Life Processes Life is a characteristic which distinguishes living organisms from nor-living objects. Various characteristics of living organisms include movement, breathing, growth etc. However, not every defnition of life considers all of these properties to be essential. Movement over very small scales will be invisible to the naked eye, for example, movements of molecules. The invisible movernent of molecules is, however necessary for the existence olf. In fact, viruses do not show any molecular movement in them (until they infect some cell), and that is party why there is a controversy about whether they are living or non-living. What criteria do we use to decide something is”alive? Living organisms are well organised structures, which show movements that may be visible or invisible, They have tissues, tissues consists of cals, cells have smaller components in them and ‘so on. I these order breaks down the organism will noonger be alve. So living creatures must Keep repairing and maintaining their structures since all these structures are made up cf molecules, therefore, molecular movement is basic to lvings ‘The study of life processes is essential in understanding the basic. ~~ processes of the body. This study gives us information regarding the functioning of calls How the food that we eat is digested, absorbed and assimitated in the body? How does the body derive energy for the normal day-to- work? How are various metabolic processes interrelated? ‘Answer to such basic questions can only be derived by a systematic study of various life processes. WHAT ARE LIFE PROCESSES? . Life processes can be defined as the basic functions performed by living organisms in order to maintain their life on earth. These life processes include nutrition, respiration, circulation, excretion, locomotion, control and coordination, etc ‘The life processes, allow a living organism to maintain dynamic equilibrium with its surroundings. These processes needed energy for their maintenance, /.e. ‘derived from food. INCLUDES What are Life Processes? Nutrition > Mode of Nutrition > Autotrophic Nutrition > Photosynthesis > Heterotrophic Nutrition » How Do Organisms Obtain Their Nutrition? > Nutrition in Human Beings Alimentary Canal Respiration > Respiration in Plants > Respiration in Animals Human Respiratory Sysiem Diaphragm > Mechanism of Breathing Transportation > Transportation in Human Beings > Functions of Blood > Human Circulatory System > Human Heart > Blood Pressure > Lymphatic System > Transportation in Plants Excretion Human > Excretion in Human Beings > Nephron (Uriniferous Tubule) Mechanism of Excretion > Exoretion in Plants Quick Recap Assignment Corporate Office: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, Now Delhi-110005, Ph 011-47623456,Life Processes CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Levelt) | Since, life on earth is dependent on carbon based molecules, most of these food sources are carbon based, Depending on the complexity of these carbon sources, different organisms use different modes of nutrition. These sources of energy are broken down in the body of living organisms and converted to a uniform source of energy that can be used for their metabolic activities, ‘The sum total of all the chemical reactions occurring in a living organism in order to maintain life is known as Metabolism. NUTRITION Nutrition is the process of intake and utilization of nutrients by an organism. ‘A nutrient can be defined as a substance which an organism obtains from its surroundings and uses it as a source of energy for biosynthesis of its body constituents. We need nutrients to grow, develop, synthesize protein and to maintain state of order in our body. How do living beings get their food? Living organisms use different modes of nutrition to fulfl their requirements of nutrients (energy and materials) Based upon these different modes of nutrition, they can be categorised as Autotrophs (Producers) : The organisms capable of synthesizing their own food from inorganic substances (like CO, and H,0) using light or chemical energy. e.g., Green plants, algae and some bacteria, Heterotrophs (Consumers) : Organisms which acquire nutrients from other organisms are called heterotrophs, ‘They break down complex substances into simpler ones before they can be used for the upkeep and growth of the body. To achieve this, organisms use bio-catalysts called enzymes. Thus, the heterotrophs survival depends cirectly or indirectly on autotrophs, Heterotrophic organisms include arimals and fungi. Mode of Nutrition Mode of nutrition differs in different organisms. ILis classified as : Nittrition Autotrophic Heterotrophic Saprophytic Parasitic) ‘Symbiotic Holozoic Autotrophic Nutrition Itis the characteristic of plants and algae which prepare their food by the process of photosynthesis. Its the process by which plant cells containing chlorophyl produce carbohydrates like glucose from carbon dioxide and water, by using ight energy. Photosynthesis, Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants and other organisms convert light energy captured from the sun into chemical energy (carbohydrates) with the help of chlorophyll pigment, water and CO,.. Oxygen is released as a by-product during this process, ‘The process of photosynthesis can be represented as egy 6CO, + 12,0 —aH_, GWH,,0, + 60,1 + 6H,O (Fem) roms) Sucose” "ates Photosynthetic organisms trap solar energy and form ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) and NADPH (Nicotinamide adenine dnucleotide phosphate), which they use as energy sources to make carbohydrates, ‘The carbohydrates are stored in the form of starch in plants and glycogen in many vertebrates and serves es reserved internal energy. Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.011-47623456[[GBSE,NTSE & Olympiads (Levelt) Lite Processes] How the plants obtain carbon dioxide? Stomata : Plants obiain carbon dioxide through tiny pores called stomata. These are microscopic pore ‘complexes which occur in the epidermis of leaves and other soft parts of the plants. Each stomata consists ofa stomatal aperture and two surrounding guard cells. Guard cells are the only epidermal cells that contain chloroplasts, their outer and lateral walls are comparatively thinner than inner wall. Guard cells can undergo. rapid turgor changes. The opening and clesing of the stomatal pore is a function of the guard cells. They swell ‘when water flows into them, causing the stomatal pore to open. On the loss of turgiity, the guard cells become: flaccid leading to closure of stomatal pore. Fig. 1 : (A) Opened stomata, (B) Closed stomata Stomata help in gaseous exchange (0, and CO,) between leaves and atmosphere during photosynthesis, Site of Photosynthesis Photosynthesis occurs in green parts of the plants like leaves and green stems, ‘Anatomically, the leaf has outermost epidermal layers (on both surfaces) which are covered by waxy cuticle ‘The intemal layers of the leaf are made up-of mesophyll ces rch in ¢hloroplast. Chloroplasts are the cell organelles that perform photosynthesis, Structurally chloroplasts are double membrane bound cell organelles containing sac-ike structures called thylakoids. These are present in the stroma of chloroplast either in a stacked manner to form granum (plural : grana) or singly. Stromal lamellae connect the two grana. The thylakoid membranes-contain green pigment molecule called chlorophyll, which absorbs the light energy and converts it into chemical energy. Waxy Plant ceil Fig. 2: Internal structure of a leaf Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, Now Delhi-110008, Ph.011-47623456a CBSE, NTSE & Obiade ave | Knowledge Cloud CChiorophy/l absorbs light at both ends ofthe visible spectrum ie. blue and red ight and reflects green light That is why, chlorophyll appears green. Mechanism of Photosynthesis The following events occur during photosynthesis, {@) Absorption of solar energy by photosynthetic pigment ie. chlorophyll (©) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water : Absorbed energy is used for spiiting the water molecule (photolysis) into its two components (hydrogen and oxygen) and releasing electrons. 2H,0 > 4H" + 0, + de- Protons (H") and electrons thus released are used to make NADPH and ATP respectively. (0) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates : Carbon dioxide is reduced using hydrogen from NADPH to form carbohydrates like glucose by ullizing chemical energy in the form of ATP, All these steps of photosynthesis need not take place one after the other immediately. These can occur at different time interval. For example, desert plants take up carbon dioxide at night and form an intermediate product which is acted upon by the light energy absorbed by chlorophyll during the day. Activity-1.1 Chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthe: Procedure : (i) Destarch the leaves of & potted piant (having variegated leaves) by keeping tin a dark room for three days so that all the'starch gets used Up. (ii) Take out the plant and keep it in bright sunlight for 3-4 days. (il) Pluck a leaf and mark the greefi and non-green areas by placing a rice paper on it. (w) Put the leaf in boliing water for 5-10 minutes and then immerse it in alcohol heated with the help of water bath. () Pour dilute iodine solution over the colourless leaf and abserve the change in colour of the leat, Observation : The part of leaf that is marked as green areas tums bluish black on adding iodine solution showing the presence of starch in it whereas the part of leaf that is marked as non green-arees, remains yellowish due to absence of starch @ Fig. 3 : Variegated leaf (a) before and (b) after starch test Conclusion : From above observation, we can conclude that starch is produced during photosynthesis in the presence of chlorophyl. Therefore, chlorophyll is necessary for the process of photosynthesis. Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.011-47623456[[eBSE, NTSE & Oiympiads (Levelt) life Processes] Activity-1.2 Carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis : Proceduri () Take two healthy potted plant and keep them in a dark room to destarch them. (il) Now place each plant on separate glass plate and keep a watch glass containing potassium hydroxide by the side of one plant as shown in set-up (a). (ii) Cover both plants with bell jars and seal the bottom of jars with vaseline to make them air- tight. (W) Place the plants in sunlight for about two hours, (Now pluck a leaf from each plant and test the same for starch as in the above activi, Observation : he leaf of plant in set-up (b) has synthesized starch that turns blue-black while the leaf of plant in set-up (a) do not show blue-black colour as starch has not been synthesised. Bal Jor. Watchtass contanng potassium hex @ Fig. 4 : Experiment set-up (a) with potassium hydroxide (b) without potassium hydroxide Conclusion : Tne bel jar in set-up (a) do not céntan carbon dioxide as itis absorbed by potassium hydroxide whereas the bell jar in set-up (b) contain carbon dioxide as potassium hydroxide is not present init. Therefore, carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis, Glucose is stored in the form of starch and transported in the form of sucrose in plants, ‘Autotrophs need other materials like nitrogen, phosphorus, iron and magnesium for buiding their body. These are also taken up from the soil Nitrogen is an essential element used in the synthesis of proteins and other compounds. This is taken up in the form of inorganic nitrates or nitrites or itis taken up as organic compounds which have been prepared by bacteria from atmospheric nitrogen, Example 1 : Which term is used for the biological catalysts present in human body? Solution : Enzymes, Example 2 ‘Mention the material required for photosynthesis which is obtained by plants through their roots. Solution Water. Corporate Office : Aatash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.011-47623456Life Processes CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Lever) <= $§£$£@—~———— 1. _ Implants, the carbohydrates which are not utilised are stored in the form of (1) Glycogen 2) Starch @) Glycolipid (4) Phospholipid 2. In terrestrial plants, water used in photosynthesis is taken up by the (1) Flowers @) Roots (3) Aeriat leaves (4) Green stems 3, Microorganisms that do net show any molecular movement in them, unti they infect some cells are (1) Viruses (2) Bacteria (3) Archaebacteria (4) Eubacteria 4. Identify the correct matching pair of form of organic food synthesized, stored and transported in plants, from the following. Form of food Form of food Form of food synthesized stored transported (1) Sucrose Glucose Starch (2) Glucose Starch Sucrose () Glucose ‘Sucrose Starch (4) Sucrose Glycogen Glucose 5. Which of the following events does not occur exclusively during light reaction of photosynthesis? (1) Photolysis of water (2) Conversion of ight energy into chemical energy (@) Abserption of solar energy (4) Reduction of CO, Uip)s (@y (He (z)z (zh “sud Heterotrophic Nutrition It is a kind of nutrition in which the organisms derive energy from the intake and digestion of the organic substances prepared by autotrophs and other orgaric sources. Organisms which depend on organic substances prepared by autotrophs and other organic sources are called heterotrophs. There are four main types of heterotrophic nutrition, which are as follows 1. Holozoic nutrition : In this mode of nutrition, an organism takes the complex organic food materials into its body by the process of ingestion. The ingested food is then digested and absorbed into the body cells of the organism for assimilation (or utilization of absorbed food nutrients) and energy production, The undigested and unabsorbed part of the food is removed from the body of the organism by the process called egestion. This is also known as anit .g., Amoeba, human beings, etc. 2. Saprophytic nutrition : In this mode of nutrition, organisms derive their nutrients from dead and decaying ‘organic matter. Such organisms break-down the food material outside their body and then absorb the digested food material. The organisms having saprophytic mode of nutrition are called saprophytes. eg., Fungi, ike bread moulds, yeasts and mushrooms, like nutrition. Corporate Office : Aatash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.011-47623456(CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Level) Life Processes| 3. Parasitic nutrition : in this mode of nutriton, organisms obtain food from other living organisms (the host) by living on or inside their body without kiling them, e.g, Cuscuta (amar-bel), ticks, lice, leeches and tapeworms. 4, Symbiotic nutrition : When two organisms are mutually benefitted by living in close association with each other, they are called symbionts and this mode of nutrition is known as symbiotic nutrition, @.g,, Lichen : Itis a symbiotic association of photosynthetic algae or cyanobacteria and fungi How Do Organisms Obtain Their Nutrition? Since the food and the way itis obtained differ, the digestive system is different in various organisms. In single- celled organisms, the food may be taken in by the entire body surface. But as the complexity of the organism increases, different parts become specialised to perform different functions. Mode of Nutrition in Single-Celled Organism (@) Amoeba : It is a unicellular organism and thus, there are no specific organs to perform different functions, It does not possess a definite shape ‘Nutrition in Amoeba takes place in the following manner, (Ingestion : Intake of food in Amoeba occurs by temporary finger-ike: ‘extensions of cell surface called pseudopodia which fuse over the {ood particle forming a food vacuole. (il) Digestion : Inside the food vacuole, complex substances are broken down into simpler ones. This is called intracellular digestion i (digestion within the cel). By mee i) Absorption : The digested food then diffuses into the cytoplasm, Oe: ea ” (wv) Assimilation : The absorbed food js utilised to meet the energy requirements of Amoeba. @ Sere () gestion : The remaining undigested material is moved to the surface es and thrown out of the cel. Fig. 5 : Nutrition in Amoeba (©) Paramecium : Paramecium has a definite shape. In it the food is ingested by a definite cell mouth or cytostome lying at the bottom of the buccal cavity. The food is moved to this spot by the movement of cilia which cover the entire surface of the cell. Ingested food is digested in food vacuole and the undigested food is egested from the cytopyge (or anal spot). Path oetoiatog ooo vasles Cytopyge er analpot Wndigsted ood Fig. 6 : Nutrition in Paramecium Nutrition in Human Beings : Human Alimentary Canal ‘+ Humans have a heterotrophic holozoic mode of nutrition. They have a well-developed digestive system responsible for ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion. The digestive system of humans consists of a 6-9 m long continuous tube-like alimentary canal or digestive tract starting from the mouth passing through the pharynx, the oesophagus, the stomach, the small and large intestine, and finally ending at the anus. The accessory organs for digestion associated with alimentary canal are teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver and pancreas. Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.011-47623456A eer + Gastro-intestinal tract is the portal (or gate) through which nutrifve substances, vitamins, minerals and fluids enter the body and proteins, fats and carbohydrates are broken down into absorbable units. In the small intestine, these cross the mucosa and enter the Iymph or blood and then can be used by the body. Paros lane Pharyre Submaxitary and - Stomach Pancreas Buodenum Transverse colon: Jejunan Asconing colon Descending colon team caecum ‘Rectum Veriferm appendix Fig. 7 Hurtian Alimentary Canal In humans, the upper portion of the alimentary canal is the mouth. It is bounded by lips and is followed by oral cavity or buccal cavity whch contains cheeks, gums, teeth, tongue and muscles ‘The teeth in the mouth chew and masticateithe food to. increase the surface area of the food so that various enzymes can act on it mor@ieffectively. The teeth are embedded in the jaws. Arrangement of tooth in the jaw is called dentition. There are. two. sets of teeth present in humans. Teeth which are present in childhood are the temporary teeth also called milk teeth which are later replaced by permanent set of teeth, Table : Number and type of teeth in man Types of teeth | Milk teeth | Permanent teeth Each tooth consists of two main regions, the crown and the root. Crown is covered by enamel and is the exposed part of tooth whereas the portion of tooth embeded in the jaw bone is called root Dental Caries/Tooth Decay “4 It occurs when bacteria (Streptococcus mutans / Lactobacillus acidophilus) acting on sugars produce acids which results ‘gradual softening of enamel and dentine |_4 If untreated, microorganism invade pulp which causes inflammati Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Dei-110005, PhOtt-47623456BSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Level) life Processes|| | ° * * Dental Plaque Itis formed when masses of bacterial cells together with food particles stick to the teeth. ‘As plaque covers the teeth so it prevents the saliva from reaching the surface of the teeth and due ‘o Which the acid produced by the bacteria is not neutralised, Hence, itis essential to brush the teeth after eating to remove the plaque. ‘The food is wetted for its smooth passage across the soft lining of the alimentary canal. This is achieved bby mixing the food thoroughly with saliva while chewing by moving around the mouth with the help of the ‘muscular tongue. Tongue is a muscular sensory organ, which has taste buds on it. It helps in tasting the food and its ‘movement in the oral cavity. From the oral cavity, the chewed food which is mixed with saliva passes into the ‘pharynx’, then into the sophagus’ which is 25 cm long muscular tube lined with mucous membrane. The rhythmic contraction and relaxation movemenis of its wall are called ‘peristaltic’ movements, which propel the food forward into the stomach. Walls of oesophagus also secrete mucus for lubrication of food, ‘Stomach is a muscular sac like structure that acts as a storehouse of food material Its muscular wall helps in mixing the food with digestive juices, secreted by numerous gastric glands present in the stomach, From the stomach, food passes into the small intestine. The exit of food from the stomach is regulated by a sphincter muscle which releases itin small amounts info the small intestine ‘Small intestine is the longest part of thé alimentary canal which is fitted into a compact space because of extensive coiling. The first part of small intestine is the ‘duedenum’ which is about 25 cm long and shaped Ike letter ‘C’. The remainder of the small intestin@ Consists of the ‘jejunum’ which is about 2.5 metres long and the ‘ileum’ whicinis about 3.5 metres long, + The iength of small intestine differs in various animals depending on the food they eat. Herbivores need a longer small intestine to allow the cellulose to be digested. Meat is easier to digest, hence ‘camivores like tigers have a shorter small intestine. A sphincter is a circular muscle that normally maintains constriction of a natural body passage or ‘orifice and which relaxes as required by normal physiological functioning. ‘The small intestine then merges with the large intestine which though wider than the small intestine is mutch shorter, being 1.5 to 1.8 metres long. The large intestine is divided into following parts. The first part 's the ‘caecum’ into which the ileum opens, the opering is being guarded by the ‘ileo-caecal valve’ which allows inflow but, prevents backflow of the intestinal contents. Next there is the ascending colon which passes up along the right side of the abdomen and leads into the transverse colon. This further leads to the descending colon which goes down the left side of the abdomen and then to the sigmoid colon and the rectum which is 12.5-15 om long and stores the undigested food. Rectum opens into anus, which is guarded by two anal sphincters. ‘The chief functions of the large intestine are the absorption of water and salts from undigested food and the elimination of solid wastes. Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110008, Ph.011-47623456[Lite Processes CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Levelt) | Actrivity-1.3 The a Procedure : (i) Take 1 mL of starch solution (1%) in two test tubes labelled as A and B. (i) Add 1 mL of saliva to test tube A and shake well, (i) After half an hour add few drops of iodine soluton in both the test tubes and observe them. Observation : The test tube B containing starch solution turns blue whereas the test tube A does not produce of saliva on starch : blue colour No change Starch in colou . er tedine salva Solution turns Sat Bue colour lodine = (a) ) Fig. 8 : Test tube (a) containing saliva and () without saliva Conclusion : The test tube A containing starch and saliva shows no change in colour as starch gets broken down into simple sugar with the help of salivary amylase whereas in test tube B saliva is absent so break down of starch does not occur. Functions of Digestive System The digestive system is responsible for the breaking down of complex food and supplying water, nutrients, and electrolytes needed to sustain life to the body. This is brought about by the following processes 4. Ingestion involves (i) Taking food into the mouth, (ii) Chewing the food (mastication) to convert (ii) Moistening the food with salivary secretions. (W) Swallowing the food (Degluttion). 2. Digestion : During digestion, food is broken down into small particles by churning action of the gastrc-intestinal tract and then broken down by digestive enzymes into absorbable food particles. () Starch is broken down by amylase into maltose and finally into glucose by other carbohydrate digesting enzymes. into smaller food particles. ‘Starch*™***_sMaltose (i) Proteins are broken down by a variety of ‘proteases! into dipeptides ard then into amino acide. Proteins —f##tl Peptides + Peptones — "=H, Amino acids (ii) Fats are broken down by ‘lipases’ or esterases into monoglycerides and free fatty acids. Fats—=5_sMonoglycerides, faty acids Digestive Glands and the Functions of Digestive Enzymes () Salivary Glands : These secrete about 1-1.5 L of saliva daily. Saliva is composed of 99% water and contains ptyalin or salivary amylase enzyme. Salivary amylase acts on starch which is a complex molecule to form maltose suga¥. It also has mucus which lubricates the food. The pH of saliva is 6.8 Starch Satan mss, altose Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.011-47623456CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Level) Life Processes| () Gastric Glands : About 35 milion gastric glands are found in the inner lining of stomach wall. They secrete the folowing (a) Mucus : It is secreted from goblet cells. It protects the inner lining of the stomach from the action of hydrochloric acid under normal conditions. (b) Hydrochloric acid (HCI) = It kills most of the harmful bacteria that enter along with the food and makes the medium acidic. Acidic medium facilitates activation of proenzyme pepsinagen and action cof enzyme pepsin. (c) Pepsin : Itis a protein digesting enzyme that is secreted in inactive form, proenzyme Pepsinogen. In the presence of HCI, pepsinogen gets activated and gots converted to pepsin. Pepsinogen —" Pepsin Pepsin, then, acts upon the proteins to convert them into peptides. Proteins Peptides Peptic Ulcer ‘An ulcer on the inner lining of stomach is called peptic ulcer. ‘Two Australians made 2 discovery that a bacterium, Helicobacter pylori, was responsible for peptic ulcers. Robin Warren (born 1987), a pathologist from Perth, Australia, saw these small curved bacteria in the lower part of the stomach in many patients. He noticed that signs of inflammation were always present around these bacteria. Barry Marshall (born 1951), a young clinical fellow, became interested in Warren's findings ‘and succeeded in cultivating the bacteria from these sources. It can be cuted by a short period of treatment with antibiotics, (lll Liver : itis situated on the right side of the abdomen just below the diaphragm. It is the largest gland of our body. It secretes bile juice that is stored in a yellowish-green, small sac called gall bladder. Bile juice is a mixture of bile salts and bile pigments. Bile salts help in digestion of fats. Bile pigments are waste products resulting from destruction of old RBCS in the Iver. Functions of Bile : (i) Make the food alkaline The food coming from the stomach is acidic and has to be made alkaline for the pancreatic enzymes toact on it. Bile salts accomplishes this as these contain sodium bicarbonate that make the medium alkaline, (ii) Emulsification of the fat Fats are present in the intestine in the form of large globules which make it difficult for enzymes to act on them. Bile salts break-down these la'ge fat globules into small globules thereby increasing the surface area exposed for enzyme action. This process of break-down of fat into small droplets is known as emulsification of fats. Functions of Liver : (i) Liver is responsible for the secretion of bile juice. (il) Production of urea. (il) Detoxification : Excess drugs, toxine and other harmful chemicals are changed into harmlees form by the liver cells (lV) Pancreas : The pancreas is a soft, lobulated, greyish-pink gland. It is about 2.5 cm wide and 12—15 ‘om long. It is located posterior to the stomach. The pancreas secretes an alkaline pancreatic juice with pH 78. Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.O11-47623456a CBSE, NTSE & Obiade ave | Role of Pancreatic Juice in digestion ‘The pancreatic juice contains pancreatic amylase that acts upon starch, protease like trypsin for digesting proteins and lipase for digesting emulsified fats. The principal enzyme for the break down of fals is pancreatic lipase, also known as steapsin. sieamyiat , Maltose (i) Starch (i) Proteins 22", Peptones partially hyerolyed proteins) (i) Emuisifed fats ll, Glycerol + Fatty acids (V) Intestinal Glands : The walls of the small intestine contain glands which secrete intestinal juice. The enzymes present in it finally convert proteins into amino acids, complex carbohydrates into glucose and fats into fatty acids and glycerol. The digested food is absorbed up by the walls of the intestine. (i) Maltose —"*, Glucose (ii) Peptides and Peptones —2©#0t85°_, Amino acids (ii) Emulsified fats 2%" , Glycerol + Fatty acid ‘Small intestine Is the site for the complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. It receives the secretions from the liver and pancreas for this purpose. 3. Absorption : During absorption, ruttiéhts, Water and electrolyes ar® transported from the gastro-intestnal tract (mainly from the small intestine) into the blood stream. How is small intestine designed to absorb digested food? The inner lining of the small intestiné'has "humerous finger - ike projections called villi which increase the surface area for the absorption of food.The vii are richly Supplied with blood vessels, which take up the absorbed food to each and every cell of the body, where itis utilised for obtaining energy, building up new tissues and repair of old tissues. Plasma membrane of each of thé?epithelial ells lining the vili forms cytoplasmic extensions called ‘microvilli’ (the side facing the limen). The vil and microvilli greatly increase the surface area of the small intestine. These vil are supplied with a network of capillaries and a large Iymph vessel called lacteal Fig. 9 : Villus in emall intestine Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.011-47623456CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Level-) Life Processes| 4, Assimilation ; Absorbed food is ulilised for obtaining energy, building up new tissues and repair of the old tissues. 5. Egestion : The unabsorbed food 's sent to the large intestine where water is reabsorbed in the body. The rest of the waste material is removed from the body via anus. The process of egestion of faeces outside the body through the anal opening is called defaecation. The exit of this waste is regulated by anal sphincter. Example 3 Name five organisms which follow parasitic nutntive strategy. Solution : Cuscuta (Amar-bel), Ticks, Lice, Leeches and Tapeworms. Example 4 Name bacteria associated with tooth decay. Solution : Lactobacilus acidophilus and Strepfococous mutans. Example 5 (Mention the function of hydrochloric acid secreted by gastric glands. Solution ‘The hydrochloric acid creates an acidic medium which facilitates the action of the enzyme pepsin. It activates pepsinogen to pepsin. HCI can also kil some. harmful bacteria, Example 6 Name a protein digesting enzyme released by gastric glands, Solution Pepsin Bia Cs 6. Which of the following organisms breakdown the food material outside their body and then absorb it? (1) Bread moulds, yeast and algae (2) Bread moulds, mushrooms and green plants (3) Fungi, algae and mushrooms. (4) Bread moulds, yeast and mushrooms 7. Paramecium shows (1) Holozoie nutrition (2) Saprophytic nutrition @) Parasitic nuttin (4) Autotrophic nutrition 8. Longer small intestine for the digestion of cellulose is needed in case of (1) Human being (2) Herbiveres @ Camivores 4) Omniveres 9, Site of the complete digestion of carbohydrate, proteins and fats is the (1) Large intestine (2) Small intestine (@) Stomach (4) Colon Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.O11-47623456Life Processes (CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Level) 70. The finger ike projections called vil help in (1) Increasing the surface area for absorption (2) Decreasing the surface area for absorption (@) Increasing the surface area for egeston (8) Increase the efficiency of enzyme action 11. Inwhich of the folowing, digestive enzymes are not found? (1) Bile juice @) Salva (@) Gastric juice (@) Intestinal secretion 42. Pepsin differs from trypsin, because it digests (1) Proteins in acidic medium in duodenum (2) Proteins in alkaline medium in duodenum (@) Proteins in acidic medium in stomach (4) Proteins in alkaline medium in stomach 18. From which part of the alimentary canal, digestion of carbohydrates starts? (1) Stomach. (2) esophagus (3) Mouth: (4) Coton [eden (ezi (WuL (Wor (26 “(2a (Lz (v9 “suvl RESPIRATION Respiration is a process that provides energy-requied for each anid every activity of the organism. It occurs in all living beings for providing energy through enzyme controlled breakdown of organic substances. 4 In the process of respiration, oxygan is taken up for the Oxidation of food in order to release energy, water and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide, produced during ‘oxidation of food is expelled out of the body. The process of oxidation of food is very complex. The overall process can be expressed by the following reaction. CH,,0, + 60, ——> 6CO,? +6H,0 +.Eneray ‘Sutin * * Oops canonabuse Wate In respiration, there is a release: 6f énergy through oxidation of simple food molecules such as glucose. The energy released in respiration is chemical energy which gets stored in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules. I is the energy currency for most of the cellular processes, such as protein synthesis, conduction of nerve impulses etc. ‘The energy released during the process of respiration is used to make an ATP molecule from ADP and inorganic phosphate. s0r+® — © : inorganic prosphate + avP~@)= ATP Endothermic processes in the cell then use this ATP to derive the reactions forward. When the terminal phosphate linkage in ATP is broken using water (hydrolysis), the energy equivalent to 30.5 kiimol is released. ATP ——> ADP +P, + 30.8 ki/mol P;: Inorganic phosphate Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.011-47623456(CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Level-) Life Processes| ‘Oxidation of food can occur in the presence or absence of oxygen. (On the basis of oxygen utilization, respiration is of two types : 1. Aerobic Respiration In this mode of respiration, organic food Is completely oxidised in presence of oxygen to carbon dioxide and water, This results in the production of ATP, which is the immediate source of energy and used to fuel all activities of the cell. ATP breaks down to give ‘ise to a fixed amount of energy which can dive the endothermic reactions taking place in the cell CH,,0, —S22, 2cH,COCOOH HIM, ECO, 1 + 6H,O+ 36 oF 38 ATP Gee! opt Comet ‘ endoy (@ mall cases, the fist step isthe breakdown of glucose (a six carbon molecule) into a three carbon molecule called pyrwate. One molecule of glucose produces 2 melecules of pyruvate It takes place in the cytoplasm ofthe cel and the process is called glycolysis. (0) rots eyele : I operates in the matix of mitochon, The pyrivate produced during glycolysis enters the Krebs cycle where after its complete oxidation CO, and water are released, This cycle is a characteristic of eukaryotes only (ii) 36 oF 38 molecules of ATP are produced on complete oxidation of one molecule of glucose. 2. Anaerobic Respiration In this mode of respiration, organic focd is. incompletely OXidised nto ethyl alcohol in the absence of oxygen. Two molecules of ATP are, released in this process, The process takes place in yeast Example : Certain bacteria and yeast. Glucose — SYS, 2 Pyruvate +Enéray —Eemttab_, 20,H,0H +200,1 + 2ATP Thejenisn Tr abacs ot 0” 7280) 2 (ewan) Muscle Fatigue : During vigorous muscular activity there is lack of oxygen supply and thus, anaerobic respiration takes place in muscle cells. During this process lactic acid 's formed which gets accumulaled in the muscle cells leading to cramps, oe —262O + arya Enya BS 200, + 240 cur mss) Later, when there is sufficient supply of oxygen, the lactic acid is completely oxidised into CO, and water. Glycolysis is common in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration which occurs in cytoplasm of the cell Absence of Ethanol + Carbon dioxide + Eneray (carbon mlectie) Giucose PE pyruvate Lactic acid + Energy (6-carbon | Gearon \_ inoue” (acarbon maleate) molecule) molecule) \™sd# cots) Presence of Ene = ‘oxygen Go ‘itocheria) Breakdown of glucose by various pathways Carton doxile + Watee + Energy Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110008, Ph.011-47623456NTSE & Difference between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration eee bic Respiration Respiration in Plants During respiration, plants obtain O, from the atmosphere and release CO,. The exchange of gases occurs through the minute pores called stomata present on the surface of leaves. ‘The large intercellular spaces (air spaces) which are present throughout the piant ensure that all cells are in contact with air. CO, and O, are exchanged by diffusion. The diection of diffusion depends upon the ‘environmental conditions and requirements of the plant. During daytime, CO, generated during respiration is Utilized by the plants for the process of photosynthesis, Thus, O, release is the major event at this time. At hight, when there is no photosynthesis occuring, CO, generated during respiration is eliminated. Thus, CO, release is the major event at night Exchange of gases in plants can occur across the surface of roots and stems as well, via root hairs and lenticels. (Root Hairs : Root hairs are unicellular extensions atising from epidermal cells. Oxygen present in between the soil particles is absorbed by root hairs through diffusion. The absorbed oxygen passes from one cell to other cell of the root by diflusion. Similarly, CO, diffuses out from root cells in the soil. Root hairs increase surface area for gaseous exchange and absorption of water. i) Lenticels (Old roots and stems) : Older parts of the root and stem do not have hairs. They are covered by protective layer of dead cells known.as bark. Bark has tiny openings called lenticels which help in the gaseous exchange between tissues underlying bark and surroundings, Activity-1.4 Carbon dioxide is exhaled during breathing : Procedure : (i) Take two test tube A and B and pour some freshly prepared lime water in each tube. (ii) Now blow air in tube B through the lime water with the help of glass tube and observe. (ii) In test tube A, pass air through Ime water with the help of a pichkeri and observe. We wee] a ae [aoe & (a) ) Fig. 10 : (a) Air being passed into time water with a pichkari, (b) air being exhaled into lime water Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.011-47623456CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Level) Life Processes| Observation : The lime water in test tube B turns milky in less time showing that we exhale earbon dioxide: Whereas the lime water in test tube A takes a long time to tum milky. Conclusion : The lime water is a solution of calcium hydroxide. It combines with CO, to form a white precipitate of calcium carbonate. This also shows that expired air contains more concentration of CO, than the atmospheric alr. Example 7 : What is the common step in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration? Solution Glycolysis. Example 8 Where does the breakdown of pyruvate take place in presence of oxygen? Solution Mitochondria Respiration in Animals Terrestrial animals use the oxygen available in the atmosphere for respiration, but the animals that live in water eed to use the oxygen dissolved in watereSince the amountof dissolved oxygen is fairly low as compared to the amount of oxygen in the air. The rate of breathing in aqualie organisms is much faster than that seen In terrestrial organisms. Fish : In fish, branchial respiration occurs through ils which serve-as respiratory organs. Fishes take in water through their mouth ane force it through gills where dissolved ©, (in water) diffuses into the blood capillaries of gills, and reaches different body parts through rculation, Similarly, CO, diffuses out from gills into water ‘due to the difference in its concentration by, the process of diffusion. Pulalcqentin ari Fig. 11 : Branchial respiration in fish. A-gils in bony fish (after removing operculum), B-Pathway of water movement in a cartilaginous fish Human Respiratory System In human beings, many organs take pert in the process of respiration which are known as organs of respiratory system. The main organs of human respiratory system are nostris, nasal passage (cavity), pharynx, larynx trachea, bronchi and lunge. Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.O11-47623456Life Processes (CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Level) Fig. 4 Nostrils or external nares : There is a pair of small, oval apertures present at the lower end of the nose and just above the mouth. Air is inhaled through nostril Nasal Chambers : A par of nasal chambers are enclosed in the nasal cavity and are present above the palate. These are separated by a nasal septum. Fine hair and mucus secreting cells are present in the lining of nasal chambers which help in fitering the air. luman respiratory organs Pharynx : Pharynx is @ common passage for the air we inhale-and the food we eat. The pharynx leads into trachea or wind pipe through a sit tke aperture caled glottis. Whie swallowing the food, glottis gots covered by a small cartiaginous flap Caled epiglottis. Glottis opens into larynx —+ trachea — bronchi Epiglottis is the structure that prevents the entry of food into respiratory tract during swallowing. Larynx () Larynx is the sound producing organ and. contains vocal cords. These cords are made up of elastic fibres. Larynx is also known as the voice box. (i). Until puberty there is litle diference in the size of the larynx in males and females. Thereafter, it grows larger and becomes prominent in males, therefore, itis called Adam's apple. (ill) During expiration, air ie forced out of lungs which vibrates vocal cords and produce sound, and results in speech, (@) In women and children, the vocal cords are usually shorter and thinner. So their voice is of high pitch. (V) In men, the vocal cords are usually longer and thicker. So their voice is of low pitch. (vIn females, the length of the vocal cords is about 1.25-1.75 cm and in males, itis about 1.75-2.5 cm, Trachea : The larynx leads into a long tube called trachea or wind pipe. () The trachea has an average length of 11.8 cm in humans, supported by C-shaped incomplete rings of hyaline cartilage, (i) These cartilaginous rings ensure that the air passage does not collapse during inspiration. Bronchi and Bronchioles : The trachea bifurcates at its lower end into a pair of primary bronchi which enter the left and right lungs. As primary bronchi enter info lungs, these divide into secondary and tertiary bronchi. The walls of bronchi are also supported by cartlaginous rings. The tertiary bronchi sub-divide into ‘smaller branches, the bronchioles the terminal bronchioles are not supported by cartilaginous rings. The bronchioles decrease in ciameter and their epithelium also becomes thinner as they go deeper into the lungs. Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi 10008, Ph.011-47623456CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Level) Life Processes||| 7. Ribs, ter-costal muscles and diaphragm : () There are 12 pairs of ribs in human beings. (il) Ribs are bony end cartilaginous structures that form the wall of thoracic cavity, (ii) One end of rib is attached to the vertebral column while other end is attached to the sternum (breast bone). In this way ribs form a cage-lke structure called rib cage. (iv) Ribs protect lungs and heart. () Ribs are provided with specialised muscles. These are called inter-costal muscles and present in the ‘space botwoen two ribs. (v) These muscles help in the outward and inward movement of ribs, (vi) At the bottom of the thoracic cavity, there is a large muscular flap. This is called diaphragm. Normaly itis dome shaped, But during inhalation, it becomes fiat 8. Lungs : The lungs are soft, spongy and elastic organs which are hin colour. A pair of lungs lie in the thoracic cavity, one on either side of the heart. Covering of the lungs are the pleural membranes. ‘The left lung is slightly longer and narrow than the right and has a concavity where the heart lies between the lungs. Lung receives bronchi which divide into numerous bronchioles. The bronchioles further sub-divide. and gradually lead to a number of respiratory bronchioles, which further give rise to alveolar ducts. Alveolar ducts finally terminate in balloon like structures called alveoli. The alveoli have very thin wall consisting of squamous epithelium, The’alveoli of lungs provide a large surface for gaseous exchange. PROC ‘Smoking is injurious to health. Lung cancer is one of common causes of deaths in the word. The upper part of respiratory tract is provided with small hair-like structures called cilia. These cilia help to remove ‘germs, dust and other harmful particles from inhaled air. Smoking destroys these hair due to which germs, dust, smoke and other harmful chemicals enter lungs and cause infection, cough and even lung cancer. testes 2s. Primary bronchus De Oy 3 — secondary bronchus ~, Tetiay bronchus -.Bronchioles Branch of pulmonary artery Alveolar duct air-sacs Central passage Fig. 13 : Internal structure of lung Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.0t1-47623456[Lite Processes CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Levelt) | Sino, the exchange of gases occurs duo to diffusion, a respiratory surface must have following characteristics 4 It must be thin and permeable to respiratory gases (0, and CO,). % It must be moist either with water or mucus. It must be highly vascular and have large surface area. 4 It must be directly or indirectly in contact with source of oxygen (air or water). The number of alveoli in human lungs has been estimated to be approximately 300 million exposing a surface area of nearly 80 m?, fifty times more than the surface area of our body. ‘The total surface area of our body is 1.6 m?. The wall of the alveoli has an extensive network of blood capillaries in contact so that the exchange of gases takes place easily. Thus, each alveolus may be called 2 miniature lung where exchange of gases takes place. Hence, we see that alveoli are designed to maximise the exchange of gases. They are far more permeable and vascular than the skin. The total alveolar surface available for gas exchange, far exceeds the general body surface. So, lungs replace the skin very effectively in mammals as respiratory organs. Diaphragm 1. Diaphragm is the characteristic of all mammals, It is a highly muscular dome-shaped partition elevated towards the thorax. 2. The most important function of the diaphragm in maftimals is to aid in respiration. 3. Puncturing of diaphragm results in stoppage of breathing and is fatal Mechanism of Breathing “Breathing involves the intake of oxygen into the respiratory tract and elimination of CO, from the body. The intake of oxygen rich air is called inhalation or inspiration. The elimination of CO, rich air is called exhalation or expiration. A. Inhalation + During inhalation the inter-costal muscles pull the ribs outwardly and at the same tme, diaphragm becomes flat. + Due to these movements, the volume of the thoracic cavity increases and creates a low pressure area inside the cavity + We know that air always moves from an area of its high pressure to an area of its low pressure. So, air from outer atmosphere rushes into the thoracic cavity (lungs) through respiratory tract, B. Exhalation 4 During exhalation the inter-costal muscles pull the ribs inwardly and at the same time, diaphragm again becomes dome shaped. + Due to these movements, the volume of thoracic cavity decreases. As a result a high pressure area is created inside the cavity 4 We know that air always moves from an area of its high pressure to an area of its low pressure. So, air from thoracic cavity (lungs) moves outside the body through the respiratory tract Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.011-47623456fm Expiration et Muscles retax: contacts, relaxes “ ® Fig. 14 : (A) Inspiraton, (B) Expiration 4 During the breathing cycle, the lungs always contain a residual volume of air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and for the carton dioxide to be released + When the body size of the animal is large, the diffusion pressure alone cannot take care of oxygen delivery to all parts of the body. Instead, respiratory pigments in blood take up oxygen from the air in the lungs and carry it to the tissues which are deficient in oxygen. 4 In-human beings, the respiratory pigment is haemoglobin that helps in transport of O, and CO, via blood itis present in the RBCs. It has a very high affiniy for oxygen, One molecuile of haemoglobin combines with four molecules of oxygen, during transportation and forms oxyhaemoglobin. CO, is also transported in chemical combination with haemoglobin jn RBCs in the form of earbaminohaemoglobin + Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than exygen-and hence is majorly transported through plasma, 70% as bicarbonate ion and 7% in dissolved state. Difference between Breathing and Respiration Muscles contract Example 9 ‘Mention the significance of cartilaginous rings present in our trachea and bronchi. Solution : ‘The cartilaginous rings ensure that the air passage does not collapse during inspiration. Ex. 10. Name the process by which plants exchange gases like CO, and O, through stomata.Life Processes CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Lever) nt 14. Which of the following is/are the significance of respiration in plants? (1) Itprovides carbon dioxide to animals (2) It liberates eneray @) It liberates oxygen (@) All of these 45. Respiratory pigment found in humans is (1) Bilirubin (2) Haemoglobin @) Bilverdin (@) Urochrome 16. In plants, exchange of gases occurs across the surface of (1) Roo's and stems only (2) Stems and leaves only @) Leaves only (@) Stems, leaves and roots 17, The opening and closing of stomata is a function of (1) Guard cetis @) Air spaces @) Vascular bundle (4) Stomatal pore 48. Rate of breathing in an aquatic organism (1) Is much siower than that seen in terresiial organism (2) Is much faster than that seen in terrestial organism {@) Is not related to that of terrestrial organism (@) Equals to that seen in terrestrial organism 419. In which of the following processes CO, is released? (1) Glycolysis (2) Photosynthesis (8) Alcohol fermentation (@) Lactic acid fermentation (eder (der (zt “(yor “(Z)st “(Z)rk “suv ‘TRANSPORTATION Plants and animals are made up of millions of cells. Every cell requires oxygen, water and food. These substances are taken from outside and are distributed to various parts of the body. Several waste products are released as a result of metabclic processes which are further removed from the body. The collection and distribution of the nutrients and waste substances require transportation, ‘Transportation can be defined as a life process in which a substance absorbed or synthesised in one part of the body is moved to other parts of the body. The methods of tansportation are different in various organisms. Unicellular Organism : in unicelular organisms such as Amoeba and Paramecium etc.. transportation is performed through cytoplasmic streaming (The movement of the fluid substance (cytoplasm) within a plant ‘or animal ceil), Multicellular Organism : The methods of transportation are different for multicellular animals and plants Animals — Circulatory system Multicettular organism Plants — Conducting system (Xylem and Phloem) Corporate Office : Aatash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.011-47623456[[GBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Levelt) Lite Processes] ‘Transportation in Human Beings In human beings, various substances such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, digested food, hormones, excretory products etc. are transported by the blood. The blood circulates in the body and reaches each and every organ through the blood circulatory system which consists of blood, the heart and blood vessels. Blood : (1) Blood is @ fluid connective tissue. (2) The two main components of blood are plasma and blood cells or corpuscles. Plasma : It io slightly alkaline, non-living, intercellular pale yellow component of the blood. About 90-92% of plasma is formed of water. In plasma several organic and inorganic substances are dissolved such as proteins, glucose, cholesterol, urea, hormones, vitamins and inorganic salts. Plasma transports food, carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes in dissolved form Blood Corpuscles Enthrocytes Leucocytes ‘Thrombocytes or or or Red Blood Corpuscles White Blood Corpuscles Platelets (Transport respiratory (Protect us from (Help in blood gases such as 0, & CO,) diseases) clotting) Agranulocytes Granulocytes Lymphocytes _Mondcytes Eosinophils Basophits Neutrophils (Provide (Phagocytosis) (Associated (Release chemicals (Phagocytosis) immunity) with alergy) for inflammation) Functions of Blood Helps in transport of food materials and respiratory gases. b, Helps in transport of hormones, excretory matter and salts. ©. Helps in maintaining body temperature (Thermoregulation). Helps in defence against infection, Example 14 Name the respiratory pigment present in the red blood corpuscles. Solution : Haemoglobin, _| Example 12: ‘Mention the function of blood plasma, Solution : Transports food, CO, and nitrogenous wastes in dissolved form, Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.011-47623456[Lite Pree BSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Level) | Human Circulatory System Human circulatory system consists of two parts : Heart and blood vessels. Blood vessels : Capillaries () Arteries : Those carry oxygenated blood from the heart to various bedy parts oxcopt the pulmonary artery which carries deoxygenated blood to lungs. The pressure of blood is high in arteries, so these have thick muscular, elastic wall and lack vaives. (ii) Veins : These are thin walled, vessels which carry deoxygenated blocd from different body organs to the heart except pulmonary veins which carry oxygenated blood to the left atrium of heart. These have valves which ensure that the blood flows only in one direction. Difference between Arteries and Veins ree (iil) Capillaries : These are fine blood vessels, occurring at the terminals of artery and vein. These are thin walled and extremely narrow. Exchange of food material, gases and waste products between the blood ‘and surrounding cells takes place across their thin walls. The capillaries then join together to form veins that carry the blood away from the organs or tissues. These are made up of a single layer of squamous epithelial cells called endothelium. Human Heart 4. Itis a conical muscular organ which lies in between the two lungs. Its as big as our fist Its weight is about 300 g in adult males and about 250 g in adult females. Heart is four-chambered to prevent the mixing of oxygen-rich blood and the blood containing carbon dioxide. The two upper chambers are called atria and these receive biood from the large veins. The wo lower chambers are called ventricles and these pump blood to lungs and to the entire body. 5. These chambers are separated by partitions called septa (sing. septum), 6. The openings between the atria and ventricles are guarded by atrio-ventricular valves. They prevent backflow of blood when ventricles contract. 7. Semilunar valves are found at the points where the pulmonary artery and aorta leave the heart. These valves prevent blood from getting back into ventricles. Corporate Office: Aakash Tower, 8, F RON Delhi-110008, Pr.0v1-47623456(CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Level) omaalil 8. Heart wall is made up of special type of muscles called cardiac muscles. Walls of ventrcles are thicker than walls of atria as ventricles have to pump biood into various organs, 9. Each semilunar valve is made up of three Superior Aorta vena cava Puimonary arteries Pulmonary trunk ” Pulmonary veins Coronary ventricle Left ventricle Septum. (dividing wat) Left ventricle Fig. 15: The human heart Fig, 16: Sectional vw ofthe human heart How Heart Functions? ‘The heart beats all the time throughout the life of an individual, Heart beat is the rhythmic contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole) of heart muscles. The rate of heart beat in a human adult is 72 times per minute, Pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood from the lungs. Oxygenated blood enter the left atrium of the heart when the muscles of atria are relaxed. The atria then contracts, while the ventricles relax so that the biood 's transferred to the left venticle. When the muscular ventri¢les contract, oxygenated blood is poured into the largest artery of the body, caled aorta, Thus, oxygen is distributed to all parts of the body. Large veins called vena cava collect deoxygenated blood from variolls parts of the body and pour it into the right atrium, as it relaxes. As the right atrium contracts, the deoxygenated bicod is transferred to the right ventricle, which in turns pumps it to theslungs for oxygenation. Pulmonary artery carries blood from heart to the lungs. In human, blood flows twice through the heart. thus itis called double circulation. it comprises of pulmonary land systemic circulation Flow of blood : Pulmonary circulation: Heart > Lungs => Heart faa omtliny oe Gey even” ee) Systemic circulation: Heart, ——> Body parts. ——> Heart (Let vortcle) (Rahat) ‘Sagenaied SeBeypenatod Pulmonary artery to lungs Vena cava. from body Capiaries in body organs apart from tens Fig. 17 : Double circulation Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.0t1-47623456[Lite Processes CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Levelt) | + You must have also heard about a machine called the “pacemaker’, which is inserted in a heart patient whose heart does not beat normally. “Pacemaker” (the machine) takes the place of the specialised muscle cells that intiate heart beat. Natural pacemaker is SA node or sinoatrial node, present in the wall of tight atrium. ‘+ The separation of the right side and the left side of the heart is useful to prevent oxygenated and de- ‘oxygenated blood from mixing. Such separation allows a highly efficent supply of oxygen to the body. This, js useful in animals that require high energy, for example birds and mammals, which constantly use eneroy to maintain their body temperature, “Animals that do not use energy for this purpose, their body temperature depends on the temperature of the environment, Such animals, Ike amphibians or many reptiles have three-chambered heart and cen tolerate some mixing of the oxygenated and de-oxygenated biood. % Fishes, on the other hand, have only two chambers in their heart and the blood is pumped to the ails for oxygenation and passes directly to rest of the body. Thus, blood goes only once through the heart in the fish during one cycle of passage through the body and is called single circulation. On the other hand, it goes through the heart twice during each cycle in other vertebrates. Blood Pressure 4 The force that blood exerts against the wall of « vossol is called blood prossure. +The pressure is much greater in arteries than in veins. ‘The pressure of blood inside the artery during ventricular systole (contraction) is called systolic pressure and pressure in artery during ventricular diastole (relaxation) is called diastolic pressure. The normal systolic pressure is about 120 mm of Hg and diastolic pressure is 80 mm of Ha. aes ig. 18 : Measurement of blood pressure using sphygmomanometer + Blood pressure is measured with an instrument called sphygmomanometer. ‘High blood pressure is also called hypertension and is caused by the constriction of arterioles, which results in increased resistance to blood flow. It can lead to the rupture of an artery and intemal bleeding, + Low blood pressure is called hypotension, _| Example 13 Mention the main function of arteries. Solution : Arteries catry oxygenated blood away from the heatt to various organs of the body. _| Example 14 : Mention the main function of veins. Solution : \Veins collect the deoxygenated blood from different organs and bring it back to the heart. Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.0t1-47623456[[EBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Level-) Life Processes| Lymphatic System ‘The lymphatic system is an accessory circulatory system present in close association with the blood circulatory system. It essentially comprises of : Lymph, Lymphatic capillaries, Lymphatic vessels and Lymphatic nodes (produce lymphocytes). Lymph is a colourless fluid similar to the plasma of blood. It contains less proteins than blood and lacks RBCs and platelets, How is lymph formed? ‘When blood flows through the capillaries. some amount of plasma, proteins and blood cells escape out through the pores present in the walls of capilaries. The escaped out substances reach into the intercellular spaces in the tissues to form the tissue fluid or lymph. The issue fuid is also known as interstitial Nid as itis present in between the tissues. The excess fluid drains into lymphatic capilaries which join to form large lymph vesse's that is eventually poured into veins. Thus, the fluid returns to the blood. Lymph also, helps in transport of ‘excretory products and large sized digested and absorbed food particles particularly fats, Differences between Blood and Lymph Transportation in Plants Transportation in plants can be studiedlunder the two sections ° 4 Transportation of water and minerals carried out by xylem. 2. Transportation of food and other substances carried out by phloem. fi Transportation of Water and Minerals in Plants : Water is a major raw material absorbed by the plants. Water and minerals (nitrogen, phosphorus etc.) are absorbed from the soil by roots and are transported to various parts of the plants like stem, leaves and flowers. Absorbed water and minerals are transported through the complex tissue called xylem. Absorption Pathway : Water along with minerals enter in the roots through root hairs by the process of osmosis. Water moves through cortex, endodermis and ultimately reaches the root xylem, from where it enters the xylem of stem. In some flowering plants, water rises rapidly al the rate of 10 to 100 cm per minute during the day and gets dstributed in all parts of the glant such as branches, leaves, flowers ete., through xylem, % In xylem tissue, vessels and tracheids of the roots, stems and leaves are interconnacted to form a continuous system of water-conducting channels reaching all parts of the plant. “Cells of roots are in contact with the soil which actively take up ions and create a difference in the concentration of these ions between the root and the sol. 4 In order to remove this difference, water moves into the root from the soil. As a result, there occurs a steady movement of water into root xylem, developing a column of water that is steadily pushed upwards. Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delti-110005, Ph.01[Life Processes (CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Level) | But at the same time, this root pressure alone is not enough to move water over the heights in case of tall plants. Here, the plants adopt another strategy of suction of water, by the help of transpiration. Transpiration can be defined as “the loss of water in the form of vapour from the aerial parts of the plant’ ‘About 1% of the water absorbed by the plant is used in photosynthesis and other metabolic activities, rest of the water evaporates in the form of water vapour through the stomata present on the surface of leaves by transpiration. During transpiration, evaporation of water molecules from the leaf cells creates a suction force or pressure in photosynthetic mesophyll cells that pulls water up the column from the xylem cells of roots. This force is known as transpiration pull and is resporsible for upward movement of sap (water + minerals) from roots to leaves. Thus, water lost through stomata is replaced by water from the xylem vessels in the leaf. This is known as ascent of sap. + Transpiration pull is a major driving force for the movement of water in the xylem during the day. 4 Atnight, root pressure (hydrostatic pressure) plays an important role in transport of water. It develops due to the mineral ions which are in vascular tissue of the roots. cathe Reeth spent Emap Fig. 19 Lseraltranster of wster om oot har fo rot xylem Fig 20 Digan to show now wate (and dsolved minerals) Se Wansootod from tv sl u to the lea fa plan Significance of Transpiration (i) Ithelps in temperature regulation, (i) Ithelps in the absorption and upward movement of water and minerals dissolved in it from roots to the leaves. (ii) It affects climate. Activity-1.5 ‘The phenomens of transpiration occurs in plants : Procedure : (i) Take two small pots of approximately the same size and having the same amount of sol ‘One should have plant in it (a) (Insert a stick in the soll of the other pot (b) of the same height as the plant in pot (2). (W) Cover the soil in both pots with a plastic sheet so that moisture cannot escape by evaporation. (®) Now cover both the plants with transparent plastic sheet and place in bright sunlight for half an hour. Observation : Small droplets of water start appearing on tho innor side of plastic shee! which is prosont over the plant. No drops of water appear in case of pot with stick. Corporate Office : Aatash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.011-47623456(CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Level) Lite Processes] 1: Plastic sheet Water droplets Plant Stick a) ) Fig. 21 : Pots containing (a) plant and (b) stick covered with plastic sheet Conclusion : This experiment shows that the leaves lose water vapours which get condensed on the inner surface of the plastic sheet, 2. Transport of Food and Other Substances : The synthesis of organic food by the process of photosynthesis occurs in the leaves of the plant. These products are transported from their site of synthesis to diferent parts of the plant through the vascular issue called phloem. The transport of soluble products of photosynthesis is called translocation. The translocation of food and other substances occurs in the sieve tubes in upward, downward as well as in radial directions. The cells of sieve tube contain cytoplasm but lack nucleus and thus, their activities are controlled by the nuclel of adjacent companion cells ‘The transport in phloem is active in nature i... it involves utilization of energy (ATP) unlike transport in xylem which is passive in nature and based on physical forces. For example, sucrose (photosynthetic product) Is transferred into the sieve tubes by active transport. The companion cels adjacent to sieve tubes provide the energy to drive this active transport. ‘The transport of sucrose inside sieve tubes creates a hypertonic condition, thal builds up a pressure difference between the water potential in the sieve tubes and in the nearby xylem cels. Due to this pressure difference, the water in adjacent xylem moves into. the sieve tubes of phloem by osmosis. This leads to an increase in the osmotic pressure inside the sieve tubes Which is responsible for the movement of fluid through plant's system of sieve tubes (phloem) to lower.pressure area or tissues that lack sucrose. At these tissues, the sucrose is actively removed from the sieve tube and the remaining water moves out into xylem by osmosis. Example 15: Mention the function of xylem. Solution Transport of water and minerals. Example 16 ‘Mention the function of phloem. Solution Transport of soluble products of photosynthesis. 20. In plants, at the roots, cells in contact with the soil actively take up (1) Ions (2) Salts @) Cations only (@) Anions only Corporate Office: Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.011-47623456Life Processes (CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Level) 21. Materials like sucrose are transferred into phloem tissue using (1), Energy from ATP (2) Diflusion pressure (@) Energy from sunlight (4) Energy from ADP 22, The pressure of blood is maximum in (1) Arteries @) Capitiaries @) Veins @) Lymph vessels: 23. High blood pressure is caused by (1), Decrease resistance to blood flow (2) Constriction of arterioles (@)_ Rupture of artery and vein (4) Exchange of material between blood and surrounding cells 24. Lymph contains (1) Less proteins than blood plasma (2) More proteins than blood plasma (9) Equal amount of protei @) Does not contain protein 28 in blood plasma 25. Lymph carries (1) Undigested and absorbed fat (2) Undigested and absorbed lipid (3) Digested and unabsorbed lipid (4) Digested and absorbed fat 26. The only artery which carries deoxygenated blood, receives blood by pumping of which part of the heart? (1) Lett ventricle 2) Lot auricle (3) Right ventricle (4), Right auricle edoz (whee (uve (eee (Wizz (sz (Woz “sul EXCRETION Nitrogenous waste materials generated due to metabolic activities are harmful and thus, should be removed from the body. Unicellular organisms remove these wastes by simple difusion from the body surface into the surroundings whereas, in case of multicellular organisms removal of waste is performed by specialised organs. ‘The process by which harmful metabolic waste products are eliminated from the body is called excretion. Excretion in Human Beings Jn human beings excretion is done by specialised excretory system which consists of the following parts, 1. Kidneys : These occur in pair and are dark brown bean-shaped structures located in the abdomen one on either side of the backbone. Each kidney is 10-12 cm in length, 5-7 cm in breadth and 2-3 cm in thickness and weighs about 150-170 g in adult male and 125~145 g in adult female. 2. Ureters : These are paired muscular tubes of 25-30 cm length. These tubes have a diameter of about 3 mm. Urine procuced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into the urinary bladder. Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi 10005, Ph.011-47623456(CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Level) Lite Processes] 3. Urinary Bladder : It is a sac-like muscular structure located in the pelvic region. Nermally. it holds about 400-700 mL. of urine, 4, Urethra : It starts from the neck of the urinary bladder and opens outside the body. In females, itis short (2-4 cm) while in males itis long (20 cm), Funetions of Kidney {@) Removal of metabolic nitrogenous waste and maintenance of acid-base balance in the blood (0) Wate: and sait balance (osmoregulation) in the body. a \uter Inferior vena cave Right asronal gna = ight honey Fig. 22 : Anterior view of a human exeretory system Nephron (Uriniferous Tubule) 1, These are structural and functional units,of'the kidneys, 2, Each nephron is 3 em long and 6260 jim in diameter. 3. Structure of nephron : Each nephron consist of malpighian corpuscle ard renal tubule (A) Malpighian Corpuscle : it comprises of giomerulus and Bowman's capsule where titration of blood takes place, ()) Glomerulus : The blood to the nephron is supplied by a small artery. This artery gets divided into many fine capillaries. These capillaries form a bunch inside the lumen (cavity) of Bowman's capsule. This capillary bunch is called glomerulus. (i) Bowman's capsule : One end of nephronic tube becomes a double-layered cup-lke structure. This structure is called Bowman's capsule. (®) Renal tubule : It consists of the following parts () Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) : The portion of nephronic tubule after the Bowman's capsule is called the proximal convoluted tubule. it opens into the loop of Henle. The main function of PCT is the selective reabsorption of the substances (Na’, K*, Glucose etc). (i) Henle’s loop : It starts at the end of proximal convoluted tube and takes a long U-turn. It has two limbs i.e., descending limb and ascending limb. Descending limb is very thin and permeable to water but ascending limb is thick and impermeable to water. (il) Distal convoluted tubule (DCT) : tis the posterior elongation of nephronic tubule. The thick ‘segment of the ascending limbs opens into the distal convoluted tubule. DCT finally opens into collecting duct. Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.0t1-47623456[ie Posesses CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (ever | Rénat areas Branch of renal artery Glomerulus Bowman's capsule Proximal convoluted tubule Branch of renal vein, Distal convoluted tubule Descending tim of loop of Henle Henle's loop ‘Ascending limb of loop of Henle Vasa recta Collecting duct Fig. 23 : A diagrammatic representation of a nephron Mechanism of Excretion The waste materals along with blcod is brought to the kidneys by the renal arteries. Blood is ftered out from the blood capilaies (glomerulus) into Bowman's capsule. When fitrate passes through the tubular part of the nephron useful products like glucose, amino acid, Na*, Cr-, K* ions and a large amount of water afe selectively reabsorbed into blood capilares and are transferred into blood circulation. The amount of water reabsotbed depends on how much excess water is there in the body and on how much of dissolved waste 's present to be excreted. 4 All nephrons open into collecting tubules, which open into collecting duct, which further lead into renal Pelvis. Urine passes from the pelvis into the ureter, which takes it to the urinary bladder and leaves the bladder duriag micturition (urination) via the membranous duct called urethra. Urne is stored in urinary bladder until the pressure of the expanded bladder leads to the urge to pass it out through the urethra The bladder is muscular and under nervous control. As a result, we can usually cortrol the urge to urinate Urine is pale yellow in colour (due to urochrome. itis acidic (pH 6.0) and composed of 96% water, 2.5% organic substance and 1.5% inorganie’substance Urine contains 2% urea, small amounts of creatinine, ammonia, oxalic acid and phenolic acid (On an average, an adult produces about 1.5 lite of urine per day. Normally, in a healthy adult, the initial filtrate in the kidneys is about 180 L daily. However, the Volume of urine actually excreted out is only 1-2 L per day, because the remaining filrate is reabsorbed in the kidney tubules (vasa recta), Renal Failure : Renal or kidney failure Is not common, but sometimes infection, injury, alcoholism and restricted blood supply result in kidney damage or malfunctioning. In such a case metabolic wastes such as urea increase in the blood, To solve this problem two methods have been devised. 1. Hemodialysis : In case of kidney failure, an atificial kidney can be used. An artificial kidney is a device which removes nitrogenous waste products from the blood through dialysis. ‘Astiicial kidneys contain a number of tubes with a selectively permeable lining, suspended in a tank filed with dialysing fluid. This fluid has the same osmotic pressure as the blood, except that it is devoid of nitrogenous wastes. The patient's blood is passed through these tubes, made up of selectively permeable membrane of cellophane (which is made up of cellulose). During this passage, the waste products from the blood pass into dialysing fluid by diffusion. The purified blood is pumped back into the patient. Thisis similar tothe function ofthe kidney, but itis diferent since there is no reabsorption involved. oe Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph 011-47623456(CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Level) Life Processes] Line from artery TopUMp Tubes made up of a selectively permeable membrane Diaysing ‘stltion Line from apparatis fo vein Fresh Used dalysing lalysing solution (with fsliion rea and exooce sol) Fig. 24 : Hemodialysis 2. Kidney Transplantation : It is the replacement of damaged or malfunctioning kidney of a patient by a healthy kidney of the donor, so that normal functions of the body can be carried out properly. Excretion in Plants Plants use completely different strategies for.excretion than those of animals. + Oxygen itself can be thought of as.a waste product generated during photosynthesis. But, this is used during respiration. + Excess water in plants is removed by the process of transpiration. + For other wastes, plants use the fact that many of their issues consist of dead cells and that they can even lose some parts such as leaves. Plants also excrete some waste substances into the soil around them, Sites where waste products are stored in plants ‘+ Many plant waste products are stored in cellular vacuoles. “Waste products may be stored in leaves that fall off, + Other waste products are stored as resins and gums, especially in old xylem. Example 17: Where is urine stored in a human being? Solution = Utinary bladder, _| Example 18 Mention the components of the excretory system of a human being. Solution : Apair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra, Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.011-47623456(CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Levelt) 27. Which of the following organs stores urine in humans? (1) Kidney @) Urethra (@) Urinary bladder (4) Ureters: 28. Many plant waste products (Ave stored in cellular vacuoles (ii) Are stored as resins and gums, especially in old xylem (ii) May be stored in leaves that fall off Find the correct statements. (1) @ & Gi) only 2) (8 (i) only ) (i) & (i only ) (0, & Gi) 29. Hemodialysis is (1), Used to remove nitrogenous waste products from blood by articial kidney (2) Temporary solution to renal failure (8) Permanent soluton to renal failure () Both (1) & (2) ‘30. Which of the following structures of excretory system in humans is not of same size in males and females? (1) Ureters @) Urethra (@) Urinary bladder (4) Kidneys l2)oe “ez (ez (O22 “suv) QUICK RECAP 1. All living organisms need nutrients to,build Up most of their own body molecules and to get energy for doing work 2. Depending upon the modes of obtaining nutrients, the organisms are either autotrophic or heterotrophic. 3. The autotrophic nutition occurs in all green plants and some bacteria, 4, Heterotrophic mode of nutrition may be saprophytic, parasitic, symbiolic or holozoie. 5. Green plants synthesise organic food from inorganic raw materials (CO, and water) by the process of photosynthesis. 6. Photosynthesis occurs in green coloured plastids called chloroplasts which contain chlorophy/ 7. Chiorophyils are green coloured photosynthetic pigments which absorb tlue and red lights and reflect green Ight 8. Photosynthetic process occurs in two steps : light reaction and dark reaction. 9. In the light reaction, the green pigment (chlorophyll) absorbs light, becomes excited and emits electrons which are used to produce ATP and NADPH. 410. In dark reaction, carbon dioxide is reduced to carbohydrate. 11. Amoeba engulfs food by the process of phagocytosis using pseudopodia while in Paramecium it enters through vestibule, Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.011-47623456[ (CBSE, NTSE & Olympiads (Levels) oman 2 8. 14. 45, 16. 17 18, 19. 20. 21 2, 23, 24, 25. 26. 2. 28. 30. 31 32 33, Human alimentary canal comprises mouth, buczal cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus. Digestive glands include salivary glands, gastric glands, liver, pancreas and intestinal glands. Gastric juice contains ~ HCI which disinfects the food and creates an acidic medium which facilitates the action of pepsin, Bile secreted from liver contains bile salts and bile pigments. Bile salts emulsify fats to facilitate the action of lipase ‘Small intestine is long, greatly coiled tube having three regions - duodenum, jejunum and ileum, The digested food is absorbed in small intestine and enters into the blood and lymph, Respiration is a biochemical process in which the food is oxidised to release energy which is stored in the form of ATP, Respiration in presence of oxygen is called aerobic respiration. The respiratory substrates are compietely broken down to release carbon dioxide and water. Respiration in absence of oxygen is called anaerobic respiration. The respiratory substrates are incompletely broken down to release ethyl alcohol or lactic acid Gaseous exchange in fishes takes place through gills. Human respiratory system consists of tiwo major components - respiratory tract and lungs. Breathing involves inhalation and exhalation. Water and minerals move upward through xylem tracheids and vessels. These cells are dead and thick ‘walled but possess pits for movement of water from cell to:call Transportation of organic solutes from leaves to other parts of planis is called translocation. It occurs through phloem, Blood is the most important fluid connective'lissue. It consists of (a) blood plasma and (b) blood corpuscles. Human heart is four chambered (i) Left atrium, (i) Right atrium, (i) Left ventricle, (iv) Right ventricle, The heart beat is the rhythmic contraction (sjsiole)’and relaxation (diastole) of heart muscles. Lymphatic system transports lymph ffm interstitial spaces, back to the heart. Excretion is a biological process by which an organism gets rid of excess oF toxic waste products of metabolism, Excretory system in human beings consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra, The impure blood entering the nephron is filtered in the glomerulus and Bowman's capsule. The glomerular fitrate passes through a long tube where reabsorption of useful materials takes place. An artificial kidney may be employed in order to get rid of metabolic wastes from the blood in case of kidney failure. The artificial kidney functions on the same principle as the normal kidney except no reabsorption is involved, and the principle is caled dialysis. gaa Corporate Office : Aatash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005, Ph.011-47623456