (2n - 1) zero at B and particle will oscillate along semi-
2 2
 12

circular path. u 2 + gl
Height at which the tension vanishes is h =
velocity of particle becomes zero between A and B 3g
u A < 2gl
but tension will not be zero and the particle will (3) Critical condition for vertical looping : If the tension at C
oscillate about the point A.
is zero, then body will just complete revolution in the vertical circle.
Note : q K.E. of a body moving in horizontal circle is same This state of body is known as critical state. The speed of body in
critical state is called as critical speed.
throughout the path but the K.E. of the body moving in vertical circle is
mu 2
different at different places. From the above table 3.3 TC = - 5mg = 0
l
q If body of mass m is tied to a string of length l and
is projected with a horizontal velocity u then : Þ u = 5 gl
u2 It means to complete the vertical circle the body must be
Height at which the velocity vanishes is h =
2g projected with minimum velocity of 5 gl at the lowest point.
Table : Different variables in vertical loop
Quantity Point A Point B Point C Point D Point P
Linear velocity (v) 5 gl 3 gl gl 3 gl gl (3 + 2 cosq )

Angular velocity (w) 5g 3g g 3g g

(3 + 2 cosq )
l l l l l

Tension in String (T) 6 mg 3 mg 0 3 mg 3mg (1 + cosq )

Kinetic Energy (KE) 5 3 1 3 mu 2

mgl mgl mgl mgl - 5mg = 0
2 2 2 2 l
Potential Energy (PE) 0 mgl 2 mgl mgl mgl (1 - cosq )

Total Energy (TE) 5 5 5 5 5

mgl mgl mgl mgl mgl
2 2 2 2 2

h 2
and angle from the vertical can be given by cosq = =
(4) Motion of a block on frictionless hemisphere : A small block of r 3
mass m slides down from the top of a frictionless hemisphere of radius r. The 2
\ q = cos -1 .
component of the force of gravity (mg cosq) provides required centripetal 3
force but at point B it's circular motion ceases and the block lose contact with
the surface of the sphere.
Conical Pendulum
This is the example of uniform circular motion in horizontal
A
B (r – h) plane.
r A bob of mass m attached to a light and in-extensible string
q q h
rotates in a horizontal circle of radius r with constant angular speed w
about the vertical. The string makes angle q with vertical and appears
mg
tracing the surface of a cone. So this arrangement is called conical
For point B, by equating the forces, pendulum.

mv 2 The force acting on the bob are tension and weight of the bob.
mg cos q = …(i)
r mv 2
From the figure T sinq = ….(i)
For point A and B, by law of conservation of energy r
S
Total energy at point A = Total energy at point B and T cos q = mg ….(ii)
K.E.(A) + P.E.(A) = K.E.(B) + P.E.(B) q
l
1 h
0 + mgr = mv 2 + mgh Þ v = 2g(r - h) …(ii) æv ö 2
2
2 (1) Tension in the string : T = mg 1 + çç ÷÷
and from the given figure h = r cos q …(iii) O
è rg
r ø P

By substituting the value of v and h from eqn (ii) and (iii) in eqn (i) mg mgl h l2 - r2
T= = [As cos q = = ]
æhö m
mg ç ÷ =
èrø r
( 2g (r - h) ) Þ2
h = 2 (r - h) Þ h =
2
3
r
cos q l2 - r2
S
l l

2 q
i.e. the block lose contact at the height of r from the ground. T
3 T cosq

q
T sinq P mv2/r
O

mg
 13

v2
(2) Angle of string from the vertical : tanq =
rg

(3) Linear velocity of the bob : v = gr tan q

(4) Angular velocity of the bob :

g g g
w= tanq = =
r h l cos q

(5) Time period of revolution :

l cos q h
TP = 2p = 2p
g g

l2 - r2 r
= 2p = 2p
g g tan q

? Consider a projectile of mass m thrown with velocity u making

angle q with the horizontal. It is projected from the point O and
returns to the ground at G. Also M is the highest point attained by
it. (See figure).

u P (X,Y)

H
q G
O X
R

(i) In going from O to M, following changes take place –

 14

(a) Change in velocity = u sinq 2u

T = 2t =
2
(b) Change in speed = u(1 - cosq ) = 2u cos (q /2) g

(c) Change in momentum = mu sinq ? The height attained by a projectile is maximum, when
q = 90° .
(d) Change (loss) in kinetic energy = 1 /2 mu 2 sin2 q
u2
(e) Change (gain) in potential energy = 1 /2 mu 2 sin2 q H max =
2g
(f) Change in the direction of motion = Ðq
It is twice that of height attained, when the range is maximum.
(ii) On return to the ground, that is in going from O to G, the
following changes take place ? The time of flight of the projectile is also largest for q = 90° .
(a) Change in speed = zero 2u
Tmax =
(b) Change in velocity = 2u sinq g
(c) Change in momentum = 2 mu sinq ? The trajectory of the projectile is a symmetric parabola only
(d) Change in kinetic energy = zero when g is constant through out the motion and q is not equal to 0°,
(e) Change in potential energy = zero 90° or 180°.

(f) Change in the direction of motion = Ð2q ? If velocity of projection is made n times, the maximum height
attained and the range become n2 times and the time of flight
? (i) At highest point, the horizontal component of velocity is
becomes n times the initial value.
vx=u cos q and vertical component of velocity vy is zero.
(ii) At highest point, linear momentum of a particle ? If the force acting on a particle is always perpendicular to the
velocity of the particle, then the path of the particle is a circle. The
m vx = mu cosq.
centripetal force is always perpendicular to the velocity of the
1 particle.
(iii) Kinetic energy of the particle at the highest point = mv x2
2
? If circular motion of the object is uniform, the object will
1 possess only centripetal acceleration.
= mu 2 cos 2 q .
2
? If circular motion of the object is non-uniform, the object will
? At highest point, acceleration due to gravity acting vertically possess both centripetal and transverse acceleration.
downward makes an angle of 90° with the horizontal component of
the velocity of the projectile.
? When the particle moves along the circular path with constant
speed, the angular velocity is also constant. But linear velocity,
? At the highest point, momentum of the projectile thrown at an momentum as well as centripetal acceleration change in direction,
angle q with horizontal is p cosq and K.E. = (K.E.)i cos2q. although their magnitude remains unchanged.

? In projectile motion, horizontal component ucosq of velocity u ? For circular motion of rigid bodies with uniform speed, the
remains constant throughout, whereas vertical component usinq angular speed is same for all particles, but linear speed varies
changes and becomes zero at the highest point. directly as the radius of the circular path described by the particle
(v µ r).
? The trajectory of a projectile is parabolic.
? When a body rotates, all its particles describe circular paths
? For a projectile, time of flight and maximum height depend on about a line, called axis of rotation.
the vertical component of the velocity of projection.
? The centre of the circle describe by the different particles of
? The range of the projectile is maximum for the angle of the rotating body lie on the axis of rotation.
projection q = 45° .
? Centripetal force Fc = mac , mw 2r where m = mass of the
? The maximum range of the projectile is : body.
u 2 ? Centripetal force is always directed towards the centre of the
R max =
g circular path.
? When a body rotates with uniform velocity, its different
? When the range is maximum, the height attained by the
particles have centripetal acceleration directly proportional to the
projectile is :
radius (ac µ r) .
u2 R
H = = max ? There can be no circular motion without centripetal force.
4g 4
? Centripetal force can be mechanical, electrical or magnetic
? When the range of the projectile is maximum, the time of force.
flight is :
? Planets go round the earth in circular orbits due to the
centripetal force provided by gravitational force of the sun.
? Gravitational pull of earth provides centripetal force for the
 15

orbital motion of the moon and artificial satellites.

? Centripetal force cannot change the kinetic energy of the body.
? In uniform circular motion the magnitude of the centripetal
acceleration remains constant whereas its direction changes
continuously but always directed towards the centre.
? A pseudo force, that is equal and opposite to the centripetal
force is called centrifugal force.
! ! !
? The q , w and a are directed along the axis of the circular
path. Their sense of direction is given by the right hand fist rule as
follows : ‘If we catch axis of rotation in right hand fist such that the
fingers point in the direction of rotation, then the outstretched
! ! !
thumb gives the direction of q , w and a
! ! !
? q , w and a are called pseudo vectors or axial vectors.
? For circular motion we have –
! ! ! !
(i) r ^ v (ii) r antiparallel to ac
! ! ! !
(iii) ac ^ v (iv) ac ^ at
! ! ! ! ! ! !
(v) q , w , a are perpendicular to r , ac , at , v
! ! ! !
(vi) r , ac , at and v lie in the same plane
P