Coastal Zone and Coastal Resource Management Plan-2018

Y%S ,xld m%cd;dka;%sl iudcjd§ ckrcfha .
eiÜ m;%h
w;s úfYI
The Gazette of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka
EXTRAORDINARY
wxl 2072$58 - 2018 uehs ui 25 jeks isl=rdod - 2018'05'25

No. 2072/58 - friday, May 25, 2018
(Published by Authority)
PART I : SECTION (I) — GENERAL

Government Notifications
Sri Lanka Coastal Zone and Coastal Resource Management Plan - 2018
Prepared under Section 12(1) of the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management
Act, No. 57 of 1981
The Public are hereby informed that the Sri Lanka Coastal Zone and Coastal Resource Management Plan - 2018 was approved
by the cabinet of Ministers on 25th April 2018 and the Plan is implemented with effect from the date of Gazette Notification.
Maithripala Sirisena,
Minister of Mahaweli Development and Environment.
Ministry of Mahaweli Development and Environment,

No. 500, T. B. Jayah Mawatha,
Colombo 10,
23rd May, 2018.
1A PG 04054 - 507 (05/2018)

This Gazette Extraordinary can be downloaded from www.documents.gov.lk
1A
2A I fldgi ( Î& fPoh - YS% ,xld m%cd;dka;s%l iudcjd§ ckrcfha w;s úfYI .eiÜ m;%h - 2018'05'25
Part I : Sec. (I) - GAZETTE EXTRAORDINARY OF THE DEMOCRATIC SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF SRI LANKA - 25.05.2018
CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 THE SCOPE FOR COASTAL ZONE AND COASTAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
1.1.1. Context and Setting
With the increase of population and accelerated economic activities in the coastal region, the requirement
of integrated management focused on conserving, developing and sustainable utilization of Sri Lanka’s
dynamic and resources rich coastal region has long been recognized. A formal management framework was
first adopted by the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Department through the first
generation “Coastal Zone Management Plan” formulated and implemented in 1990 as mandated by Coast
Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Act No.57 of 1981. Subsequently, the CZMP has been
revised and updated respectively in 1997 and 2004. The Coastal Zone and Coastal Resource Management
Plan of 2018 is designed to ensure sustainable use of the coastal environment and its resources in the long
term, consistent with the national development goals.
The reviews and evaluations conducted by the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management
Department with respect to the impacts and outcomes of the policy objectives, strategies and actions, framed
on the identified issues of the past CZMP’s revealed some drawbacks in achieving desired targets. This
was mainly due to a number of factors including, inadequacy of the legally defined “Coastal Zone”, and
the absence of legal provisions for proper planning, implementation and institutionalization of the Special
Management Areas, inability to address issues beyond the legally defined coastal zone and lack of legal
authority to protect conservation areas and public access.
In addition, the impacts and outcomes of the management strategies introduced on integrating coastal fisheries
and aquaculture and the management of sites of special significance has not produced desired results due
to lack of agency cooperation, questions of authority and responsibility. Apart from these inadequacies, the
conflict situation that prevailed in the northern and the eastern region constrained the management of the
entirety of the coastal resources in the country.
1.1.2 Major Deviation from 2004 CZMP
In conformity with the legal provisions of the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management
Amendment Act No.49 of 2011, the Coastal Zone and Coastal Resource Management Plan - 2018 has been
prepared by the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management Department. In considering the
practicality, and the capacity of the CCCRMD, the 2018 Plan focused only on five major areas viz. Shoreline
Management, Coastal Pollution Control, Management of Coastal Habitats, Special Management Areas
and Regulatory Mechanism. The Department has excluded two issues that are addressed through the 2004
CZMP. These issues include management of sites of special significance and public access and the issue of
management of coastal fisheries and aquaculture. This deviation was mainly due to outcomes experienced
by the Department during the implementation phase and the question of authority and responsibility.
However, the regulatory mechanisms for the management of these issues have been emphasized in Chapter
6 – Regulatory Mechanisms.
I fldgi ( Î& fPoh - YS% ,xld m%cd;dka;s%l iudcjd§ ckrcfha w;s úfYI .eiÜ m;%h - 2018'05'25 3A
1.1.3 Post Conflict Opportunities and Development Trends in the Coastal Region
The conflict situation that prevailed for more than 30 years in the northern and the eastern coastal region
has disrupted proper management of the coastal resources in those regions. It is also found that the socio-
economic status of the coastal communities in the country has been degraded rapidly due to the conflict
situation. However with the eradication of terrorism in the country in 2009, ample opportunities have
been opened for economic development based on the resources of the coastal region. Accordingly, the
government is accorded high priority to developing some of the major economic hubs viz. the Maritime
hub, the Tourism hub and the Energy hub within the coastal region. The rapid development of tourism
industry in the coastal region has clearly shown the need for balancing conservation requirements with the
development need. Similarly development of commercial ports such as Hambantota provides an example
of planned development in the coastal region. The policy objectives, management strategies, development
guidelines and standards introduced through this plan will further improve the status and quality of the
coastal environment whilst accommodating development needs.
1.2 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COASTAL ZONE
1.2.1 The Bio- physical Characteristic
The coastal environment of Sri Lanka is influenced by its location in the northern part of the Indian Ocean,
between 5° 54’ and 9° 52’ North Latitude and 79° 39’ and 81° 53’ East Longitude.The coastal area is
positioned in the lowest of the three peneplains forming the island, and generally consists of flat coastal
plains averaging an elevation of less than 100 ft (30 m) (CZMP 2004). The lowest peneplain containing
the coastal plains extends outward from the island and under the sea as the continental shelf for a width of
5-25 miles (about 8-40 km) in most parts, and at an average depth of 216 ft (about 65 m) below sea level.
The continental shelf is narrow around the southern part of the island,but widens considerably towards the
north where it merges with the shelf around India.Sri Lanka has a coastline of approximately 1,620 km
including the shoreline of bays and inlets, but excluding lagoons.
The transverse type coastline in the southwest and northeast is characterized by a series of pictures que
sandy bays protected on either side by rocky headlands; the southwesternn coastline also has many complex
systems of lakes and lagoons with sinuous shapes (CZMP2004). The bay of Trincomalee on the northeastern
coast described as “the most perfect natural harbour of the Indian ocean is of particular significance. The
northwestern and southeastern coastlines exhibit lagoons, sandbars, banks and spits that sometimes extend
over many kilometres. The presence around the island of the continental shelf with shallow waters has
permitted the formation of coral reefs along the coastline amidst well-developed reefs of sandstone and
rock. Large deposits of coral are also found inland in the coastal region, particularly between Ambalangoda
and Matara, chief among which are the Akurala deposits. Some segments along the southwest coastline
are retreating due to natural erosive action of the sea compounded by anthropogenic activities such as river
sand mining and destruction of the protective coral reefs. In contrast, some areas of the northwestern and
southeastern coastlines are advancing due to accretion.
The coastal landscape contains a very dynamic transition zone between the sea, land and atmosphere, and is
formed as a result of sea and atmospheric forces on the landmass and the supply of sediments to the coast. Sri
Lanka has 103 rivers, most of which radiate from the hill country and flow down to the seaforming estuaries
that are important features of the coastal landscape and provide vital habitats for species of commercial and
subsistence use. These rivers transport large amounts of sand, silt and clay essential for beach nourishment;
but they are also carriers of pollutants that degrade the quality of coastal waters and habitats. Throughout
its length, the Coastal Zone contains a variety of terrestrial habitats that include sandy beaches, barrier
beaches, sand spits and dunes, rocky shores, mangroves and salt marshes. Equally important are the coral
reefs, lagoons, estuaries, and sea grass beds in the coastal waters. These systems help maintain vital physical
processes, fulfill eco system services and functions and provide land, goods and services (CZMP 2004).
1.2.2 The Impact of the 2004 Tsunami
The Asian tsunami that struck on 26th December 2004 was probably the worst natural disaster in the Sri
Lankan history, because of the numbers of people affected, its extent and complexity. As a result of massive
destruction, major part of the coastal zone and its bio-physical resource have been lost or damaged. The
Tsunami left more than 38,000 people dead and another 7,100 missing. According to the Government figures
around one million people are affected (5 percent of the total population), i.e. they lost family members, were
injured, lost their belongings, and/or have assets, land and/or houses that are partially or completely damaged.
Besides other impacts, drinking water sources have been severely damaged due to the tsunami in the coastal
region. A rough estimate revealed that at least 12,000 wells were damaged mainly by salt water intrusion
and approximately 50,000 were abandoned. There has been a major loss of water resources surrounding
the affected coastal areas. In many cases the domestic water supply (wells) have been contaminated by salt
water, dead bodies and pollutants from the disruption of chemical containers or other infrastructure.(MIND
2004). In terms of impacts on coastal resources, much has been reported on damage to the coral reefs, but
spatially varied. Corals were damaged at all sites of Tangalle, Kudawella, Kapparatota/Weligama, Polhena,
Unwatuna and Hikkaduwa. Besides coral reefs, mangroves have been notably damaged due to the tsunami
in areas such as Tangalle, Panama, Vaharai, Sallaitivu and Akkaraipattu.
THE ROLE OF THE CC&CRMD IN COASTAL ZONE AND COASTAL RESOURCES

1.3
MANAGEMENT
From the inception of the coastal zone management programme, the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources
Management Department, an attempt has been made to balance the conservation objectives with development
needs of the country. The role of the CC&CRMD was somewhat different from traditional notion of conservation
performed by other government agencies responsible for conservation of the environment. In considering the
dynamic nature of the coastal zone, multiplicity of coastal ecosystem services and functions, and benefits derived
from the coastal environment, specific attention was placed on planned management not confined to written policy
objectives but with wider stakeholder consultation. In the process of coastal resources management, particular
concern is focussed on ensuring provision of basic needs for coastal communities without impediments from
competing uses and improving the quality of life.
The planning decisions of the CC&CRMD always pay careful attention on the social cost of the command and
control instrument used in coastal resource management and the un-recognized value of the services of the
coastal ecosystems. Further more, a bottom up collaborative approach is being promoted and adopted in resources
management, where possible.
CC&CRMD aims to accomplish Mission
“The sustainable development of coastal resources and the management of coastal processes to
optimize social, economic and environmental status of Sri Lanka
Desired Objectives
To fulfill the Mission, the four objectives that drive the CC & CRMD are:
 To improve status of the coastal environment.

 To develop and manage the coastline.
 To improve the living standards of coastal communities and resource users.
 To promote and facilitate economic development based upon coastal resources.
Results to be Envisaged
 Quality of coastal lands and waters improved.
 Conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity ensured.
 Optimal economic potential of coastal lands realized.
 Development of the Coastal Zone regulated.
 New economic opportunities created.
 Quality of life of coastal communities improved.
 Facilities for recreational use provided.
 Scientific/scenic/historical/archaeological and cultural sites conserved.
1.3.1 Key Achievements
The outstanding achievements of the CC&CRMD during the past three decades are given below:
 Mitigating impacts of coastal erosion up to a substantial level.

 Considerably reducing beach sand mining.
 Complete halt of coral mining
 Ensuring application of environmental impact assessment (EIA/IEA) process for coastal
development.
 Ensuring permit compliance.
 Establishing coastal access.
 Enhancing awareness of coastal issues, including curriculum development for schools.
 Enhance community awareness and education on coastal resource management
 Promoting community participation in coastal resource management.
 Introducing Special Management Areas as an effective supplementary ICM tool
 Introducing legal framework for collaborative coastal resource management.
1.3.2 External Technical Assistance
The CC&CRMD has been successful in receiving external technical assistance in the past to counter or
mitigate the consequences of coastal issues that threaten the long-term stability of the Coastal Zone. Chief
among these are the Coastal Erosion Management Programme consisting of two DANIDA funded projects
(1987-1989 and 1990 -1992), NORAD funded HICZMP (1999-2001), GEF funded Rekawa Ussangoda
Kalametiya Bio diversity Conservation Programme (1994-1998) the USAID funded Coastal Resources
Management Programme - Phases I and II (1985 – 1991, 1991-1997), the CCD/GTZ funded Coast
Conservation Project (1988-1996), ADB-GoN funded Coastal Resourcse Management Project (2001-2007)
and GEF/IFAD funded Participatory Coastal Zone Restoration and Sustainable Management Project of the
Eastern Province (2009-2016).
1.4 THE COASTAL ZONE AND COASTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT PLAN - 2018
1.4.1 New Legal Provisions through 2011 CC Act Amendments
Since 1983 Oct.1st the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Act, No.57 of 1981came into
operation and the coastal zone, its resources and the development activities taking place within the coastal
zone were primarily managed, based on the provisions of the above Act. During the course of planning
and implementation of management, it was realized that, the vacuum of the provisions of the principle
Act has created negative impacts on the planning and management outputs and outcomes. Accordingly,
amendment to the principle act was made in 1988 through Coast Conservation Amendment Act, No.64.
The 1988 amendments were mainly directed on enhancing regulatory powers on coral and sand mining
activities, right of public access to the beaches and demolition of limekilns located within the coastal zone.
With the expansion of scope of the coastal resource management over time and the increase of coastal
issues due to both anthropogenic and natural phenomena, the requirement of new legal provisions have
been long felt. The need for introducing new legal provisions surfaced in the areas of institutionalizing
Special Management Area Process, legitimacy for community participation in collaborative management,
expansion of legally defined coastal zone, managing human activities outside the coastal zone that have
a direct impact on the coastal zone, managing public access and managing open spaces and access.
In view of the above, the government introduced second amendment to the principle act through Coast
Conservation Amendment Act, No. 49 of 2011. The concerned areas of the amendments are;
 Redefining the “coastal zone” incorporating riparian land of the water bodies that connected to the
sea within the coastal zone.
 Preparation of a “Coastal Zone and Coastal Resources Management Plan”.
 Provisions for declaration of affected areas within or beyond the coastal zone.
 Provision for declaration of beach parks and conservation areas.
 Provision for designation and institutionalization of Special Management Areas
 Provision for formulating a coastal access plan.

Figure 1.1 :“COASTAL ZONE” THE NEW DEFINITION (ILLUSTRATED)

(As per the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Act, No. 57 of 1981 as
amended by the Act, No. 49 of 2011)
1.4.2 The Preparatory Process
The “Coastal Zone and Coastal Resources Management Plan -2018” has been formulated in conformity
with the legal provisions of the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management Act, No. 57 of
1981, amended by Coast Conservation (Amendment )Act, No.64 of 1988 and Act, No. 49 of 2011. The
CZCRMP - 2018 was prepared through a participatory process and extensive field investigations and studies
to ensure the reliability of information and adequate level of issue identification and analysis. Each chapter
was compiled by a Technical Working Group comprised of professionals, CC&CRMD officials and other
relevant government officials. To fulfill the information requirement, primary and secondary information on
each issue was compiled through five studies. The chapters were reviewed through participatory workshops
and public and other agency agreement was obtained through consultative process prior to finalization
covering all coastal districts.
1.4.3 Structure and the Content of the Plan
The Coastal Zone and Coastal Resource Management Plan (CZCRMP) is separated into six Chapters.
Chapters 2-6 are issue related and deal with keyproblems being addressed through integrated coastal
zone and coastal resources management. The chapters on Shoreline Management (Chapter 2), Conserving
Coastal Habitats (Chapter 3), Controlling Coastal Water Pollution(Chapter 4), Special Management Area
(Chapter 5), and Regulatory Mechanism (Chapter 6) are formulated with primary and secondary information
gathered through studies, previous CZM Plan(1990, 1997, 2004), and other secondary sources.Each issue
related chapter provides an insight into the status of the coastal resource or problem needing management
interventions (as relevant); the issues to be addressed; and the existing plans, policies,programmes, laws,
institutional mechanisms and enforcement regimes that influence management interventions. Each of the
issue related chapters contains management objectives, related policies and proposed actions for management.
Each objective has been drafted in this Plan as a desired state, and corresponds to a key coastal problem
requiring management interventions. The policies indicate the broadcourses of action that will be supported
and adopted to realize each objective. The strategies target keyissues and suggest the different interventions
or plans of action that can help achieve a particular objective. The proposed actions identify the specific
steps required to pursue a particular strategy.
Chapter 2
2. SHORELINE MANAGEMENT
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The problem of coastal erosion could be identified as the major triggering factor leading to the initiation of the Coastal
Zone Management Programme of Sri Lanka. The development of the programme can be mainly categorized into
three distinct periods in terms of its magnitude, related causes, public perceptions, management measures adopted
and policy responses. In the early stage, the problem of coastal erosion was experienced mainly from the southern
part of the island and was viewed as a natural phenomenon and handled on an ad-hoc basis. There was no single
responsible agency vested with the responsibility for coast protection, and a number of government agencies such
as Public Works Department (PWD), Colombo Port Commission and Ceylon Government Railway (CGR) carried
out coast protection work mainly focused on a “Hold the Line Approach” that was confined to construction of hard
structures such as revetments, seawalls and groynes. However, the problem of erosion aggravated and began to be
perceived as a major environmental and socio-economic issue overtime. By the 1970’s, the perception changed as
significant cumulative impact in the form of loss of coastal land and properties, infrastructure such as roads and
railway lines and damage to coastal habitats became obvious. At this stage, coastal erosion problem came to be
viewed as a significant socio-economic and environmental issue, and developed into a public demand for proper
management. The required institutional mechanism was setup with the formation of Coast Conservation Division in
1978 under the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources. Thereafter a management programme was initiated at
a moderate level. During this period, institutional capacities were also enhanced by formulating a legal framework
parallel to the engineering work being implemented. The third distinct period of the programme development could
be identified with the formulation of Master Plan for Coastal Erosion Management in 1986 and its subsequent
implementation, under the DANIDA Stage 1 and DANIDA Stage 2 projects from 1987, and the ADB funded CRMP
from 2001-2007. At this phase, planned coast protection was carried out based on the best available engineering
information, simultaneously with the implementation of other management options such as controlling sand and
coral mining, conserving coastal habitats, curtailing haphazard development and enhancing public awareness and
education.
The above management approach that the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management Department
adopted in controlling coastal erosion was able to produce positive outcomes. The overall socio-economic and
environmental benefits gained from the management measures exceeded the cost incurred. These benefits are reflected
in the areas of protection of land and properties, infrastructure, tourist establishments, fisheries infrastructure as
well as in the livelihoods and employment generated in the coastal region.
2.1.1 Nature of the Problem
Coastal erosion is a significant and continuing problem in varying degree in Sri Lanka, which results
in socio-economic and environmental repercussions. Erosion occurs due to both natural causes and
anthropogenic interventions and entails public and private cost. These include the loss of beaches, disruption
of recreational and tourism activities, damage to public and private properties and infrastructure. It also
includes a substantial annual expenditure on coast protection, emergency and disaster relief work. According
to current information, a sum of SL Rs. 1520 million has been spent on coastal erosion management during
the period 1985 – 1999, SL Rs. 3 billion spent during 2001- 2007 under the ADB funded Coastal Resources
Management Project. In addition a further amount of US$ 1.4 Million was spent on coastal rehabilitation
under the Tsunami Affected Area Rehabilitation Programme(TAARP). Beside this, a total of two billion
rupees was spent on sand replenishment and other major coast protection in southern, western and north
western coastal stretches to date. However, the incidence of coastal erosion reported from the northern
and the eastern coastal segments of the country during the last three decades was insignificant. Similarly
the investment incurred on coast protection was also at minimum level in respect of the northern and the
eastern coastal segments.
Reduction in supply of sand to the beaches is identified as one of the crucial factors underlying the coastal
erosion problem. Long shore currents created by the wind and swell waves, mainly transported sand from
one location to other location along coast. It is a continuous process and erosion is not significant if the coast
comprises of beaches with sufficient continuous supply of sand. If sufficient sand supply is not available in
the beaches to accommodate the longshore transport processor if the beach is blocked by coastal structures,
then the coastal erosion is inevitable in the adjacent beach.
As per the current information available with CC & CRMD, a high rate of coastal erosion has been reported
from the coastal segment lying north of Lansigama during the last five years (2007-2012), similar to the
higher erosion rates reported during 2000- 2005 in Mahaoya- Lansigama coastal segment. Similarly, a
significant coastal erosion (localized) rate has been reported from the coastal stretch lying north of Oluvil
Harbour in 2010. The emergency coastal erosion incidence reported from 2010-2013 is given in Table 2.1.
In terms of coastal accretion, the reported rates are lower than the coastal erosion rate and only occur in
a few locations. As indicated in Table 2.1, the emergency coastal erosion incidence reported during the
period of 2010 -2013 demonstrates that despite the management strategies adopted through structural and
non-structural solutions, coastal erosion is a continuing problem in the country.
Table 2.1 Reported location of Emergency Coastal Erosion 2010 -2013
Coastal District Location Description/Remarks
Puttalam Kudawa-Kandakuliya
Muthupanthiya –NagulEliya
Arachchikattuwa
Illanthidiya-Norachchola Beach
Thalwila-Ambakandawila Beach,
Marawila Beach
Modara - Barudalpola Beach
Kappaladiya
Gampaha Maha Oya
Uswetakeiyawa
Wattala Hendala
Paranaambalama
Dungalpitiya
Coastal District Location Description/Remarks
Colombo Wedikanda –Ratmalana

Dehiwala –Mt. Lavinia
Kalutara Magalkanda Beach
Beruwala – Maggona
Pothupitiya
Beruwala - Maradana
Beruwala - Kechchimale
Galle Ahangama
Unawatuna
Palutagaha
Goyambokka Beach
Gintota
Ahangama
Induruwa
Boossa
Dodanduwa
Matara Kotuwegoda
Hambantota Welipatanwila
Pallikudawa
Yarawatta
Tangalle
Unakuruwa
Ampara Oluvil
Kalmunai
Trincomalee Verugal
Murugan kovil- Kuchchaveli
Near Salli- MuthuAmman kovil
Kinniya
Muthur
Mannar Arippu
(Source: Shoreline Status report 2014)
Cross shore transport by waves in rough sea period brings sediment to the shore. Usually most of the
sediment is retained nearshore and provided back to the beach by waves during the calm season. As such
beach erosion in rough period and accretion during calm season is seasonal and could be considered as
natural behaviour of the beach.
Due to the fact that only a limited area is available to accommodate natural behaviour of the coast, hard
coastal structures are the instant or cheapest solution to cope with the erosion and to protect coastal lands
and properties. In some instances,such coastal structures may also create erosion in the adjacent beach after
a period.
2.1.2 Past Management Activities and its effectiveness
Early Initiatives
The early interventions carried out prior to 1970’s in controlling coastal erosion could be identified as
temporary solutions due to their adhoc nature. The linkages between anthropogenic activities, especially
the resources extraction practices and consequent coastal erosion has not been recognized. At this stage, the
engineering solutions mainly focused on a “hold the line” principle. This was due to the loss of flexibility
in the coastline associated with urbanization of the particular coastal stretch. In this process, the totality
and the dynamic nature of the coastal segment as well as human activities taking place have not been taken
into consideration. In the absence of planned infrastructure development in the coastal zone, the erosion
incidence occurring during the monsoon period has created negative impacts on those infrastructure facilities
disrupting social and economic well being of the coastal communities. Thus, the overall effectiveness of
early coast protection interventions could be categorized as being at a lower level, while indirect impacts
were kept to a moderate level.
Initiatives carried out in early 1980’s
The schemes of planned coast protection were commenced with the inception of Coast Conservation
Unit under the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources in 1978. Subsequently it was upgraded to
the status of a Government Department in January 1984 in recognition of the magnitude of the task it is
mandated to perform. The planned coast protection measures adopted in this period were mainly restricted
to the construction of revetments, groins, and gabion walls. In addition, other management measures were
implemented to control resources extraction practices such as coral and sand mining in the coastal zone.
The effectiveness of such planned coast protection measures were higher than the coast protection measures
carried out prior to 1970’s. However, as a result of hard solution adopted to curb coastal erosion, beach
scene operations and some of the recreational activities as well as vertical and lateral public access along
the beaches have been disrupted.
Initiatives under MPCEM
The overall approach adopted in coastal erosion management was turned into a proper path with the
formulation of Master Plan for Coastal Erosion (MPCEM) which advocated long term optimal measures in
August 1986 under the technical assistance provided by DANIDA. As a result of comprehensive technical,
environmental, economic and social analysis carried out by a dedicated team of specialist both from
Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Department and the Danish Hydraulic Institute.
The problem of erosion in Sri Lanka was defined within the constraints of limited information and the
Master Plan recommended the best possible technical approach towards mitigation and also defined the
capital investment required for such actions. Since 1986, the coastal erosion management measures have
been implemented through DANIDA Stage 1(1987-1989), DANIDA Stage 2 (1990-1992) GTZ - German
Technical Cooperation ((1988-1996), ADB and GOSL funded CRMP (2000-2007), mainly based on
MPCEM. The coast protection measures under the MPCEM was spatially formulated and categorized based
on coastal segments with key areas and singular cases comprising structural solutions such as offshore
breakwaters with sand nourishment, revetments and groins. In addition, other management solutions such as
application of setback standards for coastal development, enforcement of regulatory measures to minimize
sand and coral mining and enhancement of public education and awareness were also implemented. The
effectiveness and outcome of planned coast protection carried out under the MPCEM has demonstrated a
higher level of success with moderate indirect impacts.
It is also evident that substantial amount of social, environmental and economic benefits were derived from
these measures although it has not been quantified as yet. The benefits gained from the past coast protection
measures are mainly perceptible in the areas of protecting highways and railway lines, public and private
dwellings, fisheries infrastructure facilities tourism and recreational facilities. In addition, the need for
private investment on coast protection has been drastically reduced after implementation of MPCEM.
2.2 ISSUES, THREATS AND CHALLENGES
2.2.1 Natural processes and events contributing to coastal erosion
Many segments of the Sri Lanka’s coastline are subject to continuing retreat and accretion; some changes
occurred seasonally while others are more permanent. The natural processes contributing to coastal erosion
are as follows;
 Natural variations in the sand supply to the coast from some rivers.
 Loss of sand inland due to breaching and wash-over of a sand berm
 Offshore sand loss during extreme wave and storm surge conditions
 Loss of sand due to presence of canyons
 Deposition of sand at sand spits and dunes
 Loss of coastal vegetation
 Tsunami, cyclones and other episodic events
 Loss of material from “nodal areas”
 Sea level rise
Among the other factors, the most important factor contributing to coastal erosion in Sri Lanka is the
imbalance of the littoral sediment budget. The littoral transport results mainly from the action of monsoon
generated short crested wind waves and long crested swell waves on the near shore sediment. Thus coastal
erosion through the actions of waves, currents and winds results in the loss of sediment in some places.
There is a considerable variation in the supply of sediment to the beach and loss of sand from the beaches
due to the longshore transport capacity. The erosion taking place in the southwest coast is mainly due to
the high capacity of littoral drift than the supply from the rivers to the beaches. The erosion reported from
the coastal stretch located north of Negombo is compounded by the straightness of the coastline and is
particularly severe because of a high deficit in the littoral budget due to sand mining in the Maha Oya. As
per the prevailing information, sand supply along the south coast is also low, but the coastline is relatively
stable due to the bay and headland features predominant.
The global sea level is expected to rise with 30- 40 cm in the 21st century according to the IPCC mid estimates
based on the linear melting of the ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica due to increased emission level of
green house gases. Thus it is difficult to disregard the potential increase of coastal erosion due to sea level
rise. However, it is more complicated to quantify the level of erosion when it comes to coastlines in the
vicinity of inlets, such as river mouths, lagoons and estuaries. These places are affected by other factors,
such as inundation with heavy rainfall, basin filling impacts and impacts due to salt water intrusion. Those
impacts along the water bodies will be accelerated remarkably with sea level rise.
One of the causes of natural coastal erosion is an increasing gradient in transport rate in the direction of
the net transport of the system. This can be due to changes in the wave conditions at certain stretches, a
curved coastline, or special bathymetric conditions.The loss of sand inland due to breaching and over-wash
of barrier islands and wind transport lost to offshore during extreme wave and storm surge conditions. The
high waves cause the bars to move seawards and the high storm surges also cause an offshore movement
of sand due to non-equilibrium in the profile during the high surge.
The loss of sand to an accumulative beach occurs at the tip of a sand spit and into deep water at the
leeward side of the tip of sand spit at the termination point of a littoral cell. Sand lost in this way causes
accumulative shore and shoal features in the deposition areas, but the upstream coastline has lost the sand.
The loss of material from a protruding area to one or two sides is a natural cause of coastal erosion.Erosion
can occur of the marine deposit shorelines suspended between sections of protruding semi-hard sections
of the coastline, such as sandstone. The hard sections have historically provided material for building up
the sedimentary shorelines. The shape of these shorelines is consequently dependent on the presence of
the semi-hard sections and the wave climate. However, as the semi-hard sections continue to erode, the
sedimentary shorelines will follow suit despite the fact that they were originally accumulative forms.
Another cause of natural coastal erosion is very oblique wave approach to the coastline.Along such coastlines
there is a tendency for the natural formation of spits parallel to the coast. They accumulate the sand and
shift the sand supply offshore, which means that the downstream coastline is starved and begins to erode.
2.2.2 Impacts of 2004 Tsunami on Coast Protection and Coastal Erosion
The Asian tsunami struck Sri Lanka’s coastal region as a leading elevation wave on 26th December 2004
two hours after the Indonesian earthquake. One to three waves were reported depending upon the location
with a height of 1m to 15 m. The highest wave height occurred in Koddiyar with 15m in Ampara district
and 12 m each at Kurukulamadam and Hambantota town. A 10m height occurred at Mankerni, Pottuvil,
Punnaikudah (Batticaloa district) Kirinda and Ratupasgodella, while Kahandamodera and Peraliya recorded
8m respectively. Tsunami waves first arrived on the eastern coast and to the other parts of Sri Lanka
covering 12 out of 14 coastal administrative districts. Tsunami waves inundated the southwestern part
with varying intensity depending upon topography and coastal defense. The sea water inundation varied
considerably from few meters to 3.5km inland. The maximum inundation was recorded at 2km in Batticaloa
and Kuchchaveli in Trincomalee. In Peraliya inundation was reported about 2km inland. On the southern
coast, the inundation limit went to about 3.5 km in the lagoon system.(Survey of the December 26th Indian
Ocean Tsunami in Sri Lanka, James Goff, International Tsunami Survey Team -TST).
The impacts of the tsunami were severe on the coastal zone where there had been some degree of human
induced environmental damage such as removal of sand dunes, coral reefs and coastal vegetation. As per the
damage assessment carried out by Coastal Resources Management Project (CRMP) just after the tsunami,
it was revealed that a number of coast protection structures were damaged in the south west coast while
some coastal stretches and sand spits have been severely eroded.
2.2.3 Anthropogenic Activities that Accelerate Erosion
The coastal engineering investigations carried out in Sri Lanka in the past, clearly revealed the correlation
between accelerating coastal erosion and the human activities taking place within and outside the coastal
zone. This was further confirmed through socio-economic surveys and studies conducted with respect to
human activities such as sea coral mining, sand mining from the beaches and the rivers and construction
of dams across the water ways and construction of coastal structures. A summary of human activities and
their impacts which contribute to coastal erosion are presented in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Human Activities with an Impact on Coastal Stability in Sri Lanka
Activity Current Result Effect on coast Example of site

status effected
Beach sand mining Moderate Reduction of beach sand Induces coast erosion Panadura,Lunawa
volume available for
littoral processes
River sand mining High Reduction of river sand Increase coastal and river Kelani, Nilwala,Maha
supply to the beaches bank erosion Oya, Kalu Ganga
Salt intrusion to river
upstream
Collecting coral from Low Reduction of volume of Reduce materials to the Rekawa
beaches and shore beach materials beaches, Induces coast Ahangama
face Reduction of corals erosion
to reformation and
developments of natural
coral reefs
Coral mining, reef Low Damages to the natural Increase wave energy on Seenigama
breaking barriers, creation of gaps beaches and increase coast Rekawa
in reefs erosion,
Construction of High Reduction of coastal Causes damages to the Unawatuna
buildings and other stability buildings and structures, Hikkaduwa
structures too close accelerate coastal and
to the beach and on dune erosion
dunes
Maintenance dredging Moderate Removal of sand from the Induce coastal erosion Colombo port
in access channels littoral budget
Removal and loss of Moderate Reduction of coastal Induce dune and coastal Erosion to be expected
coastal vegetation stability, creation of erosion along all sedimentary
exposed areas for wind and shores.
coastal erosion
Construction of Moderate Reduction of coastal Induce of erosion or huge Palliyawatta,
unplanned or poorly stability in adjacent coast accretion in adjacent coast Negombo
planned rigid coastal Oluvil harbour
structures
The impacts of above listed human activities contributed significantly to coastal erosion but in varying
degrees depending on the effectiveness of management measures adopted by the Coast Conservation and
Coastal Resources Management Department.
Mostly rigid coastal structures such as groynes, detached breakwaters, sea walls, port and inlet jetties at
tidal inlets and river mouths, revetments that are interference with the littoral transport also contribute to
coastal erosion. The presence of such structure has a series of effects viz:
• Trapping of sand on the upstream side of the structure takes sand out of the sediment budget, thus
causing shore erosion along adjacent shorelines, mainly on the lee side.
• Changes in the wave reflection pattern, hence changes in the wave energy distribution offshore, onshore
and longshore.
• May change movement of the existing coastal current pattern and tidal movement.
• Loss of sand to offshore.
• Trapping of sand in entrance channels and outer harbours.
Development Activities that cause Negative Impacts on the Stability of the Coast
Besides the hard maritime structures, other development activities mainly the buildings and other
constructions related to tourism, commerce and dwelling purposes located too close to the beach front
restricts coastal process and could accelerate erosion in the coastal zone. In addition, irrigation schemes,
dams and tanks constructed interior to the coastal zone created negative impacts on the stability of the coast
by reducing sand supply to the coast. This situation was evident in the absence of development control
mechanisms and environmental impact assessment procedures in the past. Prior to implementation of Coast
Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Act and the National Environmental Act, there were no
legal and institutional mechanisms to direct such development to avoid negative impacts on the stability
of coast.
Sand Mining in the Rivers
Removal of sand from the river system directly reduces the supply of sediments to the beaches and is
widely identified as the major cause of coastal erosion in Sri Lanka. The national sand requirement has
continuously increased parallel to the growth of the construction industry since late 1970’s and reached
into a significant level with the economic thrust placed after culmination of the conflict situation in the
northern and the eastern part of the country in 2009. The present sand requirement for the entire country
has been estimated at approximately 21 Million cubic meters per year in which major portion is fulfilled
from river sand.
Despite many controlling measures, sand mining in rivers has taken place at a high level in the North
Western, Western, and the Southern provinces where much of the construction activity and major coastal
erosion problems are concentrated. However, with the drastic increase of demand and regulatory restrictions
imposed on river sand mining, the price of the river sand has been significantly increased while attention on
alternative sources such as offshore and land based deposits has also increased. It is also important to note
that, Mahaweli Ganga (Manampitiya and Mahiyangana) is also added to the list of places of a significant
level of river sand mining in addition to Kelani Ganga, Deduru Oya, Maha Oya, Kalu Ganga, and Nilwala
Ganga.
The overall sand mining in rivers at unprecedented rates to meet the current requirement of the construction
industry evidently demonstrates the unsustainable status and inevitability in degrading river beds as well as
decrease of sand supply to the beaches. It is not worthy to predict severe environmental degradation in the
future, if current rate of sand mining continues at Mahiyangana and Manampitiya based on sand sources
from Mahaweli Ganga. The authorized volume of sand mined from the rivers through GSMB permits has
been depicted in Table 2.4.
It should also be noted that the river sand mining is unsustainable and a long-standing problem that is coupled
with socio-economic snags. The impacts of river sand mining are irreversible in the short and medium
term. Thus the reactive policy responses will not serve to re-establish the sand supply to the coast from
several effected rivers in the short or medium term. In view of the current situation, the policy responses
should focus on application of multi management approach that constitute with; (a) regulating river sand
mining more effectively to avoid worsening of the current situation and allowing replenishment of the
rivers subject to heavy mining in the past (b) curtailing over exploitation in all river system (c) initiating a
further national sand study to explore and promote alternatives and to determine sustainable yields more
accurately.
The demand for sand has increased day by day due to growth of the construction industry in the country
specially after culmination of the conflict situation. As per the annual usage of cement, the annual sand
consumption has been estimated and depicted in Table 2.3.
Sand Mining on the Beaches and Dunes
Corresponding to the increased demand and the higher prices, sand mining from the beaches and dunes
also increased in the recent past, irrespective of suitability or quality standards required for the construction
industry. In contrast to the volume of river sand mining in the country, beach sand mining is not significant.
Although the quantity of sand extracted annually from the beaches and dunes is less, beach sand mining
is much more damaging to the stability of the coast than the river sand mining since it has instantaneous
impacts on the deficit of the littoral sand budget.
However, sand mining from the beaches has been drastically reduced due to the management measures
adopted by the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management Department through enforcement
of regulations, enhancement of public education and awareness and coordination with other agencies. In
considering the small quantities of beach sand requirement for the coastal communities for religious and
other purpose, issue of permits for sand removal (not exceeding 2 cubes) from pre-identified locations has
been delegated among Divisional Secretaries under the provisions of the Coast Conservation and Coastal
Resources Management Act. Subsequently, issuance of such permits through DSD’s for sand removal from
the beaches also discontinued.
In spite of the management measures effectively implemented by the CC&CRMD, sand removal from
the dune systems has increased considerably in the Northwestern, Eastern and the Northern provinces in
the recent past. The unauthorized removal of sand from the dune system in the Eastern and the Northern
coastal segments could not be regulated due to conflict situation that prevailed in those areas in the past.
Thus some of the valuable dune systems have been significantly damaged.
Table 2.3 Annual Sand Consumption 2003 – 2012*
Sand(m3) 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
(000’)
Total Sand 8082 6339.6 8986.2 12214.8 13514.4 12873.6 11358 13507.2 17247.6 21110.4
Consumption
*
Based on Annual Cement Consumption - Formula: 3.6 m3 of Sand = 1 ton of Cement (Sources:
Byrne G. et al. 2002, Alternative for river sand, Unpublished report CRMP, 2002)
Table 2.4 Annual Volume of River Sand Mining through permits issued by GSMB
Year Extraction (Million m3)

2005 2.6
2006 5.35
2007 0.367
2008 0.266
2009 4.7
2010 4.83
2011 8.97
2012 8.97
Table 2.5 Quantity of offshore sand pumping for the requirement of construction
industry of Sri Lanka from 2004 – 2013
Period Volume/Quantity
2004-2012 2.8 million m 3
2011-2013 3.7 million m 3
Source: Sri Lanka Land Reclamation and Development Corporation (SLRDC) records
Coral Mining
Coral is the principle source of lime for the construction industry in Sri Lanka until recent time and supplied
approximately 90% of the lime requirement. Sea coral mining from the nearshore areas were reported in the
west and the south coast and some parts of the eastern coastal areas causing a significant level of coastal
erosion. Although coral has been mined for almost four hundred years in certain parts of the coastline, it
was confined to a low level and only from the relic reefs behind beaches. The growth of the construction
industry since late 1970’s has led to accelerated sea coral mining which involves the destruction of living
reefs that act as barriers against wave action. As per the available records, it was revealed that inland and
sea coral extraction from the west and south coast has increased from 18,000 tons in 1984 to 30,500 tons
in 1998. With the enforcement of stringent regulatory action under the Coast Conservation Amendment
Act No. 84 of 1988 banning operating lime kilns, possession, processing and transporting corals within the
coastal zone, the amount of sea coral mining has declined from 7,660 tons in 1984 to 2,200 tons in 1994.
In this context, coral mining and related socio economic and environmental impacts were frequent focal
themes of discussion in the subject of Integrated Coastal Resources Management (ICRM) in Sri Lanka.
Thus, to control coral mining, comprehensive management strategy was adopted by the CC&CRMD since
1978, comprising regulations, introducing and promoting substitutes for coral based lime, enhancing public
education and awareness and providing alternative employment to people engaged in coral mining. As
result of these management measures, the level of sea coral mining was maintained at a lower level up to
2004. However, with the tsunami disaster that struck Sri Lanka’s coastal region in 2004, sea coral mining
has been drastically reduced or almost halted with the self-realization of its ecological and environmental
importance of reefs among the coastal communities especially in the southern province.
Table 2.6: Coral mined from Coastal Zone of Sri Lanka’s Western and
Southern Coastal Sector
Type of Amount % of Amount % of Amount % of AMOUNT

coral 1984 total 1992 total 1998 total 2013(tons)
(tons) (tons) (tons)
Inland coral 10,400 58 15,800 80 28,300 93 Not report-
ed
Sea coral 7,660 42 4,020 20 2,200 7 Not report-
ed
Total 18,060 100 19,820 100 30,500 100 Not report-
ed
Source: Coastal Zone Management Plan - 2004
2.2.4 Future Impacts of Climate Change
The potential climate change effects, especially the global warming resulting in sea temperatures and
sea level rise, increased frequency and magnitude of tropical storms and other extreme events will have
negative impacts on coastal processes, ecosystems and human wellbeing. Although the global mean sea
level rise is an important aspect, the relative sea level rise is the main factor determining impacts on the
coast. According to the central estimate predicted by the International Panel of Climate Change (IPCC), the
global sea level may rise 0.2 cm and 0.5 cm by years 2010 and 2050 respectively. In consistancy with the
possible rise of temperature and relative sea level, it is expected to cause shoreline retreat, inundation of
low-lying areas and vulnerable areas, salt water intrusion into the inland water bodies, geomorphological
changes in sediment transport and damage to the coastal habitats such as coral reefs. In addition, sea level
rise will create negative impacts on fisheries, tourism and other beach uses and coast protection and other
structures that have not been designed to withstand such effects.
According to the Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment conducted by Ministry of Environment and
Renewable Energy in 2011, sea level rise exposure on important sectors such as urban development, human
settlement and economic infrastructure, water, agriculture and forestry, biodiversity and eco system services,
livestock have been investigated and highly vulnerable areas have been identified. The Figure 2.1 depicts
the sea level rise exposure map. Based on the IPCC predictions, inundated areas due to predicted sea level
rise at the end of 25, 50, 75 and 100 years including the areas covered presently as water bodies are given
in Table 2.8.
Estimated coastal erosion due to sea level rise as per the Bruun Rule (1:100 ratios) is as follows:
After 25 years coastal erosion extent = 50 m

Table 2.7: Projected Inundated Area in each district including/excluding Water Bodies
District Total Inundated Area (ha) Including water Additional Inundated Area (ha) Excluding
bodies water bodies
25 year 50 year 75 year 100 25 year 50 year 75 years 100

year year
Colombo 959 1133 1327 1534 201 375 569 776
Gampaha 3638 4154 4631 5073 459 976 1452 1894
Puttalam 11334 12583 13716 14809 1113 2362 3494 4587
Mannar 8024 8262 8518 8758 248 486 741 981
Jaffna 10321 11164 12014 12891 864 1706 2557 3434
Mulaitivu 912 1004 1092 1180 88 180 268 355
Trincomalee 2315 2529 2791 3033 252 467 729 971
Batticaloa 2325 2443 2568 2702 130 247 372 507
Ampara 1880 2175 2479 2762 293 588 892 1175
Hambantota 4265 5553 6516 7322 885 2173 3136 3942
Matara 1277 1634 1994 2401 384 741 1101 1508
Galle 5622 6462 7249 8014 776 1617 2403 3169
Kalutara 1956 2370 2790 3203 417 830 1251 1664
Source: Shoreline Status Report - 2014

Figure 2.1: Sea Level Rise Exposure Map of Sri Lanka

(Sources; Climate Change vulnerability Data Book 2011)
In view of the magnitude of the potential issues related to sea level rise, an overall accepted response is the
proper adaptation. Thus it is important to pay careful attention on the following adaptation technologies:
1,
Imposition of adequate buffer areas (set-backs) for coastal development.
2.
Formulation of design criteria for coastal structures with due consideration of relative sea level rise.
3.
Sand dune rehabilitation/stabilization as a soft defense mechanism.
4.
Restoration of coral reefs as a soft defense mechanism.
5.
Beach nourishment.
In addition to the sea level rise, other natural phenomenon related to climate change repercussion which are
important for coastal erosion management are cyclones and strong storms which frequently experienced in
the Bay of Bengal region during October and November when the inter-tropical convergence zone shifts
southwards towards the equator.
2.2.5 The Current Status of Coastal Erosion in the North and the Eastern Coastal Provinces
As per the Shoreline Status Report 2014, the present status of coastal erosion in the North and the Eastern
provinces were collected through consultation process and are summarized below. In Jaffna district no
continuous erosion is reported. However seasonal erosion is reported especially in Point Pedro coastal area.
In Mannar district, coastal erosion has been reported from Silavatrai and Arippu area in Musali DSD,
Vankali in Nantan DSD and south of Talimannar in Mannar town DSD. In considering the coastal erosion
that took place in Vankalai, CC&CRMD has constructed series of groynes in the past. According to the
prevailing information severe erosion has been reported from South bar, Kaalmadu during North West
monsoon period. In addition,erosion is taking place in Doric bungalow and Arippu area.
In the Batticaloa district most of the erosion incidences reported are seasonal in nature but continuous in
areas such as Navaladi and Nasivanthive. Further, seasonal erosion incidences are reported from Manmunai
DSD, Palamunai GND, Puthukudirippu, Kirankulam, Passikudah and Kalkudah.
In Tricomalee Town and Gravets DSD, significant erosion is reported from Veera Nagar, Murugapuri,
Jamalia, Sirimapura and Salli. In addition several erosion incidences are reported from Iqbal Nagar adjacent
to Bible College, Veloor near Murugan Kovil and Nilaveli in Kuchchaveli DSD.
In Ampara district, a considerable level of erosion is reported in the Oluvil Harbour to Periyakallar area. In
this coastal stretch, especially Ninthavur, Oluvil, Attapalam, Nochiadi and Muttupali are severely eroded. It
is estimated that approximately 250 – 300 acres of coastal land had been lost due to erosion in this segment.
By and large, the inadequacy of data and information on coastal process in the Northern and the Eastern
coastal provinces will pose a major challenge in providing long term engineering solution, if the requirement
is provoked.
2.2.6 Absence of Data and Information on Coastal Process/Characteristics for the Northern and Eastern
Coastal Region
The requirement of reliable and updated information on coastal processes as well as socio-economic,
ecological and environmental factors related to coastal erosion is a prime necessity for coastal erosion
management. Although, the required data and information pertaining to coastal erosion management has
been collected through coastal investigations and other research studies for the west, southwest, south and
northwest coastal segments during the past few decades, little or no data and information available for the
North and the Eastern provinces due to the conflict situation that prevailed during the last three decades.
Since the North and Eastern coastal provinces are also highly vulnerable to climate change repercussions
as well as episodic extreme natural events such as cyclones, storms and tsunami incidents, availability
of reliable data and information is a vital requirement for coastal erosion management. In addition, the
potential impacts of human induced causes such as significant level of sand mining in the major rivers
such as Mahaweli that feed the beaches of the eastern province has not yet been assessed. Moreover, the
attempt being made on massive economic development in the north and the eastern provinces by the GOSL,
availability of data and information on coastal process, and parameters such as wave characteristics, currents,
tides and sediment transportation patterns are vital to determine the environmental impacts.
In view of the above, it is important to collect required data and information on a long term basis to enable
the design of proper coastal erosion management programme for the north and the eastern coastal provinces.
2.2.7 Accommodating New Development Activities within the Coastal Region
Sri Lanka has been transforming after eliminating terrorism and civil conflict that prevailed for more than
three decades in the country in 2009, and overall economic development has grown to shift the status from
low income earning country to a middle income country with annual per capita income of U$ 4000. Now
the economic development process being attempted to escape the middle income trap to higher income
earning status by developing six economic hubs in which three hubs namely tourism, maritime and energy
are mainly concentrated in the coastal region. In addition, the planned mega projects such as Colombo Port
Expansion Project (CPEP) and Port City Development project will be located in the urban coastal waterfront.
Therefore, minimizing vulnerability of the coastal region from episodic and chronic coastal hazards is a
prime requirement for attracting and accommodating new development interventions related to the above
economic sectors while ensuring sustainability of the coastal resources. To achieve the desired objectives
of the economic development thrust placed on the coastal region, scientific and engineering knowledge of
the coastal resources, its behavior and functions should be considered with the social aspects of the coastal
region, for a proper development decision making process.
2.3 POLICIES, PLANS, LAWS AND INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
2.3.1 Plans and Policies
The policies on coastal erosion management are mainly governed by the Coast Conservation and Coastal
Resource Management Act No.57 of 1981 and its amendment Act No.64 of 1988 as they provide legal
provisions for regulating activities in the coastal zone. In view of the requirement of controlling some
influencing activities even outside the coastal zone, the legal regime was strengthened through amendment
Act No.49 of 2011. In addition, the first national Coastal Zone Management Plans of 1990, Revised CZM
Plans of 1997, 2004, “Coastal 2000”; A Resources Management Strategy for Sri Lanka’s Coastal Region
also addressed the issue of coastal erosion. Based on the policy guidelines provided through CZM Plans
and “Coastal 2000”, an overall coastal erosion management strategy was implemented in compliance with
the Master Plan for Coastal Erosion Management (MPCEM) prepared in 1986.
In accordance with the legal and institutional provisions, the responsibility and discretion for control of
coastal erosion lies with the Director General of the CC&CRMD. Thus, to implement coastal stabilization
schemes within the coastal zone, the requirement of an Environmental Impact Assessment has been waived.
As a policy,so far priority has been given for protection of public infrastructure (roads, railway lines, bridges
etc.), followed by public utilities and buildings, dwelling units, state land and private/commercial buildings
respectively, for CC&CRMD funded coast protection schemes. The CC&CRMD permits private and public
agencies to implement coast protection schemes, if they are consistent with the guidelines and criteria spelt
out in the MPCEM. Management actions and regulatory mechanisms are implemented at the national level.
In accordance with the CC&CRM Act, an EIA may be required for the development activities including
coast protection carried out within the coastal zone by both private and state agencies, at the discretion of
the Director General of the CC&CRMD. Development activities that go beyond the coastal zone require
adherence to the EIA procedure of the National Environmental Act No.47 of 1980 and its amendment Act
No. 56 of 1988, but special concerns of the CC&CRMD will also be taken into consideration. There are
many regulatory mechanisms and institutions that are important in controlling activities such as mining,
reclamation and diversions of waterways directly or indirectly create impacts on the stability of the coast.
2.3.2 Future Approaches and Trend in Coastal Erosion Management Practices
Coastal erosion and accretion are natural processes.However this natural phenomenon may become a
significant problem when exacerbated by human activities and natural disasters or changes. In addition
the spreading of poverty, coupled with the growing population in the coastal region and the increasing
economic growth has created major challenges in managing coastal erosion along the coast, in the future.
Thus careful attention has to be paid to the following in managing coastal erosion in the country.
1.
Prevailing information revealed that the existing coast protection measures provide significant
protection.
2.
Scientific findings revealed that presence of vegetation in coastal areas will improve slope stability,
consolidate sediment and diminish the amount of wave energy moving onshore and protecting the
shoreline from erosion.
3.
Increased interest in soft options for coast protection is becoming predominant and is in line with the
advanced knowledge on coastal processes.
4.
A combination of hard and soft solution is sometimes necessary to improve the efficiency of the option
and to provide environmentally and economically acceptable coast protection measures.
5.
Requirement of adopting climate compatible technologies and designs for fisheries, tourism and other
economic activities located in the coastal zone.
6.
As per the legal provisions introduced through Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management
Amendment Act No. 49 of 2011, the declaration of affected areas and conservation areas should be
implemented as appropriate, for controlling coastal erosion.
2.4 Management Objectives, Policies, Strategies and Actions
Objective 1
Coastal erosion is addressed by adopting optimal shoreline management works/ measures consist of
combination of hard and soft solutions.
Policy 1.1
Coastal stabilization will be carried out in a planned manner by the identification of coastal erosion
trends.
Strategy 1.1.1
Identify coastal erosion trends; prioritize areas for protection based on high levels of erosion and threats
to public and private properties, economic activities and utilities as well as critical habitats; adopting
proper monitoring procedures and formulating site specific management interventions.
Proposed Actions
1. Study and identify coastal erosion trends and areas with specific attention on North and Eastern coastal
segment subject to, or liable to, high levels of erosion.
2. Conduct monitoring programmes based on priority areas to enable the preparation of a Status Report
on coastal conditions,and to update it periodically.
3. Develop a programme to introduce Shoreline Management Planning where appropriate.
4. Initiate the process of Shoreline Management Planning for priority locations on a pilot basis.
5. Permit public or private entities to prepare and implement coast protection works which comply with
the shoreline management plans.
6. Monitor performance of existing coastal protection works and stability of coastline in areas where some
form of control measures have been introduced based on a scheduled plan, and take action to maintain
such works.
7. Consider applying the general/specific guidelines introduced through shoreline management plans at
appropriate locations during project approval procedures in the Coastal Zone.
Policy 1.2
Coastal erosion control/ shoreline management will be based on sound scientific/engineering assessment.
Strategy 1.2.1
Facilitate the collection, storage and use of all scientific and socio-economic information relevant for
erosion control and management through collaboration with National and International research agencies
and universities, and develop a database for easy access of such information for shoreline management
initiatives.
Proposed Actions
1. Establish a national programme (in collaboration with universities and other research agencies as relevant)
for regular monitoring of coastal erosion and collate and collect related data/information on: scientific
investigations of sediment balances and assessments of sediment sources; coastal erosion trends and
status; threats to dwellings,land use and critical habitats from erosion; hydrographic conditions; and
socio-economic characteristics in the Coastal Zone.
2. Establish and maintain a comprehensive database -through institutional monitoring on hydrographic

conditions, land use,critical coastal habitats and socio-economic characteristics in the Coastal Zone.
3. Establish (a) an inter-institutional database relevant for coastal erosion management and (b) a survey
of coastal erosion and protection status.
4. Formulate appropriate mechanisms to provide access to the metadatabase (above) as well as an

institutional data base for public and private agencies and research workers.
Policy 1.3
Severe coastal erosion in highly developed and degraded areas with existing coastal protection measures
will be addressed by reclamation to enable new development possibilities and enhance economic potential
of coastal frontages.
Strategy 1.3.1
Promote measures to expand existing coastal frontages by implementing environmentally acceptable
reclamation schemes, selectively and only where feasible, to provide development possibilities, coastal
protection and opportunities to enhance economic potential.
Proposed Actions
1. Develop guidelines for reclaiming coastal frontages for development possibilities and providing additional
buffers.
2. Provide guidance on the preparation of reclamation plans to ensure that reclamation is confined to sites
where protection costs can be recovered through development consistent with this objective.
Policy 1.4
Dune stability will be enhanced by promoting the growth of environmentally suitable/ endemic vegetation
on sand dunes to minimize coastal erosion.
Strategy 1.4.1
Control adverse activities that damage dune vegetation and replant environmentally suitable/ endemic
vegetation on sand dunes where the native vegetation is damaged.
Proposed Actions
1. Control activities that cause damage to dune vegetation.
2. Replant sand dunes with environmentally suitable/ endemic vegetation.

Policy 1.5
Stability of natural coastal features will be enhanced in the process of shoreline management.
Strategy 1.5.1
Formulate and implement shoreline management plans/coast protection schemes to minimize impacts
of coastal erosion while enhancing stability of the coastal natural features.
Proposed Actions
1. Identify priority areas suitable for adopting shoreline management plans with special emphasis on coastal
natural features.
Objective 2
The location and type of development activities in and outside the Coastal Zone are made consonant
with conserving the natural shoreline and coastal features.
Policy 2.1
Development activities within and outside the Coastal Zone will be coordinated and regulated to ensure
that natural coastal processes are unhindered.
Strategy 2.1.1
Permit only new development activities which are regulated within the Coastal Zone in accordance with
setback standards and in areas not subject to erosion or flooding.
Proposed Actions
1. Develop a “Compliance Monitoring Plan”, and enforce adherence to coastal setback standards by
conducting permit compliance monitoring surveys as required.
2. Identify areas that are prone to coastal erosion and flooding and formulate appropriate guidelines.
3. Initiate legal action against non-compliance of stipulated setback standards as required, by working with
relevant state agencies.
4. Build awareness of setback regulations at local, divisional and provincial level.
5. Prepare a developers guide book comprising new set-back standards, regulations and guidelines.
Policy 2.2
Adverse impacts on the Coastal Zone from construction of coastal and marine structures will be minimized.
Strategy 2.2.1
Implement mitigation measures according to EIA /IEE studies to minimise adverse impacts due to
construction of coastal and marine structures (Except shoreline management structures in accordance
with shoreline management plans).
Proposed Actions
1. Implement mitigatory measures recommended through EIA/IEE to minimising adverse impacts in the
Coastal Zone from coastal structures and other schemes.
Policy 2.3
The impacts of development activities carried out beyond the coastal zone will be investigated and areas
suitable for designation as “affected areas” determined.
Strategy 2.3.1
Formulate appropriate criteria to identify affected areas and prepare list of potential areas to be declared
as affected areas within or adjacent to the coastal zone, through indepth field investigations and public
consultation. Declare affected areas as required through Gazette notification.
Proposed Actions
1. Prepare appropriate criteria and list of candidate sites to be declared as affected areas.
2. Formulate regulations for administration and management of the affected areas.
Policy 2.4
Creation of additional buffers, reclamation and creation of artificial islands will be recognized as
mechanisms to cope with coastal erosion and to minimize development pressures within the coastal
zone.
Strategy 2.4.1
Formulate criteria based on technical, ecological, social, economic and political factors to determine
suitable areas to create additional buffers, islands and reclamation.
Proposed Actions
1. Based on the finalized criteria, prepare a list of candidate locations suitable for creation of additional
buffers, reclamation and islands.
2. Carry out EIA to identify potential environmental, social and economic impacts and mitigatory measures.
3. Formulate technical guidelines for creating island and additional buffers.
Objective 3
Beach stability is enhanced by controlling sand mining within the Coastal Zone and from the rivers and
eradicating sea coral mining.
Policy 3.1
Beach stability will be enhanced by regulating sand extraction from beaches and rivers, streams and
canals.
Strategy 3.1.1
Regulate sand mining in rivers and estuaries by means of guidelines specifying quotas, time and area
limitsand imposition of monitoring schemes.
Proposed Actions
1. Prepare a strategy for enforcement of the Guidelines for Sand Mining in the Coastal Zone; as well as
landwardand seaward of the Coastal Zone (including rivers upstream), in collaboration with relevant
state organisations /agencies.
2. Undertake or facilitate periodic checking of sand mining in the Coastal Zone and in the rivers inland
to curtail illegal sandmining in collaboration with the GSMB and the Divisional Secretariate’s officers
according to the above strategy.
3. Ensure adherence to guidelines by licensed mining operations.
4. Conduct a survey and collate data on sand mining in and outside the Coastal Zone to identify the present
magnitude ofthe problem, in collaboration with relevant institutions such as the GSMB.
5. Define sustainable limits and site specific sand budgets (using established sediment budgets) in
collaboration with relevant state institutes, universities and research organisations.
Policy 3.2
River sand mining will be alleviated by the promoting alternative sources of sand for construction.
Strategy 3.2.1
Promote research to find feasible alternatives for the use of river sand in the construction industry.
Proposed Actions
1. CC&CRMD to promote research in collaboration with institutions and relevant administrative bodies
to:
• Identify new technologies that minimise the use of sand for construction.
• Enhance the use of alternatives to river sand to meet the requirements of the construction industry.
Strategy 3.2.2
Promote the use of sand from offshore sources as an alternative to river sand.
Proposed Actions
1. Explore appropriate sources of offshore sand deposits through investigations.
2. Collate all available information and data in Sri Lanka and elsewhere on the use of sea sand in the
construction industry in collaboration with research organisations, Universities and National organizations
funding research, and form a Central database.
3. Carry out a cost benefit study of the use of offshore sand in the construction industry.
4. Create awareness on the benefits of the use of offshore sand for the construction industry and beach
nourishment in collaboration with national and regional level state organisations, media and NGOs,
based on available data and results of impact assessments.
5. Coordinate inter-agency efforts to provide alternative employment for displaced river sand miners.
6. Encourage government entities for the usage of offshore sand for public sector constructions.
Policy 3.3
Beach stability will be enhanced by eradicating sea coral mining.
Strategy 3.3.1
While recognizing the low level of sea coral mining, enforce the ban on sea coral mining more stringently
to ensure a total halt.
Proposed Actions
1. Enforce the ban on coral mining in collaboration with the Police and Local Authorities.
2. Identify alternative sources for coral lime, and plan and promote mining of these
resources.
3. Formulate collaborative mechanisms with relevant authorities to promote the introduction of alternatives
for coral based lime.
.
Policy 3.4
Promote conduct of national sand study to determine availability of sources and quantity of sand including
off shore sources for construction and other purposes in compliance with the future demand.
Strategy 3.4.1
Launch a programme on the importance of conducting a national sand study in the face of massive
economic development taking place in the country and the envisaged economic development targets
for next ten years.
Proposed Actions
1. Prepare concept paper highlighting the requirement of conducting a national sand study.
2. Submit a cabinet paper to obtain government concurrence and funding.
3. Launch a national sand study and disseminate findings for policy considerations.
Objective 4
Ensure the availability of contingency measures to mitigate impacts of climate change on coastal features,
infrastructure and coastal communities and that systems for timely implementation of such contingency
measures and plans are developed.
Policy 4.1
Availability and timely implementation of contingency measures to mitigate impacts of climate change
on coastal features, infrastructure, livelihoods, and coastal communities.
Strategy 4.1.1
Formulate contingency measures through quantifying and monitoring impacts of climate change on sea
level rise, coastal erosion, flooding, coastal structures and other coastal development.
Proposed Actions
1. Collate data from all relevant authorities on climate change parameters such as wind patterns, rainfall,
temperature, sea level rise, etc. to predict coastal impacts of sea level rise.
2. Establish a database on climate change features relevant to coastal zone management in collaboration
with relevant state organisations.
3. Establish links with international agencies/global programmes to obtain data and information on climate
change, related features and mitigatory actions.
4. Analyse impacts of climate change and establish systems for timely adaptive and mitigatory action.
5. Develop an effective mechanism to collaborate with institutions dealing with the scientific and social
aspects of natural hazards to minimise impacts and for efficient remedial action.
6. Coordinate inter-agency action required to mitigate impacts of natural hazards in the Coastal Zone and
for remedial measures.
7. Establish a mechanism through which realistic estimates of sea level rise and other climate change
impacts are taken into account routinely in erosion management and development in the Coastal Zone.
Policy 4.2
Promote climate adaptation measures to minimize issues related to possible sea level rise.
Strategy 4.2.1
Formulate climate adaptation strategy considering the potential sea level rise.
Proposed Actions
1. Attempt to establish a most realistic level of sea level rise.
2. Formulate climate compatible guidelines for coastal development including coastal fisheries and
aquaculture in collaboration with relevant agencies.
Objective 5
Coastal community resilience will be adopted as a long term measure to minimize impacts and
vulnerability of coastal erosion that may increase due extreme coastal hazards.
Policy 5.1
Identify and promote designation of coastal hazard prone areas to minimize vulnerabilities and to bounce
back from the social and economic shocks.
Strategy 5.1.1
Formulate criteria for identifying hazard prone areas in the coastal region based on past experience and
predictions made through coastal vulnerability index.
Proposed Actions
1. Identify areas to be designated as coastal hazard prone areas based on the criteria formulated.
2. Initiate coastal community resilience programme in such areas in a collaborative manner to minimize
and to bounce back from shocks.
REFERENCES
1. Byrne G. et al. 2002, Alternative for river sand, Unpublished report CRMP, 2002
2. Byrne, G and Nanayakkara, A. 2002, Alternatives for River Sands, Final Report, unpublished, Coastal
Resources Management Project
3. Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management Department, 1986 , Master Plan for Coastal
Erosion Management
4. Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management Department, 2004, Revised Coastal Zone
Management Plan 2004
5. Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management Department, 2014, Preparation of a Shoreline
Status Report Covering Effectiveness of Structural and Non-structural Solutions Adopted by Coast
Conservation Department since 2004
6. Ministry of Environment Sri Lanka, 2011, Climate Change Vulnerability Data Book
7. Sri Lanka Land Reclamation & Development Corporation, 2013, Quantity of offshore sand pumping
for the requirement of construction industry of Sri Lanka from 2004 – 2013(Internal Records)
8. Olsen et.al, 1992 “Coastal 2000”; A Resources Management Strategy for Sri Lanka’s Coastal Region.
Chapter 3
3. CONSERVING COASTAL HABITATS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.1.1 Environmental, Social and Economic significance of Coastal Habitats
Sri Lanka has a diverse range of coastal habitats that include estuaries and lagoons (214,522 ha), mangroves
(11656ha), sea grassbeds (37137ha) salt marshes (27520 ha), coral reefs (not determined) and large extents
of beaches including barrier beaches, spits (5731ha) and sand dunes (10363 ha) (Table 3.1 gives the
extents of these habitats by districts based on GIS data analysis). Each of these coastal habitats possess a
significant amount of species and provides an array of ecosystem services vital to human. In addition to the
environmental services, these habitats support livelihoods of the coastal communities in significant manner to
enhance their economic status and maintain social integrity. Many coastal and nearshore resources associated
with the coastal habitats support a developing export industry based on export of Prawns, Lobsters, crabs,
Beach de mer (sea cucumber), Chanks and Shells and other fishery products which earned over rupees
24,716 million in 2015 (MFARD 2016).
Coastal habitats comprise a rich component of the country’s coastal and marine biodiversity.As per the
prevailing information, the identified species in marine and coastal waters are over 1,800 pelagic species
of fish; five species of turtles that come ashore to nest on the beaches; 38 species of endangered and rare
marine mammals including the dugong and 37 species of cetaceans. Several species of sea snakes and a
diverse array of coral and reef associated organisms are also found in these areas. Genetic diversity within
coastal habitats is also believed to be high, and of possible economic value. In addition estuaries and lagoons,
coralreefs, mangroves, seagrass beds and salt marshes are also function as vital breeding and/or nursery
grounds for numerous species of fish, crustaceans and molluscs, many of which are of commercial value.
The non-extractive value of coastal habitats such as coral reefs, mangroves, estuaries/lagoons and beaches
are very high and has considerable economic and aesthetic value. The water bodies of lagoon and estuaries
function like buffer zones, protecting coastal communities from full force of weather related events, such
as storm surges, floods and cyclones by damping wave action, dissipating river discharge and temporarily
storing water. The habitats such as mangroves, sea grass beds and salt marshes function as large filters
to extract pollutants, excess nutrients and sediment carried out from municipal and industrial wastewater
inland and storm water runoff.(Miththapala, Sriyanie 2013) Mangroves are also used for mooring of small
fishing crafts and for many other fishery related activities. Beaches around the island accommodate sites of
religious,archaeological and historic value as well as homesteads for a considerable section of the coastal
population, particularly for fishing communities.
Coastal vegetation such as mangroves are traditionally used by coastal communities for various purposes,
such as providing food and beverages, timber for house building and boat construction, firewood, material
for preparation of fishing accessories, etc. Many coastal habitats, particularly coral reefs and sand dunes help
to stabilize the shoreline. Coral reefs especially act as natural barriers against coastal erosion by dissipating
high-energy wave action, which is particularly heavy during the monsoons.
Table 3.1 Extent of coastal habitats by District (ha)*
District Mangroves Saltmarshes Dunes Beaches, bar- Lagoons Other Sea

rier beaches and Es- water grasses
and spits turaies bodies
Colombo - - - - - 400 -
Kalutara 130 - - 45 172 105 -
Galle 495 224 - 112 1259 486 -
Matara 45 - - 338 - 101 -
Hambantota 156 1270 1623 325 1346 2213 -
Ampara 301 294 607 816 - - -
Batticaloa 1921 2646 - 1093 44132 2273 -
Trincomalee 1707 1365 - 337 18100 1192 -
Mullaitivu 208 722 - 717 5377 352 2054
Jaffna 2427 4970 4590 800 43872 2100 21225
Kilinochchi 507 5943 - 872 8123 76 509
Mannar 1502 5602 899 215.5 5144 1661 13349
Puttalam 2114 1557 2644 328.6 83581 3003 -
Gampaha 143 1274 - 36.7 3416 - -
Total Extent 11,656 27520 10363 5731.6 214522 13062 37137
Source: Synthesis report on coastal habitats (2014)

* Extent of habitats were calculated through application of GIS in 2014
3.1.2. The Current Status of Coastal Habitats
Coral reefs
Coral reefs are tropical shallow water rigid platform like structures that stand above the
surrounding sea floor and located parallel to the coastline. They are formed from a biological
secretion of Calcium Carbonate by living organisms, mainly reef building coral colonies
and coralline algae.
Coral reefs in Sri Lanka are categorized into three habitat types. They are: (a) true coral reefs consisting
of live corals as well as calcareous substances, (b) sandstone reefs, and (c) rocky reefs. The latter two reef
types may also be covered by corals in varying degree. All three habitats are distinctly different, but may
be found mixed together (Rajasooriya and White 1995).
As per the condition of the reef, mainly combined with substrate cover, diversity and abundance of reef
organism; indicate that best reefs are associated with the barrier type reefs located offshore. These reefs
are found mainly in Northwestern; Southeastern and Eastern waters. Most extensive coral reefs in Sri
Lanka are the patchycoral reefs in the northwestern coastal and offshore waters, occurring within the Gulf
of Mannar and west of the Kalpitiya peninsula. Patchy coral reefs have also been recorded in the western
and eastern coastal areas of the island at a distance of about 15-20 km from the shore, at an average depth
of 20 m. The southwestern, eastern and northern coasts also contain fringing coral reefs adjacent to the
shore, growing from the sea floor usually on a nucleus of rock. It has been estimated that about 2% of
the coastline contains fringing coral reefs. Hikkaduwa, Unawatuna and Rumassala are some of the main
fringing reefs along the southwestern coast and Passikudah is one of the known fringing reefs in the eastern
coast. Coral reefs also occur around the Jaffna Peninsula - mainly around the small coastal islets, but they
are not extensively developed. Barrier coral reefs, consisting of ridges of coral lying some distance from
the shore, parallel with it, and forming a broad ‘reef lagoon’, are rare in Sri Lanka but some are found
at Vankalai and Silavathurai. Sandstone reefs are wide spread along the coast. Many of these are located
along the bathymetric contours of the continental shelf. Rocky reefs occur from south of Colombo in the
west coast to the southern areas of the Trincomalee District in the northeast.
The coral cover in the reefs located in the southern part of the island is extremely low when compared to
the reefs located in the eastern and the northern part mainly due to the external impacts. Bottom set netting,
stepping, dynamiting, coir industry, glass bottom boat maneuvering, destructive fisheries activities and
excess sediment and fresh water influx are the major causes responsible for the degraded situation in the
southern coast (Synthesis Report on Coastal Habitat 2014). However, current information revealed that
the live coral cover at Hikkaduwa National Park had increased from 12% in 2005 to 26% in 2007 mainly
due to rapid settlement and growth of Pocillopora damicornis which had risen from 6% of the total live
coral cover in 2004 to 35% in 2007. It is also reported that the present cover of Acropora was only 0.6%
due to high level of sedimentation (Rajasooriya 2008). The live coral cover at Kapparatota also decreased
from 52% in 2004 to 22% in 2006. As per the current information it was reported that live coral cover
at Polhena is confined to 21.2% while 6.45 % at Madiha due to anthropogenic activities such as coconut
retting, ornamental fish collection and reef walking (Synthesis Report on Coastal Habitat 2014).
The Synthesis report on coastal habitats 2014 indicates that the coral reefs located in the Northern and the
Eastern part of the country are in better condition with compared to the southern part of the country. It
was reported that live coral cover at Punkudativu and Mandativu island in the Jaffna peninsular was 45%
with 29% of limestone substrate (Synthesis Report on Coastal Habitat 2014). The condition of the coral
reef in Dutch Bay in Trincomalee is reported as relatively in good condition and constitute with branching
Acropora spp., foliose Monitipora and Echinpora lamellose. According to the previous monitoring
reports, the live coral cover of this reef was 52% and 20% coral rubble. As a result of 2004 tsunami, the
reef sustained extensive damages and currently supports 38.8% live hard corals with 40.23% rubble cover.
The shallow coral reef at Pigeon Island in Trincomalee is dominated by branching and tabulate Acropora
spp and no damages were reported due to 2004 tsunami. Thus the live coral cover of 54.38% in 2003 has
been increased up to 74.25% by 2005. According to the monitoring studies carried out by NARA, the live
hard coral cover has increased from 40% in 2004 to 70% in early 2007 in the Bar Reef Marine sanctuary
at Kalpitiya. This increase is mainly due to rapid growth of Acropora Cytherea that constitutes more than
75% of the live hard corals.
Sea grass beds
Sea grasses are flowering plants that thrive in shallow oceanic and estuarine waters and are
descendants of terrestrial plants that re-entered the ocean between 100 and 65 million years
ago. They have leaves, stems, rhizomes and roots. Sea grass beds often occur in sheltered
waters combined with coral reef ecosystems or estuaries and lagoons.
Sri Lanka’s coastal waters have extensive sea grass beds,often occurring in association with coral reef
ecosystems or in estuaries and lagoons. They are particularly found in the basin estuaries and lagoons of
Puttalam, Mundal, Negombo,Mawella, Rekawa, Koggala, Kokilai, Jaffna and Batticaloa. A total of 16 sea
grass species belonging to 10 genera have been reported from Puttalam Negombo, Mundal and Rekawa
lagoons. Extensive seagrass beds have been reported from the Dutch bay (in Kalpitiya) to the western end
of the Jaffna Peninsula,and from Mannar to the northwest across the Palk Bay and to Rameswaram Island
on the Indian coast(Samarakoon and Pinto 1988). However the distribution of sea grasses along the coast
from north east to south east is limited and no records are available. Thus, it is difficult to get a clear picture
of total composition and distribution of sea grasses in coastal zone of Sri Lanka. However, in 2008 the
extent of sea grass beds in Sri Lanka has been reported as 23819 ha (Gunathilleke at el).
Sea grasses, the marine angiosperms, are considered to be among the most productive submerged eco-
system. They serve as a source of energy for a complex food web; provide habitats for endangered dugong
(Dugong dugong) and other aquatic organisms including epiphytes to consolidate sediment produce detritus,
and area source of dissolved and particulate organic carbon for the aquatic food webs. In addition they
also serve as nursery functions for a large number of fish, crustaceans and bivalves that use these habitats
as a refuge, particularly in the larval stage of their life cycles that are vulnerable to sudden environmental
changes and susceptibility to predation (Silva EIL et. al 2013). In Sri Lanka Bristle worms (Polychaetes)
are harvested from sea grass beds as brood stock for feed aquaculture. In addition to temperature, light
and nutrients, sheltered zone with substrate constitute with sand mud and dead, corals ideal for dense
growth of sea grasses that are rich in species diversity. Sea grass also act as filters for coastal waters and
stabilizes the floor of the coastal seas, In addition sea grass absorb carbon dioxide from the ocean when
they photosynthesis (Miththapala, S, 2008).
Sea grass beds are subjected to various threats due to anthropogenic activities such as destructive fishing
practices, collection of invertebrates or shellfish harvesting, construction of physical structures, altering
tidal influx, intrusion of agro-chemicals, emergence of macro-algal stands, regulation of water inflows,
effluent discharges from shrimp farms and solid waste disposal. The Table 3.2 shows sea grass species
from different coastal sectors in Sri Lanka.
Table 3.2 Sea Grass species from different Coastal Sectors in Sri Lanka.
Species North South West North West

Cymodocea rotundata x x
Cymodocea serrulata x x
Enhalus acoroides x x
Halodule pinifolia x
Halodule uninervis x x
Halophila beccarii X
Halophila decipien x x
Halophila minor X
Halophila ovalis x X x
Halophila ovata x x
Potamogeton pectinatus x X
Naja marina x
Ruppia maritima x x X
Siringodium isoetifolium x X x
Thalassia hemprichii X x
Sostrea sp x
Total 8 7 7 8
(Source: Silva EIL et. al 2013)
Estuaries and Lagoons
A coastal lagoon is a shallow coastal body of water, separated from the ocean by a barrier.
This barrier can be formed by a coral reef, barrier Island, a sand bar or a spit, shingle or less
frequently found rocks. An estuary is a point at which a river and the sea meet. Estuaries
are therefore a dynamic ecosystem where sea water is brought in by the tides but is diluted
by freshwater flowing in from rivers and streams.
Sri Lanka’s coastline is characterized by a series of estuaries and lagoons which are transitional ecosystems
of diverse tropic statuses, scenic beauties, rich rare and endemic species, aquatic bio-diversity and ecosystem
productivity. They are complex socio-ecological systems containing a diversity of species and a variety of
coastal habitats including, mangroves, salt marshes, seagrass beds and mud flats. The heterogeneous nature
and complexities of lagoons and estuaries are primarily determined by geomorphology, climate and weather,
tidal fluxes and fluvial inputs and cohesive interactions with land based activities (Silva E.I.L et. al 2013).
By and large, the range of eco system services provides by the lagoons and estuaries are undervalued and
their multiple use and benefits have not been adequately taken into consideration for policy formulation
and decision making process. Beside the primary features, the knowledge of the ecological significance of
the lagoon and estuaries are negligible. A total of 82 lagoons with a shoreline (perimeter) of 2791 km are
located in the coastal region and considered to be highly productive and contained economic value associated
with biological production of aquatic and semi-aquatic habitat and mangrove vegetation. Meaningful
approach to management of barrier built estuaries and lagoons must combine bio-physical, socio-economic
and political considerations. Therefore, estuaries and lagoons are regarded as Socio-Ecological Systems
(SES), (Samarakoon et.al (2012).
Table3.3gives the number of lagoons located in each coastal sector with the lagoon area and perimeter.
Table 3.3 Number of Lagoons located in each Coastal Segment
Coastal segment Lagoon Area (sq.km) Lagoon Number of Lagoons*

perimeter(km)
North 804 1,221 17
Northeast 182 411 04
East 44 174 14
Southeast 29 149 16
South 23 109 10
Southwest 20 166 09
West 46 151 03
Northwest 372 410 09
Total 1,520 2,791 82
(Source: Silva E.I.L et. al 2013)
There are two different types of estuaries; Riverineestuaries where the rivers or streams discharge directly
into the sea through relatively narrow channels(e.g. the Kelani Ganga, Maha Oya, Kalu Ganga and Nilwala
Ganga estuaries), and barrier built basin estuaries where the river or stream first discharges into a relatively
shallow basin before entering the sea (e.g.Puttalam, Negombo, Jaffna, Batticaloa estuaries). In some places
riverine estuaries open into a bay that opens to these a (e.g. the Kala Oya riverine estuary opens to Dutch
Bay; the Mahaweli estuary opens to Koddiyar and Thambalagam Bays, and the Polatu Modara estuary
to Weligam Bay). Overall, there are 45 estuaries of which 28 are of the riverinetype and 17 of the basin
type. The total extent of basin estuaries in the country amounts to 90,965ha (basin area only), and riverine
estuaries cover about 2,110 ha.There are around 82 lagoons ranging from 3 ha to7,589 ha in extent, of
which 8 cover more than 1,000ha each. Total extent of lagoons amounts to about 36,000 ha. Lagoons are
more abundant along the north, south, southeastern and eastern coasts where the littoral drift causes an
accumulation of sand to form barriers and spits at river mouths through which the freshwater discharge is
low.
Salt Marshes
Salt marshes are found close to the landward margin of the inter-tidal zone where the soil
salinity is relatively high due to insufficient fresh water supply to flush out the accumulated
salts. Salt marshes consist of herbaceous, salt resistant plants growing in sandy or mud tidal
flats in arid areas and are periodically inundated by the sea.
The existing information revealed that there are around 27,520 ha of salt marshes in the country (Synthesis
report on coastal habitats 2014).Extensive salt marshes also occur in the Mannar area (mainly on tidal flats
and containing about 56 species of marsh vegetation) in the coastal belt from Mantai to Vankalai. Patchy salt
marshes also occur mainly in sedimented lagoon/estuarine areas such as Hambantota, Puttalam, Kalpitiya
and Mundel.
Mangroves
Mangroves are woody, seed- bearing, highly specialized plants ranging in size from shrubs
to tall trees. These shrubs and trees adapted to grow in inter tidal zones of lagoons, estuaries,
and sheltered bays in tropical and some sub-tropical regions in the world. Mangrove eco
systems consist of inter tidal zones of muddy shores in bays, lagoons and estuaries dominated
by highly adapted woody halophytes associated with continuous water courses, swamps,
and back waters, together with their population of plants and animals.
Mangroves are highly productive but extremely vulnerable eco systems confined to intertidal zones of
coastal environment including lagoons. Sri Lanka’s mangrove areas amounted to about 15669 ha in extent
in 2013 (Forest Department 2013). As per the estimates prepared in 2014 using GIS and remote sensing,
the extent of mangrove areas are about 11656, tidal variation in Sri Lanka is being low and rarely exceeding
75 cm, Therefore, mangroves generally occur as a narrow belt in inter-tidal areas of lagoons, estuaries or
associated islands and river mouths.
However, they do not occur in all inter-tidal areas and are confined to areas with low wave action.Although
mangroves rarely extend beyond 1km landwards from the mean low water tidal level they may spread
up-river to the upper limit of brackish water intrusion in some riverine estuaries, evenup to a distance of
20 km (e.g. Galatara in the Kalutara District). In addition to the tacit value and environmental services
rendered by mangroves, it supports the depending communities by providing fish resources, fuel wood,
building materials and dyes for coloration of fish nets. (Silva, E.I.L at el 2013). Mangroves serve to reduce
the effects of floods while functioning as filters to sift out pollutants that reach the coastal area from inland
and trap sediments. It is also important in carbon sequestration.
The major mangrove areas in Sri Lanaka are located around Jaffna, Vadamarachchi (Thondamanar)
lagoons,Nanthikadal lagoon in North coast Kokilai, Nayaru, Trincomalee, Kathiraveli, Upparu Lagoon,
Valachchenai, Batticaloa Lagoon, Pothuvil in Eastern coast, Weligama, Gintota, Balapitiya, Bentota in
Southern coast, and Panadura estuary, Negombo and Chilaw lagoons, Mundal lake, Puttalam lagoon, Dutch
bay, Portugal bay and Mannar in Western and Northwestern coast. According to Amarasinghe (1986), 29
mangrove species are found in Sri Lanka.
Barrier Beaches, Spits and Dunes
Barrier beaches are accumulations of unconsolidated sediments transported a shore by waves

and moulded into a form that lies across a body of water, isolating it from the sea. Spits
are incipient barrier beaches that projects from the shore in the direction of the dominant
drift and are free at one end. Sand Dunes are wind-blown accumulation of sand which are
distinctive from adjacent land forms such as beaches and tidal flats mainly due to the fact
that dunes do not get the effects of tides.

Sri Lanka’s wide and sandy beaches along much of the 1620 km coastline are famed for their scenic beauty
and support a distinct littoral fauna and flora. Beaches have been formed by accumulation of sediment
deposited on the shore. Among them, barrier beaches, spits and dunes are the most delicate and vulnerable
due to their changing nature.
Barrier Beaches
Coastal areas around the island contain barrier beaches that isolate lagoons and swamps from the sea (e.g.
the beaches at Rekawa, Kosgoda, and Panama). Barrier beaches are found mainly between Bentota and
Balapitiya on the southwest coast. Along the Southern coast there is a barrier beach at Weligama Bay, and
several between Dondra and Ambalantota. Thambalagam Bay, awestward embayment of Koddiyar Bay,
is almost entirely cut off as a barrier beach which gets partially breached during the Northeast monsoon.
Some barrier beaches are free at both ends and form Islands (e.g. at Karaitivu).
Spits
Spits are frequently observed along the Western and Eastern coasts of the country and are associated with
estuaries. Examples are the shoal that builds seasonally at the mouth of the Negombo estuary and the sand
spit at the Kalu Ganga estuary. Some of the barrier beaches and spits have extensive dunes associated with
them asseen at Kalpitiya. Most spits appear to be unstable, especially those which protrude into estuaries
(e.g. the Kalu Ganga spit).Consequently they shift position from time to time, causing changes in the form
and precise location of the inlets of estuaries. For example, the inlet of the Batticaloa estuary has shifted
northward to its present position from a previous location 5 km to the South. Some spits are formed seasonally
at estuarine inlets and tend to obstruct the natural water flow patterns, often resulting in the inundation of
low-lying lands (e.g. the Kalu Ganga and Maha Oya estuaries).
Dunes
Coastal dunes are unique terrestrial eco-system located in the transition zone between the ocean and the
continent. These habitats are naturally dynamic. Therefore highly fragile and vulnerable to the impacts of
human induced activities.
There are three types of dunes that have been identified in the country.They are:
• low, flat to slightly undulating, isolated platforms of sand less than 1m in height (e.g. incipient dunes
found at Koggala, Matara, Akurala and Uswetakeiyawa);
• transverse primary dunes, consisting of single fore- dune ridges of undulating sand masses associated
with stable beaches, exceeding 5m in height (e.g. dunes at Mannar, Pooneryn, Kalpitiya and along
the Southeastern coast).
• secondary transgressive dunes; usually exceeding 3m in height (e.g. dunes at Mannar, Pooneryn,
Kalpitiya and Jaffna); most of which are longitudinal,some are parabolic, and a few are complexin
form.
The most prominent sand dunes lie along the Northeastern, Northwestern and Southeastern coasts of Sri Lanka.
These extend from Mullaitivu and Point Pedro, Elephant Pass and Chavakachcheri across MannarIsland
towards Kalpitiya and Ambakandawila. On the Southeast, they extend from Ambalantota(Godawaya) in
the Hambantota District to Sangamankande Point in the Ampara District. The latter is identified as the
longest stretch of dunes in the world, close to the equator.
Sand dunes in Sri Lanka are essential components of the coastal vistas and bio-diversity. The materials in
sand dunes protect the land behind them from storm erosion and potential sea level rise. Dune vegetation
also traps sand and prevent it from being blown further inland. When there are storm surges and waves,
sand dunes prevent flooding inland. According to prevailing information, intact sand dunes were the most
effective barrier against tsunami waves that affected the coastal region of Sri Lanka in 2004 (Bambaradeniya
et al. 2006).
3.2 NATURE OF THE PROBLEM
Despite the management measures adopted by Government, Non-Government and Civil Organizations in the
country, a significant amount of coastal habitats in Sri Lanka have undergone degradation in different degrees in
different locations in the pastresulting in the decline of their resources as well as extents at an unprecedented rate.
Underlying the apparent degradation of coastal habitats is the fact that they are very fragile and vulnerable to many
dynamic processes occurring on land and in the sea, due to both natural causes and human interventions. These
factors could be categorized into three. Firstly, the quality and quantity of coastal habitats have been degraded
due to over exploitation parallel to population growth in the coastal region, for the purpose of economic benefits.
Secondly, natural chronic and episodic disasters such as coastal erosion, cyclones (1978) and tsunami (2004) “El
Nino” Southern Oscillation effect (1998) directly created a negative impact on most of the coastal habitats located
within the coastal region. Thirdly, the thirty year conflict situation that prevailed in the country until 2009 caused
much damage to some of the coastal habitats, especially in the North and the Eastern coastal region.
3.2.1 Issues and Threats
Damage and destruction of coral reefs
The value of environmental services of coral reefs in providing benefits to the society is very significant
and identified as most valuable shallow water marine habitats in Sri Lanka. However, these reefs are now
degraded at many sites, due to both natural causes and human impacts. The degraded reef eco-system can
be seen especially in the near-shore areas of western and southern coastal segments.Prior to tsunami event
experienced in 2004, the principal cause for coral reef destruction was the large scale mining of corals for
the lime industry. This is despite the ban imposed in 1988 on mining, collecting, transporting and processing
of sea coral.The available data show a perceptible decline of sea coral mining between 1984 and 1998.
After the tsunami event, mining of sea corals for lime industry in the south and south western coastal region
was tremendously decreased to a negligible level. Apart from the regulatory measures, public awareness
and monitoring procedures implemented by the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management
Department as well as self-realization of the importance of coral reefs among the coastal communities led
to this situation.
Among the other factors that cause damage to coral reefs is use of destructive fishing methods such as use of
dynamite, use of moxy nets to catch ornamental fish, and bottom set nets on coral reefs to catch lobsters,have
been reported. Use of unregulated fishing gears such as “surukku” and “lyila” nets also reduced valuable
and rare fish species inhabiting the reefs.
The growth of the coastal tourist industry has also directly and indirectlycaused damage to the coral reefs,
particularly those in the southern, northwestern and eastern coastal areas. Direct habitat loss or damage
was evident in these areas due to stepping on the reef, placing anchors on coral reef areas, ramming of
glassbottom boats against the reef and collection of reef materials as souvenirs. In addition, indirect impacts
such as pollution due to incorrect siting of sewage disposal systems related to tourist facilities, inadequate
or poorly designed infrastructure are quite evident in these areas.
Beside human interventions, coral destruction in most shallow areas was evident in 1998 due to mass
bleaching caused by high water temperature associated with ‘El Nino” Southern Oscillation (ENSO) effect
in many areas. In recent years El Nino events have become more frequent, with the interval reducing from
12 years to 7 years although the time frame is too short to confirm this trend. As per the prevailing records,
there were somewhat significant bleaching events that occurred in 2000, 2002, 2003 and 2005 in various parts
of the country but not on the scale of 1998. However, the magnitude of the bleaching event that occurred
in 2002 in the southern part of the island was similar to the 1998 bleaching event (Synthesis Report 2014).
In addition, proliferation in plagues of coral predators such as crown of thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci)
also damaged the coral reefs significantly. Such plagues are increasingly reported close to large human
populations, where there is evidence of over fishing and/or increases in nutrient runoff from the land. There
are more reports of damage to coral reefs from the predatory gastropod mollusk, Drupella. Beside predators,
some of the major reefs were observed with massive algal growth (halimeda Sp) specially in Pigeon Island
and Polhena Reefs. Spreading of invasive species is now being recognized as a major potential threat to
the ecological balance of the coral reef. The invasive species which have damaged reefs in the western
part of the country are suspected of being introduced via the ballast water or hulls of cargo ships or from
ill-informed release of aquarium specimens (Synthesis Report on Coastal Habitats 2014).
As per the rapid assessment carried out by NARA in 2005, the impacts of 2004 tsunami on the coral reefs
and the damages were reported as relatively high level in some areas and described as widespread and
patchy. According to this assessment, in one location on the southwest coast, zero impacts were recorded
for coral reefs, while for most other locations the impacts were reported as medium or high. The greatest
impacts were reported from Dutch Bay where reef damage was considered extreme and fish life was
reduced drastically (http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ai000e/AI000E07.htm )FAO 2007). In addition coral
reefs located in the southern coast of Tangalle, Kudawella, Kapparatota/Weligama Polhena, Unawatuna
and Hikkaduwa were also substantially damaged. The degree of damage was patchy and frequently caused
by the movement of rubble from corals affected due to 1998 bleaching event (Synthesis Report on Coastal
Habitats 2014).
Table 3.4: The 1999-2000 live coral cover reflects the situation of reefs
after bleaching (Rajasooriya 2003)
Location Depth Pre-bleaching Live 1999–2000 Live 2001–2002 Live

(m) coral cover Coral cover Coral cover
Bar reef marine 0-3 78.5% Nearly 100% New growth present
sanctuary Mortality
Bar reef marine 7-8 Nearly 100% 14%

sanctuary Mortality
Kandakuliya 0-5 22% New growth after New growth destroyed by

bleaching Halimeda
Hikkaduwa 0-4 47% 7% 12%
Weligama 0-2 92% 30% 54%
Rumassala 1-5 45% 19.6% 23%
Degradation of lagoon and estuarine habitats
The Lagoons and estuaries are valuable coastal eco-systems in Sri Lanka that act as economic drivers by
providing sources of income for the fisher communities, contained rich bio-diversity and provided anchoring
facilities for the fishing crafts. For example the yearly earnings from fisheries in three most productive
barriers built estuaries, Negombo, Puttalam and Batticaloa alone exceed two billion rupees (Samarakoon J,
at el 2012). However, the lagoons, estuaries and the biodiversity they contained are under heavy stress and
confronted profound changes due to population growth in the coastal region, pollution due to the inflow of
sewage, untreated industrial effluents, urban wastes and waste oil, spreading of invasive plant species and
climate change repercussions. In the northwestern coastal belt, lagoons and estuaries are polluted due to
discharges from shrimp farms. Some of the lagoons/estuaries are degraded by coconut husk retting, sand
mining and anchoring of fishing crafts (e.g. Madu Ganga estuary, Bolgoda estuary, Negombo estuary).
Other adverse impacts felt are increased siltation due to development activities inland such as irrigation
schemes, soil disturbance from agriculture, deforestation, mining and construction. The salinity regimes in
several lagoons/ estuaries have been affected by changes in natural flows due to irrigation schemes. This
sometimes triggers off the growth of invasive plant species such as Najas marina and Salviniamolesta.
These habitats are also affected by indiscriminate harvesting of commercially important species.
Other issues connected with these habitats are the loss of functional lagoon/estuarine water area due to
unauthorized encroachment and land reclamation (e.g. Bolgoda, Negombo estuaries, Mawella and Lunawa
lagoons). There has also been loss of ecological and aesthetic value in some of the estuaries and lagoons
(e.g. Bentota, Madu Ganga estuaries and the Bolgoda lagoon). All these adverse impacts hamper the use of
lagoons/estuaries for fishery, tourism, scientific research and education. This is of concern as, for instance
above 30,000 part-time and full-time fishermen are engaged in the lagoon/estuarine fishery in Sri Lanka.
In general the resources in the majority of the lagoons in Sri Lanka still remain either satisfactory, somewhat
good or very good status. Lagoon resources in the Mannar district are reported to be in a better condition
than the lagoons in other coastal districts. However lagoon resources in the Hambantota, Colombo and
Galle District have been categorized as “bad” or very bad” (Silva E.I.L. at el 2013).
Damage to sea grass beds
The current information on the status of sea grass beds in Sri Lanka has not been updated in the recent past.
However as per the existing information, the sea grass beds in lagoons and around the coral reefs are often
damaged due to destructive fish harvesting techniques. Trampling or using fishing gear that rakes up sea
grass are also damaging. Push nets and drag nets cause immense damage to sea grass meadows in coastal
wetlands (Miththapala.S 2008). In Sri Lanka large scale commercial trawling and drift netting over the
seagrass beds that occur between Puttalam and Jaffna and beach seining in certain sections of the coastline
also affect seagrass beds. The reported mass scale poaching in the form of trawling operations by Indian
fishermen in the northern coastal waters also created severe damage to the sea grass beds. In certain areas
commercial polycheate harvesting as broodstock feed for shrimp hatcheries also causessevere damage to
seagrass beds (e.g. Negombo and Chilaw estuaries). Other adverse impacts are from siltation resulting from
offshore sand mining, land-based activities such as changes in catchment hydrology through irrigation
schemes. Sandbar formation, either through natural causes or those induced by human activity may also
cause degradation of seagrass beds. Damage to sea-grass beds in Sri Lanka due to 2004 Tsunami has been
reported as a minor incident (FAO 2007). In addition, higher water temperatures related to climate change
also will directly effect on the growth, reproduction and general metabolism of sea grases (Miththapala.S
2008).
Damage and destruction of mangrove areas
A substantial damage to the mangrove swamps especially those located in the Northern and Western provinces
in the country has been caused by the conversion of large extent of mangrove areas to shrimp farms and
salterns. In addition, lowland agriculture, housing construction and expansion of human settlement also
contributed in a significant manner to damage the mangrove areas. The mangroves associated with Negombo
Lagoon environment diminished to 253 ha. in 2010 indicating loss of nearly 100ha. over a period of 20
years, due to man induced causes(Kasige at el 2012, EML). In the northwestern province, loss of mangroves
occurred primarily because of expansion of shrimp farms, but smaller scale losses have also taken place due
to expansion of human settlements and industries. By and large, there has been a significant reduction of
the mangrove cover between 1986 and 2009 largely due to human interventions. There is also over-use of
mangrove resources. For example, the extraction of poles and wood for domestic use and twigs for brush
pile fishery is beyond sustainable levels. Mangrove eco-systems are also degraded by water pollution and
siltation. In addition to man induced causes, natural causes such as Tsunami and spreading of invasive
species also damaged the mangroves in the recent past. As a result of 2004 Tsunami event, large patches
of mangroves have been destroyed in Valachenai, Akkaraipattu, Sallitivu, Vakarai and Panama coastal
segments. The invasive alien species such as Annona glabera, Typha angustifolia, Salvinia molesta, Pistia
stratiotis and Naja marina also created a negative impact on the mangrove eco-systems (Synthesis Report
on Coastal Habitats, 2014).
Destruction of salt marshes
Salt marshes mainly occur in regions where the dry season is prolonged as in the north, northwest, northeast
and the southeast in the country. Salt marshes provide many vital ecological functions including resting
and feeding areas for migrant and resident wild life (Synthesis Report on Coastal Habitats 2014). The salt
marshes have been reduced quite considerably in the District of Puttalam where they have been converted
for establishing shrimp farms and salterns. It is reported that the extent converted was nearly 2,960 ha
between 1986 and 2002. (Dayaratna et al 1997) reported that about 50% of the salt marshes around Puttalam
lagoon area have been lost within a ten year period (1981 -1992) largely on account of shrimp farms. The
salt marshes located in the eastern province have been subjected to pollution from waste-water, chemicals
from agriculture and industrial activities, sewage and solid waste (Synthesis Report on Coastal Habitats
2014).
The salt marshes located in the northern region especially in the Mannar District were unaffected during the
last three decades due to the conflict situation that prevailed in the areas. Unlike the other coastal habitats,
absence of proper environmental valuation of the salt marshes has created an ambiguous status about the
usage.
Degradation of sand dunes, barrier beaches and sand spits
The degradation of sand dunes, barrier beaches and sand spits in Sri Lanka are mainly due to encroachments
for construction of dwellings, expansion of human settlements, siting of hotels and related infrastructure,and
transformation to agricultural lands for cultivation of coconut, chili, onion and other crops. Consequently,
the littoral woodland zone’which typically has a thick growth of shrubs and low tree species is now greatly
reduced in many areas. It is also evident in some areas of the southern and eastern coasts that some beaches
and spits, as well as mangroves, have been lost due to impacts of floods, tsunami (2004), cyclones and sea
erosion.
This problem has been aggravated by coral mining, improperly sited coastal structures and sand mining on
beaches and in the rivers. Another problem is that beaches are treated as dumping grounds for solid waste,
particularly in urban areas. Beaches are also polluted due to accumulation of tar balls formed when bilge
waters from ships get washed ashore as reported from Wadduwa to Mirissa on the western and southern
coasts. (This may also adversely affect other coastal habitats such as coral reefs and sea grasses). In some
coastal areas (e.g. Batticaloa and Hambantota Districts) exotic plant species have been introduced for beach
and dune stabilization; and concerns have been expressed of their adverse effects.The main beaches along
the southern coast from Kosgoda to Palatupana, Palaitivu Islands in the northern coast and Arugam Bay in
the eastern coast provide nesting sites for five turtle species that come ashore for nesting. These habitats
are getting degraded at a rapid rate due to indiscriminate allocation of land for construction of hotels, the
proliferation of slums and shanties, incorrect siting of tourist facilities and ribbon development.
3.2.2 The Impact of Conflict Situation on the Coastal Habitats
The natural characteristics of the coastal environment in the northern and the eastern region in Sri Lanka
have been rapidly changed during the conflict situation and the post conflict rehabilitation process. The
impacts of the conflict situation that prevailed in the northern and the eastern provinces in the country for
a long thirty year period neglected the conservation of coastal habitats such as mangroves, sand dunes,
coral reefs and sea grass beds. The impact of the conflict situation on the quality and quantity of coastal
habitats has not been assessed yet. However it was evident that direct impact has been created on the sand
dune ecosystems located in the Manalkadu and Pooneryn areas in the Northern Province. In addition field
observations revealed that mangroves have been cleared in some areas. These impacts have appeared due
to the security requirement such as clearing mangrove forest areas, extraction of sand for construction of
safety measures, use of explosives and heavy weaponry during the war situation by the government security
forces and the terrorist groups. However the extent and the cost of destruction of coastal habitat due to
conflict situation has not yet evaluated in economic terms.
3.2.3 The Impact of 2004 Tsunami on Coastal Habitats
The Asian Tsunami that struck on 26th December 2004 was probably the worst natural disaster in the Sri
Lankan history because of the numbers of people affected, its extent and complexity. Many reports been
written about its impact on the coastal habitats during the rebuilding process. Among the other coastal
habitats, mangroves are the most affected habitat due to Asian tsunami in 2004. As per the post tsunami
assessment, mangrove vegetation in Valachchenai, Akkaraipattu, Sallitivu, Vakarai and Panam in Batticaloa
and Ampara Districts were severely damaged in the eastern coastal segment while significant damage has
been reported from Tangalle, Rekawa, and Kahanda modera in the Hambantota District. The damage on
the mangroves was mainly observed in the form of uprooting (Synthesis Report on Coastal Habitats 2014).
The impact of Tsunami on coral reefs was highly variable and range from almost unaffected to extremely
damaged. The reefs located on the east and the northeast coast was severely damaged while reefs on the
northwest coast were generally unaffected. Almost total destruction of a reef was reported from Dutch
Bay off Trincomalee town in the eastern province. Most of the damages reported were mechanical, with
breakage of fragile corals, notably Acropora and Montipora spp., and larger massive colonies toppling over.
With respect to southern coast, coral reefs were damaged at all sites on the reefs of Tangalle, Kudawella,
Kapparatota/Weligama, Polhena, Unawatuna and Hikkaduwa (Synthesis Report on Coastal Habitats 2014).

Impact on fish population seems correlated with reef damage, most likely due to loss of fish habitat.
The impact on larger reef fish species such as groupers (Serranidae), snappers (Lujanidae), sweetlips
(Haemulidae), emperors (Lethrinidae) seemed low whilst smaller reef dwelling species such as damselfish
(Pomacentridae), butterflyfish (Chaetodontidae), gobies (Gobiidae) and wrasses (Labridae) seemed high,
in damaged areas.The impact of tsunami was significant where coral mining has been reported.According
to a research conducted by University of Notre Dame, Illinois USA (2005) using a tsunami simulation
model with coral reefs, a direct linkage between coral mining in the southern coast and the devastation of
tsunami (Rodrigo Malaka 2005) was found.
The impact of Tsunami on salt marshes was mainly reported as confined to filling of debris and sand
deposition. The black mud deposited on the marsh vegetation had a fatal effect on plant life. It also killed
aquatic life in smaller bodies of water (Munasinghe 2005). Among other coastal habitats, sand dunes
served as a protective barrier against the tsunami, in most of the coastal areas with uninterrupted dune
systems. This was mainly evident in areas such as Panama, Pothuvil, in the eastern coast and Mirijjavila in
Hambantota district where tsunami damage was minimal in the landward of the dune system. In contrast,
in the same locations where sand dunes have been destroyed, massive destruction was created due to the
tsunami (Arugam bay, Bombu ela area in Hambantota,)
The damage on the sea grass beds due to the tsunami has been reported as minor and mostly due to shifting
of rubbles, deposition of dibris. No uprooting was reported (Synthesis Report on Coastal Habitats 2014).
With respect to lagoons, the International Tsunami Survey Team (ITST) reported that, sand eroded from
the shore face and the beaches had deposited as a sheet in inland areas including lagoons (Silva E.I.L at el
2013).
3.2.4 Climate Change Repercussions and the Status of Coastal Habitats
The coastal environment and its habitats are changing more rapidly and more broadly in the country than
ever before due to both human induced and natural causes. The climate change related factors have been
identified as major potential factors leading to changes in the composition, bio-diversity and the quality
of coastal habitats. The climate change repercussions could be clearly seen from the sensitive and fragile
coastal habitats such as coral reefs and sea grass beds.
3.2.5 Coastal Habitats are undervalued resulting in Unsustainable Use
The actual economic values of the coastal habitats are not comprehensively estimated yet. Thus there is
a tendency to under estimate the total economic value of the coastal habitats when siting development
activities within the coastal zone. In the phase of rapid development taking place in the coastal region in
the areas of road development, commercial and fisheries harbour development, reclamation and island
development and coastal tourism, it is important to incorporate environmental valuation in the decision
making process.
3.2.6 Balancing Conservation and Development
The aftermath of the 2004 tsunami and the thirty years of the conflict situation that prevailed in the country,
the requirement of rapid economic development, the enhancement of the per capita income level was
considered the most priority condition. Major development thrust directed on coastal region, negative
impacts on the coastal habitat are inevitable. Thus the balancing of conservation needs with the economic
development requirements have to be carried out in a more realistic manner emphasizing total economic
value of the coastal habitats. In compliance with the current economic attempt being applied by the GOSL
on skipping from the middle income trap, much emphasis have to be placed on conservation needs and
mitigatory measures, when using the coastal areas.
3.3 ADDRESSING HABITAT CONSERVATION
3.3.1 Policies, Plans, Laws and Institutional Arrangements
Current rate of depletion and degradation of coastal habitats in the country highlights the requirement
of conservation and adaptive management. The management of coastal habitats in a comprehensive and
holistic manner was initiated by the CCCRMD through formulation and implementation of CZM Plans of
1990, 1997 and 2004. The policy arena with respect to habitat management initiative was further strengthen
through “Coastal 2000: Recommendations for a Resource Management Strategy for Sri Lanka’s Coastal
Region” produced in 1992. These initiatives led to formulation and adoption of several management
strategies covering regulation, education and awareness creation, planning and policy development,
monitoring, research and coordination. Conservation of coastal and marine habitats and their bio-diversity
are also addressed in the National Bio-diversity Conservation Action Plan implemented by the Ministry
of Environment and Natural Resources. The legal provisions in the Coast Conservation Act No. 57 of
1981and its subsequent amendments No: 64 of 1988 and No.49 of 2011 also promote the conservation of
coastal habitats through regulatory measures. The expansion of the legally defined coastal zone through
2011 Coast Conservation Act amendments covering the riparian land of the coastal water bodies has placed
more emphasis on conserving the coastal habitats through regulatory process.
The National Strategy and Action Plan published by the IUCN, Sri Lanka Office for the National Steering
Committee of the “Mangrove for the Future” Programme, Sri Lanka, proposes an eco-system based on
integrated Coastal Management in Sri Lanka. This is based on an evaluation of the 30 year record of coastal
management in Sri Lanka, and postulates that “a more systemic approach is perceived to be imperative”.
Whilst some of the recommendations that can be accommodated within the current legal mandate of the
CC & CRMD have been included in this plan, a shift to eco-system based integrated coastal management
would require a major re-orientation of the Coast Conservation Act which would in turn depend on the
official acceptance of the proposed Strategy and Action Plan at the highest levels of policy making.
If so accepted, due regard shall be paid to this aspect in the revision of this plan within the next five years
as mandated by the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Act.
Table 3.5 Key Management Strategies adopted by the CC&CRMD for

Coastal Habitat Conservation
Regulatory • Banning of all activities pertaining to sea coral mining

• Permits from CC&cRM made mandatory for all development
activities in the Coastal Zone
• Expansion of coastal zone covering riparian land of the coastal
waterbodies
• Legal provisions introduced to declare“conservation areas” and
“Affected areas”.
Education and awareness • Dissemination of knowledge through printed materials on the
value of coastal habitats, and issues pertaining to them
• Inclusion of facts about problems affecting coastal habitats into
the secondary school curriculum
• Conducting awareness programmes on different coastal habitats
for school children, teachers and key stakeholders.
Planning and policy development • Conservation of coastal habitats through Special Management
Area Plans in selected sites
• Institutionalization of SMA process.
Monitoring • Implementing a monitoring programme on coral and sand mining
Research • Supporting research on coral reefs and mangroves
Co-ordination • At the national level: Coast Conservation Advisory Council.

• At the local level: The Coast Conservation Coordinating
Committee, Steering Committees and SMA Community
Coordinating Committees (CCCs)
• Supported through IUCN- MFF programme
3.3.2 Institutional Mechanisms and Key Initiatives
There are several ministries, government departments and other agencies that are responsible for the
conservation and management of coastal habitats. The CC&CRMD, the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources, The Ministry of Environment and Renewable Energy, the Department of Wildlife Conservation
(DWLC), The Forest Department, the National Aquatic Resources, Research and Development Agency
(NARA), the Central Environmental Authority (CEA), Marine Environment Protection Agency (MEPA)
and the Urban Development Authority (UDA). Each has a specific role to play in the conservation and
management of various coastal habitats. In addition the coastal Provincial Councils also should play a key
role in managing coastal habitats in their respective provinces. The activities of the Irrigation and Agriculture
Department also have major impacts on coastal habitats, as do the activities of the respective Provincial
Councils, Pradeshiya Sabhas and Divisional Secretariat Offices.
3.3.3 Future Trends in Management Practices

Attempts at adopting an integrated approach to management of coastal habitats in the past indicated a
need for closer co-ordination among institutions that have jurisdiction over various coastal resources. Future
strategies for conservation and rational management of coastal habitats should take due cognizance of the
constraints encountered in the past. The management measures adopted by the CC&CRMD in respect of
coastal habitats have relied considerably on regulatory initiatives. Strength eninginstitutional integration
and community participation should receive high priority, since they have been identified as the weak links
in implementing coastal resources management plans. Community participation is vital to resolve user
conflicts encountered in different eco-systems, and Special Management Area initiatives should be adopted
as a tool where possible to promote community participation in dealing with specific coastal habitats and
the various issues connected with them.
The adoption of an integrated approach is required for law enforcement and the implementation of
recommendations in other action/management plans pertaining to coastal habitats (e.g. the Bio-diversity
Conservation Action Plan prepared by the Ministry dealing with the environment). There should also be
adequate institutional co-ordination and co-operation in the preparation of all Coastal Resources Management
Plans. For instance, integrated coastal habitat management involves close links with watershed management
thus all agencies in the relevant discipline should get involved in the management process. It is also extremely
important to ensure that development activities are regulated through appropriate procedures to address the
crucial issue of coastal pollution that have significant impact on coastal habitats. Public awareness is also
considered to be an effective tool for habitat conservation. Therefore adequate emphasis has to be givenin
this respect in future management practices.
Future approaches for coastal habitat management should also be geographically specific and based on well-
explained links between human activities and changes within the natural systems. The overall management
objectives in respect of coastal habitats in the future should be to ensure the sustainable management of
coastal habitats and for the preservation and enrichment of their natural features. Achieving this requires
addressing the issues pertaining to each habitat separately in view of their specific characteristics and
requirements. Care has to be taken to ensure that all policies and actions for conservation of coastal habitats
comply with the National Physical Development Plan, the National Environmental Action Plan and the
National Bio-diversity Conservation Action Plan and the other national planning initiatives. It is important
to implement coastal habitat management on a prioritized basis as some habitats are faced with severe
threats that require immediate attention. While no attempt has, however, been made to prioritize coastal
habitats for management action in this document, this could be an important aspect to be addressed in
implementing the CZMP. In the preparation of plans, especially for the Special Management Areas, care
should be taken that the linkage between the individual habitat and the eco-system unit in which they are
nested is not lost site of.
In order to address the future requirements for coastal habitat conservation, this chapter has identified a range
of actions after analysis of the gaps in interventions adopted in the past as well as the current management
requirements. Specific conservation issues have been identified for each habitat, and the policies, strategies
and actions required to remedy these situations are provided accordingly in view of their present status and
associated uses.
3. 4 MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES, POLICIES, STRATEGIES AND ACTIONS
Objectives 1
Coral reefs are conserved to enhance bio-diversity, non-extractive values, provide barrier against coastal
hazards such as erosion, tsunami, storm surges, permit sustainable use of bio-resources and sustain
fisheries and other economic activities.
Policy 1.1
The degradation and depletion of coral reefs in quantitative and qualitative manner due to human induced
activities within and outside the Coastal Zone will be minimized.
Strategy 1.1.1
Enforce existing legislations and regulations effectively to minimize/eradicate damage to and destruction
of coral reefs through human induced activities.
Proposed Actions
1. Continue to enforce existing laws/regulations to prevent the degradation of coral habitats.
2. Continue implementation of the provisions of the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management
Act against sea coral mining to improve current condition more effectively.
3. Assist relevant authorities to control mining of inland corals and to minimize negative impacts.
4. Continue awareness creation programmes for identified target groups such as coral-based lime users,
coastal dwellers, ornamental fish collectors, fishermen, tour guides and glass-bottom boat operators on
laws/regulations relevant to preventing damage to coral reefs.
Strategy 1.1.2
Promote the use of alternative sources of lime to meet the requirements of the construction industry and
agriculture.
Proposed Actions
1. Provide appropriate publicity to uses of alternative substitutes and construction technology for coral-
based lime to enable to conserve coral reefs.
2. Encourage and advocate for introducing market instruments to promote the use of substitutes to coral-
based lime among different user groups.
3. Continue implementation of the policy on the restriction of the use of coral-based lime in state construction
works.
Policy 1.2
Mainstream concerns regarding climate change and other natural events into management of coral reefs
where possible.
Strategy 1.2.1
Implement recommended policy guidelines under climate change adaptation for coral reefs.
Proposed Actions
1. Facilitate and support monitoring activities conducted on status and trends of the health of the Coral
Reefs by NARA.
2. Ensure continuous compliance with the climate adaptation policies.
3. Carry out appropriate action to improve post event of coastal environment to facilitate fast recovery of
coral reef habitats.
Policy 1.3
The bio-diversity of coral reefs will be conserved/enhanced through adherence to sustainable fishery
management practices.
Strategy 1.3.1
Prevent/minimize through appropriate management practices, over-exploitation of reef organisms such
as aquarium fish, lobsters, chank, sea cucumber etc.
Proposed Action
1. Encourage and facilitate continuation of implementation of the recommendation related to fish stock
assessment conducted by DFAR / NARA on lobsters, chanks, ornamental fish and sea cucumber.
2. Monitor effectiveness of implementation of guidelines and regulations enforced by DFAR on fish stocks.
3. Support implementation of actions proposed in the Bio-diversity Conservation Action Plan as relevant
for conservation of coral reef associated bio-diversity.
Policy 1.4
Scientific research relevant to coral reef restoration/rehabilitation and conservation will be promoted.
Strategy 1.4.1
Promote and support coral reef surveys and restoration through collaborative research on these habitats
and their resources and promote measures for sharing/effective dissemination of information.
Proposed Action
1. Conduct survey to determine actual extent, status and value of coral reef habitats associated with the
coastal waters of Sri Lanka.
2. Identify and disseminate information regarding priority sites for coral restoration, and the methods and
the technology for reef restoration.
3. Initiate a programme in collaboration with local/foreign funding organizations and research institutions/
universities to replant, corals in areas where heavy destruction of corals is evident with community
participation.
4. Initiate a mechanism to enhance capacity and promote collaborative research on coral reef organisms
that could enhance quality of life (e.g. organisms of medicinal value).
5. Promote investigations on development of starfish population on spatial basis and carry out a ‘Crown
of Thorns’ starfish (Acanthasterplancii) eradication programme.
6. Assist NARA to regularly update the meta-database developed on corals and establish an inter-institutional
meta-database on coral reefs and establish a mechanism to provide access to this information.
7. Improve socio-economic data collection on reef resource uses to facilitate management of reef harvesting
and other uses.
Policy 1.5
Management of tourism, recreational and other development activities associated with coral reefs shall
ensure the health of the coral reefs.
Strategy 1.5.1
Manage tourism and other development activities to minimize negative impacts on coral reefs and the
resources they contain through collaborative measures.
Proposed Action
1. Promote participation of private entrepreneurs in managing coral reefs located in the respective tourism
development areas with required community participation.
2. Control discharges and sedimentation from development activities through regulatory measures (permits,
EPL, EIA/IEE) in collaboration with relevant agencies.
3. Enhance livelihoods of the coastal communities through non-extractive uses of the coral reefs in tourism
areas in collaboration with the private sector involvement.
4. Initiate community surveillance programmes with DWC to minimize negative impacts on coral reefs
related to tourism, recreation and fisheries activities.
5. Initiate collaborative programmes with hotels/Tourist Board to provide interpretative facilities in hotels
in areas with potential for coral reef viewing to increase enjoyment of the resource and for conservation.
6. Promote awareness among tourists and tour guides on the conservation status of reefs and reef organisms
through collaborative programmes with the Tourist Board, hotels and tour operators, Customs and Airport
authorities.
7. Coordinate and support customised training programmes and reference material to assist with identifying
coral reef organisms prohibited for export for relevant state officials.
8. Promote and conduct coral reef transplantation programme in coral reef degraded areas with the assistance
of NARA, universities and associated communities.
Objective 2
Lagoons and estuaries are conserved to sustain and enhance ecological functions, promote socio-economic
activities and non-extractive values while maintaining resource sustainability.
Policy 2.1
The degradation of estuaries and lagoons due to man induced causes and development activities within
and outside the Coastal Zone will be minimized / eradicted.
Strategy 2.1.1
Minimize the discharge of untreated industrial effluents and sewage into estuaries/ lagoons through
monitoring and enforcing compliance with existing regulations and guidelines.
Proposed Action
1. Expand existing coastal water quality monitoring programme of the CC&CRMD covering lagoons and
estuaries to determine the impacts of industrial effluents (including effluents from shrimp farms) and
sewage discharged into them.
2. Initiate and implement or support existing programmes in collaboration with Local Authorities and other
relevant agencies to develop mitigatory measures to minimise adverse impacts of industrial pollution
and curtail direct discharge of sewage from dwellings into lagoons and estuaries.
3. Formulate a compliance monitoring programme to ensure that all industries within the Coastal Zone
adhere to the conditions/guidelines imposed through Development Permits, EPL and EIA/IEE.
4. Implement existing provisions of the relevant legal enactment to curtail, pollutant

discharges into lagoons effectively.
Policy 2.2
Lagoons and estuary mouths/outlets and adjacent banks will be managed based on sound scientific
information.
Strategy 2.1.2
Minimize reduction of functional area of lagoons and estuaries due to encroachments,
reclamation, removal of vegetation and other development activities.
Proposed Actions
1. Survey and demarcate the boundaries of the lagoons and estuaries with the assistance of relevant agencies.
2. Implement development permits procedure to control development activities covering riparian land and
the water area lying within the coastal zone.
3. Adopt legal provisions of the CC&CRMA pertaining to SMA to control development activities associated
with the lagoons and estuaries.
4. Enforce prevailing regulatory measures against encroachments and reclamation.

Policy 2.3
The economic, ecological and social values of estuaries and lagoons will be recognized and enhanced.
Strategy 2.3.1
Promote sustainable management of resources in estuaries and lagoons through eco-system service
valuation and with community participation.
Proposed Action
1. Prepare eco-system service valuation model for selected politically, economically significant barrier
built estuaries (Negombo and Puttalam).
2. Ensure that the fishery in estuaries/lagoons is at sustainable levels by regulating gear, methods and effort.
3. Formulate programme to promote use of ecological, aesthetic and recreational value of estuaries/lagoons
and their natural environs with the relevant stakeholders while maintaining the sustainability of the
resources.
4. Encourage and assist to implement the relevant recommendations of the National Biodiversity
Conservation Action Plan implemented by the Ministry of Environment.
5. Study the impacts of sand bar formation/removal on selected estuaries/lagoons and identify measures
to mitigate adverse effects.
Strategy 2.3.2
Minimise changes in estuarine/lagoon environments from adverse impacts of water diversion and
irrigation schemes through collaborative programmes.
Proposed Action
1. Develop a mechanism to integrate lagoon and estuary management with watershed management to
minimize pollution/siltation/salinity changes caused by upstream development activities, including
irrigation works.
2. Study the impacts of water diversion/irrigation on selected estuaries/lagoons and identify measures to
mitigate adverse effects.
Objective 3
Seagrass beds are conserved to sustain ecological functions and socio-economic values.
Policy 3.1
Direct and indirect damage to sea grass beds from activities will be minimized.
Strategy 3.1.1
Minimise negative impacts of activities that damage seagrass beds through existing regulatory measures
with relevant agencies.
Proposed Action
1. Enforce existing regulatory measures to prevent pollution, sand mining, destructive fishing methods
and other activities that damage seagrass beds.
2. Implement EIA/IEE procedures to avert potential negative impacts of dredging and mining in the coastal
waters.
Policy 3.2
Research and community awareness on sea grass beds in Sri Lankan waters will be promoted.
Strategy 3.2.1
Initiate inter agency collaborative research and monitoring and awareness programmes that will help
enhance management of sea grass beds.
Proposed Action
1. Initiate programme to carry out systematic mapping of critically threatened seagrass beds in Sri Lankan
waters.
2. Declare vulnerable/threatened sea grass beds as conservation areas under the provisions of the
CC&CRMA.
3. Initiate a programme to study the adverse effects of catchment hydrology and sand bar formation on
seagrass beds and propose management measures.
4. Carry out public outreach programme on conservation of sea grass beds and associated habitats among
target groups.
5. Address, conservation of sea grass meadows in the lagoons through SMA process.
Objective 4
Mangrove eco-systems are conserved and managed to maintain biodiversity, sustain eco-system services
and socio-economic activities.
Policy 4.1
Depletion and degradation of mangroves due to unplanned development activities will be prevented/
minimized.
Strategy 4.1.1
Formulate and implement programme to prevent or minimise damage to mangrove systems.
Proposed Action
1. Identify vulnerable mangrove areas where management is urgently needed, and prioritize for conservation.
2. Declare conservation areas based on the priority list with the assistance of Forest Department.
3. Formulate guidelines for mangrove replanting schemes to rehabilitate identified degraded mangrove
areas.
4. Regulate new development activities in mangrove areas through EIA/IEE procedures and permits.
5. Introduce a monitoring mechanism to identify the adverse impacts of present and future development
activities within mangrove ecosystems and formulate suitable mitigatory measures.
6. Identify suitable sites where sustainable extraction of mangrove resources can be permitted, and formulate
and implement guidelines for such uses.
Policy 4.2
The sustainable use of mangrove resources connected with economic activities will be supported.
Strategy 4.2.1
Support and promote sustainable management of mangroves for economic activities through agency
collaboration and community participation.
Proposed Action
1. Promote private entrepreneurs to establish ecotourism projects in suitable areas with community
participation.
2. Identify non–destructive uses of mangrove resources at community level and disseminate such information
to stakeholders.
3. Establish a suitable mechanism to ensure inter-agency co-ordination and participation to promote

sustainable use of mangrove resources.
4. Formulate and implement programmes through SMA process to ensure sustainable use of mangroves.
Policy 4.3
Protect mangroves within the CZ in compliance with the existing legal provisions.
Strategy 4.3.1
Encourage and promote enforcement of legal provisions to protect mangroves within the coastal zone.
Proposed Action
1. Formulate and implement education and awareness programmes on the prevailing legal provisions
among stakeholder groups.
2. Encourage community participation in obtaining information on contraventions of the legal provisions.
Objective 5
Barrier beaches, spits and sand dunes are conserved to sustain ecological functions and socio-economic
and aesthetic values.
Policy 5.1
Coastal development activities that degrade barrier beaches, spits and sand dunes will be regulated.
Strategy 5.1.1
Minimise adverse impacts of development activities on barrier beaches, spits and sand dunes through
regulatory measures and establishment of Dune Protection Lines (DPLs).
Proposed Action
1. Declare barrier beaches, spits and sand dunes located in front of low-lying areas as Sensitive Zones
and control all activities detrimental to these declared areas.
2. Declare and implement siting criteria for new development activities close to barrier beaches, spits and
sand dunes.
3. Make EIAs mandatory for siting new development in or in close proximity to barrier beaches, spits and
sand dunes where necessary in areas outside the Coastal Zone.
4. Enhance co-ordination with relevant agencies to ensure compliance of all regulations pertaining to new
development in or in close proximity to barrier beaches, spits and sand dunes.
5. Collaborate with concerned organisations to prevent allocation of crown land adjoining barrier beaches,
spits and sand dunes for development purposes.
6. Establish Dune Protection Lines (DPL) in important dune areas based on a land survey considering the
setback standards stipulated in this document.
7. Prohibit all new development activities, and further expansion of already existing structures within the
DPLs.
8. Devise effective programmes to communicate with key stakeholders on the importance of maintaining
DPLs.
9. Manage and regulate exploration/extraction of commercially valuable minerals and mineral sands from
barrier beaches, spits and sand dunes in conformity with the Minerals and Mines Act, No. 33 of 1992
and in consultation with the GSMB and enforce legal action against violators.
Policy 5.2
Sand dunes will be protected to minimize impacts of episodic coastal hazards such as tsunamis and
cyclones.
Policy 5.3
Coastal pollution that degrades barrier beaches, spits and sand dunes will be minimised/ prevented.
Strategy 5.3.1
Mobilise Local Authorities and stakeholders to minimise dumping of solid wastes and dredged material
on barrier beaches, spits and sand dunes.
Proposed Action
1. Assist and encourage the Local Authorities to relocate existing dumping sites located within the barrier
beaches, spits and sand dunes.
2. Launch beach cleaning campaigns with the participation of all stakeholders and Local Authorities.
3. Formulate management groups among dwellers in beach areas and jointly develop guidelines to maintain
barrier beaches, spits and sand dunes and prevent pollution of these areas, and ensure that the guidelines
are adhered to.
Policy 5.4
Activities that promote degradation of biodiversity in barrier beaches, spits and sand dunes will minimised.
Strategy 5.4.1
Minimise human activities that lead to the reduction of biological diversity through inter-agency
collaboration.
Proposed Action
1. Prohibit removal and destruction of fauna and flora from barrier beaches, spits and dunes.
2. Promote and launch a programme in collaboration with the Forest Department to plant suitable indigenous
flora in damaged areas.
3. Identify areas important as nesting sites for sea turtles and take collaborative action to conserve such
areas.
4. Take necessary collaborative action to prevent and mitigate problems of invasive

species such as Prosopisjuliflora.
Objective 6
Salt marshes are conserved to sustain ecological functions and socio-economic values.
Policy 6.1
Coastal development activities that degrade salt marsh areas will be minimised/ prevented.
Strategy 6.1.1
Ensure compliance with guidelines/regulations for new development by strengthening co-ordinated
action between relevant agencies.
Proposed Actions

1. Identify critical and importance of salt marsh areas in terms of their ecological and socio-economic
importance and formulate guidelines for planning and development activities in them.
2. Determine carrying capacity/potential and prepare appropriate detailed zonal plans for prospective
development in salt marsh areas jointly with relevant agencies and communities.
3. Regulate new activities and expansions (eg. for salterns, shrimp ponds) in salt marsh areas according
to existing laws, regulations and permits.
4. Develop a mechanism for relevant agencies to co-ordinate development activities within and around
salt marsh areas.
Policy 6.2
CC&CRMD shall co-ordinate with other agencies to conserve salt marshes within and outside the coastal
zone.
Strategy 6.1.2
Promote sustainable development of salt marshes through planned communication for relevant
stakeholders.
Proposed Action
1. Formulate and implement customized programmes for communicating about salt marshes and their
values to key stakeholders to enhance commitment for conservation.
2. Supply informations about pollution control and technology suppliers of pure industries to the industries
make negative impacts in the coastal zone.
REFERENCES:
1. Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Department (2004), Revised Coastal Zone
Management Plan 2004.
2. Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Department, (2014); Updating and preparation
of a synthesis report on Coastal Coral Reefs, Sea Grass Beds, Salt Marshes, Lagoons and Estuaries and
Barrier Beaches within the coastal region of Sri Lanka.
3. Government of Sri Lanka, Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management Act, No.57 of 1981.
4. Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, 2009, National Action Plan for Haritah Lanka
Programmer
5. Miththapala, S. (2008) Mangroves, Coastal Ecosystem Series Volume 2 P1-28 + iii, Colombo Sri Lanka;
Ecosystem and Livelihood Group Asia, IUCN.
6. Miththapala, S. (2008) Seagrasses and Sand dunes, Coastal Ecosystem Series Volume 3, Colombo Sri
Lanka; Ecosystem and Livelihood Group Asia, IUCN
7. Miththapala, S. (2013). Lagoons and Estuaries. Coastal Ecosystems Series (Vol 4). vi + 73 pp. IUCN
Sri Lanka Country Office, Colombo.
8. Silva, E.I.L; Katupotha, J.; Amarasinghe, O.; Manthrithilake,H.; Ariyaratne,R. 2013. Lagoons of
Sri Lanka: from the origins to the present. Colombo, Sri Lanka; International Water Management
Institute(IWMI).
9. Samarakoon, Jayampthy; Saman Samarawickrama (2012) An appraisal of challenges in the sustainable
management of the Micro tidal Barrier built estuaries and lagoons in Sri Lanka, IUCN, Sri Lanka Country
Office, Colombo.
10. Web sites used :
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ai000e/AI000E07.htm
Chapter 4
4. CONTROLLING COASTAL WATER POLLUTION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.1.1. Significance of the Problem
The National Environmental Act of The findings of the recent monitoring

1980 defines pollution as “Any direct studies carried out by CC&CRMD shows
or indirect alteration of the physical, deterioration of coastal water quality in
thermal, chemical, biological or economically sensitive coastal segments.
radioactive properties of any part of the In view of the remarkable attraction on
environment by the discharge, emission development of coastal tourism and other
or the deposit of wastes so as to affect important economic activities within the
any beneficial use adversely or to cause coastal region, the degree of pollution should
a condition which is hazardous to public be closely monitored and effectively managed
health, safety or welfare of animals, birds,
wildlife, aquatic life or to plants of every
description.”
As a result of growing population pressures, urbanization and development activities taking place in the coastal
region, the problem of water pollution has been increasing over the past few decades. In 2012, population in
coastal district was estimated as 11,392,903. Colombo metropolitan area has the highest rate of urbanization growing
from 3.9 million in 1981 to 5.8 million in 2012. Ocean waters, coastal surface waters comprising rivers, streams,
estuaries and lagoons - and ground water in coastal areas receive significant level of pollution loads from
un-regulated industries, development activities and human settlements located in and outside the Coastal Zone.
Out of all industries in the country (small, medium, large scale) 61.6 percent of industrial units are located in
the coastal region and discharge effluents with little or no treatment. By and large, the sustainability of fisheries,
tourism and other industries and livelihoods of local communities depend considerably on the productivity of the
diverse habitats and resources within this area. The near shore waters in particular are used extensively for,
fishing and recreation etc. for which different levels of water quality are required
The impacts of pollution on the coastal and marine ecosystems and their resultant biological as well as socio-
economic implications are many and varied. The existing information revealed that the cost of coastal water
pollution in Sri Lanka is on the increasing side. For example, the cost to human health from coastal water pollution in
the Colombo Metropolitan Area is estimated to have increased from SLRs. 2 million in 1992, to SLRs. 4 million in
1997 and SLRs. 14 million in 2002 respectively (CZMP – 2015). There are also losses associated with decreased
biological diversity, reduced aesthetic, recreational, cultural and archaeological value; declining land prices
and reduced revenue from tourism, fisheries and other development activities. There are also some definite links
between increasing levels of pollution and loss of coastal land values and fishery productivity. For example, the
estimated annual loss of income from fish sales in the Lunawa lagoon prior to rehabilitation due to pollution
is approximately SLRs 1,963 million and the total annual land value decline in the area is estimated to be SLRs
712 million. In addition the total direct cost incurred on rehabilitation of Lunawa lagoon during the period between
2004-2007 under the ADB funded CRMP and Lunawa Environmental Improvement Project was approximately
US$ 95 Million. Thus, the benefits expected from coastal water pollution management are substantial; reducing
water pollution in the coastal region is of paramount importance.
Pollution of ground water
Although an accurate assessment of water pollution caused by agricultural run-off has not yet been
carried out, some studies indicate a link between the two. In the Kalpitiya peninsula, characterized
by highly permeable soils and a shallow water table, the irrigation wells in extensively cultivated
areas have high nitrate concentrations (i.e. in excess of the WHO guideline of 10 mg/1) and a
chloride concentration ranging from 50-200 mg/1. In contrast, domestic wells located outside
these areas have nitrate levels less than 2 mg/1 and chloride concentrations less than 100 mg/1.
There is widespread ground water contamination in the Jaffna peninsula attributed to agricultural
run-off and the extensive use of pit latrines. High concentration of nitrates has been recorded in
the ground water of the Jaffna peninsula resulting in the “methaemoglobinaemia” or blue baby
syndrome among those who use the contaminated waters (CZMP 2004).
MORE ON COASTAL WATERS AS THE CONDUIT OF POLLUTION
Coastal near shore waters in some coastal segments receive considerable pollutants by way of sewage,
industrial, agricultural and domestic waste water, sediment and solid materials from land-based activities.
They are released directly into the ocean or are conveyed through rivers, estuaries and lagoons. This
is of concern particularly as the designated uses of near shore waters are dependent on specific levels of
water quality.
Coastal waters in estuaries and lagoons are subject to heavy pollution loads, though the level of
pollutants in them changes due to dilution and flushing by riverine flow or tidal action. Pollution of
these waters has an impact on the health of the important habitats associated with them and the diverse
and economically important fauna and flora they contain.
Sri Lanka has 103 rivers that radiate from the central hills and flow down to the coast. These rivers
are subject to different pollution stresses; some carry very high pollution loads consisting of organic
and inorganic pollutants, faecal matter, waste oil and visual pollutants. The degree of pollution in rivers
may differ temporally as well as spatially as pollution loads entering them at various points vary
considerably.
Ground water is derived mainly from rainwater seepage and the recharge from surface water bodies such
as streams, canals and reservoirs. The estimated ground water availability in the island is around 7,250
million cubic meters4. The richest source of ground water in Sri Lanka is the Karst limestone aquifers
in the coastal districts of Puttalam and Mannar extending to the Jaffna peninsula. Over the past years,
ground water has been extracted increasingly for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes, from
both shallow dug wells and deep tube wells.
Serious threats to ground water have been observed in many coastal areas due to nitrate and bacterial
contamination. The main pollution problems in the ground water of coastal areas are leachage of fertilizers
causing nitrate pollution; seepage from faecal matter and pollution with heavy metals in industrial zones.
Treatment of ground water is very costly so that preventing pollution is of considerable importance.
Another concern is that higher rates of water extraction in coastal areas than is sustainable has led to
brackish water intrusion into wells, particularly in the northern and north western coastal areas where
well water is extensively used for agriculture. (CZMP 2004)
4.1.2 Nature of Castal Water Pollution
4.1.2.1 Key factors influencing coastal water pollution
The main factors influencing water pollution in the coastal region are the high human population
densities particularly in the areas where industrial, agriculture and tourism related activities are
predominant. Accordingly, the coastal districts of Colombo, Gampaha, Kalutara, Galle, Matara and
Jaffna respectively recorded the highest population densities. Problems related to coastal pollution
can be expected to increase further in the future as major social and economic development
activities continue to take place along the coastal belt, if not properly managed. In this respect
specific attention has to be placed on five metro regions proposed in Northern, North Central,
Eastern, Southern and Western coastal regions under the Sri Lanka 2030 National Physical Plan.
In addition Mannar, Jaffna, Kuchchiveli and Kalpitiya coastal segments will be developed as new
tourism development areas. Thus, higher tendency towards occurring coastal pollution has to be
expected in the future.
4.1.2.2 Types of Pollutants and their Sources
Although the level of coastal water pollution has not been fully studied yet, the current information
revealed that coastal waters are polluted mainly due to the release of untreated or partially treated
wastewater and toxic substances from industries, tourist resorts and shrimp farms, the dumping of
solid waste in coastal areas, the receipt of raw sewage and contamination with waste oil released
from fishing boats, ships, coastal service stations and oil spills. These waters also receive fertilizer
and agro-chemical run-off from agricultural lands, and waste from squatter settlements and other
domestic sources. The pollutants that reach coastal waters vary from faecal matter, visual pollutants
that float or are in suspension, nutrients rich in nitrogen and/or phosphorus, toxic and non-toxic
organic substances and heavy metals, waste oil and thermal discharges (Table 4.1). They may
originate from specific point sources such as industries, urban sewers or sewage treatment plants
and coconut husk retting sites, and (a) be transported through coastal waterways such as rivers,
streams and estuaries, or (b) through direct leakage and seepage. They may also originate from
non-point sources (run-off) that are more difficult to control, such as agricultural lands, sewage
from built-up areas and mines.
Table 4.1:Type of Pollution, Sources and Main Adverse Impacts
Type of pollution Key sources Adverse impacts
Faecal pollution Municipal sewage Water related diseases

Industries Affects the growth of marine flora and
Tourist sector fauna
Aquaculture Foul odours, spoils scenic value
Squatter settlements May lead to anaerobic environments.
Visual pollution Industries Spoils scenic value

Tourist sector Affects habitats and breeding
Agriculture and aquaculture grounds of fauna
Squatter settlements Affects growth of marine vegetation
Municipal and domestic solidwaste such as sea grass by
reducing light penetration.
Type of pollution Key sources Adverse impacts
Enrichment with nutrients Municipal sewage Stimulates algae growth

such as nitrogen and Industries Causes change or decline of
phosphorus Tourist sector biodiversity
Agriculture and aquaculture Changes water quality
Squatter settlements
Municipal and domestic solid waste
Organic (non-toxic and Industries Bio-accumulation of substances that

toxic) and heavy metal Tourist sector are carcinogenic or causes health
pollution Agriculture and aquaculture hazards in marine fauna
Squatter settlements Decline of biodiversity
Municipal and domestic solid waste Persistence in the marine or coastal
environment for long periods
Affects growth and reproduction of
marine fauna
Oil pollution Industries Spoils scenic value
Destroys marine fauna and flora
Boats, ships, oil spills and service Affects benthic fauna with the formation
stations of oil slicks and tar balls.
Thermal pollution Power sector, Industries Affects migration patterns of fauna
Affects the growth of marine flora
and fauna
Causes changes in ecosystems
Stimulates algae growth.
(CZMP 2004)
4.2 ISSUES AND THREATS
4.2.1 Inadequate Municipal Sewage Disposal Facilities
Faecal pollution is a major problem in some coastal waters due to the direct discharge of untreated municipal
sewage into land and water ways. Colombo is one of the few cities in Sri Lanka with an installed sewerage
system. A part of the sewer connection is diverted to the sea at Mutwal through a long sea outfall located north
of the Colombo Port, and the rest is sent out through another long sea outfall at Wellawatta. The capacity of
the sewerage system is inadequate to cater for the entire Colombo city as it is about 100 years old, and needs
frequent repair. Another problem is the illegal sewage connections to sewerage lines and unauthorized connections
to storm water drainage systems and combined sewers.
As per the current estimates the generated wastewater in coastal area was approximately 1,822,864 m2
per day and significant amount of domestically generated wastewater discharge into coastal zone through
canals, drains and pipes. According to a study carried out by MOFE in 2001, out of total 370, 000 m2 of daily
wastewater generated in the greater Colombo area only 90,000 m2 is discharged through ocean outfalls. The
balance amounts of 280,000 m2 reenter the environment as wastewater. The waste water discharge through
marine outfalls contained high organic content, high nutrient content and high content of coliforms.
Sewage disposal facilities in the Greater Colombo Area
Wellawatta and Mutwal outfalls belonging to Colombo Municipality discharge

wastewater to sea using High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) pipes, Long sea outfalls
use grift removal methods to remove larger materials and further treatment process are
not applied. During the past few years, water skin diseases were recorded in Wellawatta
coastal area and it might have resulted due to the discharge of sea outfall (Information
Compendium on Coastal Pollution, 2014).
4.2.2 Inadequate Facilities for Waste Disposal in Underserved Settlement
Many highly populated coastal low-lying areas have a shallow water table and a high
vulnerability for flooding. Inadequate drainage facilities and ad hoc development
in these areas have further intensified the impacts of inappropriate sewage disposal
in low-lying flood prone coastal areas, leading to severe faecal pollution in internal
and near shore waters

The problem of sewage disposal in Colombo is compounded by the inadequacy of urban infrastructure for the city’s
poor. At the turn of the last century there were about 1,500 shanty settlements in the city, comprising around 66,000
households sheltering about 51 per cent of the city’s population. These settlements are under-served in respect of
sanitation, safe water and waste disposal facilities. Pollution from these sources cause reduction of dissolved oxygen
in the canals and streams, resulting in an anoxic environment and a foul odour that is harmful to human health
and aquatic organisms.
4.2.3 Industrial Effluents
There are nine Export Processing Zones (EPZ), three Industrial Parks (IP) and
one Export Processing Park (EPP) operating under the purview of the BOI. Of
these, two EPZs (Katunayake and Koggala) and one IP ( of 20 ha in Mirijjawila)
are located in the coastal region. In addition, there are seventeen other Industrial
Parks managed by the Ministry of Industries Of these, three parks - at Bata-atha,
Ratmalana and Udukawa -are located in the coastal region. Four other IP s at
Panadura, Weligama, Ekala and St. Martin Estate Chilaw are also located in the
coastal region (CZMP, 2004)
Industrial effluents that have undergone little or no treatment are frequently received by near shore waters, lagoons
and estuaries through run-off, leakage and seepage. Most of the industries located in the coastal area belong to either
the medium or low polluting category. In 1994, Sri Lanka had 336 industries with a high or medium pollution
potential in the Coastal Zone. Industries that contribute most to water pollution are those dealing with textiles,
paper, tanning, metal finishing and engineering, paints, chemicals, cement, food and beverages and distilleries.
Small Industries that deal with coconut fiber retting also have highly localized impacts on water pollution as they
result in high BOD and COD values.
Majority of the industries are not yet equipped with the basic infrastructure for waste treatment, while others
are constrained in the use of available waste treatment facilities due to the high costs involved. Only the Export
Processing Zones at Katunayake (KEPZ) and Biyagama (BEPZ) have facilities for central treatment of wastewater
prior to discharge. During the past few years, many water quality issues occurred due to discharge of untreated
industrial wastewater. Industrial wastewater contained POP (Persistent Organic Pollution) and heavy metals which
are not decaying with time. Due to high cost involved in treatment methods, many factories don’t use treatment
to remove POP and heavy metals. In this respect tanning factories could be considered as one of the significant
pollution sources.
Table 4.2 shows the number of industries located in coastal areas with their respective wastewater loads. These
include those set up under the Board of Investment (BOI). Table 4.3 depicts the tolerance limits for industrial and
domestic discharges into coastal waters
Table 4.2: Industries located in coastal areas with high or medium pollution
Type of industry or process No. of units Total Estimated pollution load (kg/day)
BOD COD Total toxic metals
Textiles 41 7100 4970 11360 -
Food and beverages 47 4111 6166 12333 -
Desiccated coconut 53 1200 4200 7200 -

Rubber processing 229 4840 9670 29040 -
Tanning+ 15 750 2000 5200 -
Metal finishing and 76 6692 - - 669

preparation
Paints and chemicals 33 928 - - 92.8
(Source: MEPA 2013)

Table 4.3: Tolerance limits for industrial and domestic effluents discharged into marine coastal areas
Determinant Tolerance Limit

Total Suspended Solids, mg/l, max
(a) For process waste waters 150
(b) For cooling water effluents total suspended matter content of influent cooling
Particle size of
(a) Floatable solids, max 3 mm
(b) Settlable solids, max 850 mm
PH range at ambient temperature 6.0-8.5

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) in 5 days at 20 C 0
100
Temperature, max (0C) 450C at the point of discharge

Oils and grease, mg/l, max 20
Residual Chlorine, mg/l, max 1.0
Ammoniacal Nitrogen mg/l, max 50.0
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) mg/l, max 250
Phenolic compounds (as phenolic OH) mg/l, max 5.0
Cyanides mg/l, max 0.2
Sulfides mg/l, max 5.0
Fluorides mg/l, max 15
Arsenic mg/l, max 0.2
Cadmium total, mg/l, max 2.0
Chromium total, mg/l, max 1.0
Copper total, mg/l, max 3.0
Lead total, mg/l, max 1.0
Mercury total, mg/l, max 0.01
Nickel total, mg/1, max 5.0
Selenium total, mg/l, max 0.05
Zinc total, mg/l, max 5.0
Radio active material
(a) Alpha emitters, µ curie/ml, max 10-8
(b) Beta emitters, µ curie/ml, max 10-7
Organo-Phosphorus compounds, mg/I 1.0
Chlorinated hydrocarbons, mg/I max. 0.02
Source: Gazette Extraordinary 595/16 of 02.02.92

Every effort should be made to remove colour and odour from effluents. These values are based on dilution of
effluents by at least 8 volumes of clean receiving water. If the dilution is below 8 times, the permissible limits are
multiplied by 1/8 of the actual dilution. The limits have been prescribed by regulations published in Gazette
Extraordinary No. 595/16 of 02.02.1992 under the National Environmental Act No. 47 of 1980 as amended
by Act No. 56 of 1980 as amended by Act, No. 56 of 1988.
The Impact of industrial pollution in the Lunawa Lagoon
The Lunawa lagoon is a coastal water body seriously affected by industrial pollution prior
to rehabilitation under the CRMP and LEIP. About 07 large scale and 14 small-scale
industries for dying and finishing of textiles/garments, washing plants and manufacturing
foot wear directly discharge their effluents into the lagoon. As a result, the once flourishing
fishery in this lagoon has almost ceased; and it is now a mosquito-ridden body of stagnant
water with a dense growth of water plants and thick sludge at the bottom. (CZMP 2004)
Source: Ministry of Urban Development, Construction and Public Utilities, 2001
4.2.4 Pollution from Tourist Establishments
At present 74.4% of Sri Lanka’s tourist arrivals are for pleasure. This type of tourism
depends highly on the quality of the environment, especially as tourists today are
increasingly sensitive to pollution or environmental degradation at their travel
destinations. For tourism in the coastal zone to be sustainable, coastal pollution
has to be managed to prevent adverse impacts on the industry.
Current information revealed that higher percentages of tourist hotels registered with the Tourist- Board are located
within the coastal region. In year 2013, tourist arrivals to Sri Lanka were approximately 100,000 per month and
generated monthly wastewater volume has been estimated as 19,000 m3. A recent study conducted among 276
hotels, revealed that 92 percent of large hotels had wastewater treatment plants while only 17 percent of the
small and medium hotels had such plants. However, the negative aspects of uncontrolled expansion of tourism
at the start of the tourist boom are now becoming apparent in many coastal resorts where there are clusters
of restaurants and guesthouses, and other major tourist centers. The near shore waters receive untreated sewage,
sullage in the form of kitchen and laundry wastewater, and solid waste including plastics. This causes pollution
problems, as apparent in most major tourist centres along the south, southwest and east coasts. Tourism expansion
in Hikkaduwa, Beruwala, Unawatuna and Arugam Bay areas has led to water quality degradation as well as visual
pollution of beaches and near shore waters. As per the ongoing coastal water quality monitoring studies carried
out by the CC&CRMD, it is clearly evident that the qualities of the near shore coastal waters in the vicinity
of tourism centers have been significantly degraded due to discharge of effluents. The problem of sullage is
particularly perceived as a problem associated with the larger hotels. Squatter settlements connected with tourism
for concern as it contributes to faecal pollution which is a severe threat to recreational activities such as contact
sports in coastal waters.
4.2.5 Pollution from the Power Sector
Sri Lanka’s energy requirements are met from six different types of resources. At present thermal power plants
contribute 50.3 percent of total electricity requirement in the country which surpass the hydropower contribution
(40.3 percent of the total installed capacity of 3368.0 MW) mainly dominated in the past. The thermal power plants
are mainly located in the coastal region. These plants are located in Kerawalapitiya, Norachcholai and Puttalam.
Kerawalapitiya and Puttalam plants use furnace oil as the energy source while coal is used by Norachcholai plant.
Although the hydropower contributed major share to the total installed capacity, its inputs towards annual power
generation are steadily decreasing. The shortfall between power demand and the present hydropower output is being
fulfilled by thermal power generation using petroleum, coal and natural gas. Establishment of these plants in the
coastal region can result in the thermal pollution of coastal waters. The discharge of hot water and desalinized
water are the main threat for the coastal water quality from the thermal power plants.
4.2.6 Pollution from the Fisheries Sector
A total of 72 fish landing sites and 20 fishery harbours located in the coastal zone contributes to pollution of coastal
waters due to improper disposal of burned oil and bilge water from fishing vessels to the harbor waters. In addition,
production of substantial amount of organic waste from fish degutting, market floor runoff , cleaning and garbage
dumping also cause higher COD levels in the affected coastal waters. Although the CFHC has provided burned
oil reception facilities at the harbours, discharge of waste oil into the harbor basins are being continued, posing
environmental threats. .
4.2.7 Unsanitary Disposal of Solid Waste
Solid wastes include non-liquid garbage and refuse from domestic, institutional,
market, medical, commercial and industrial sources, and street and garden wastes.
This also covers discarded organic wastes (i.e. food, vegetation, paper, cardboard,
rubber, leather, discarded clothing, etc.); packaging in the form of metals, plastics
or glass; and cut pieces from garment factories
(CZMP2004)

Solid waste is one of the major sources of coastal pollution. Environmental and health hazards related to solid
waste have been growing in Sri Lanka during the last few decades, and continue to be a problem. The rate of waste
collection by the Local Authorities island-wide is estimated to be about 2,694 today but the problem is essentially
urban and major percentage of the waste is generated in the Western Province. According to the study carried out by
CEA, 46 major dumping sites have been identified. Out of all, more than 80 percent of dumping sites are located
in the North and Eastern Provinces. Approximately 95 percent of these dumping sites are being operated without
environmental approval. Most of the dumping sites are open dumps and 4 percent of dumping sites have used bare
land and other sites are located in wetlands and marshy land directly or indirectly connected to the coastal zone.
There is also the problem of garbage littering beaches near squatter settlements and tourist resorts and indiscriminate
solid waste dumping within the shore area. Accumulation of solid waste on beaches results in degradation of water
and floatable visual pollutants along the shoreline.
The main constraint faced by many local authorities is inadequate facilities for safe disposal of solid waste due
to the lack of environmentally safe dumping sites.Table 4.4 depicts the amount of daily solid waste collected by
municipalities in coastal districts.
Table 4.4: Amount of Solid Waste collected in Municipalities in Coastal Districts
District Gross weight of waste collected per District percentage (%)

Day(Ton)
Puttalam 97 3.4
Gampaha 313 11.0
Colombo 1257 44.3

Kalutara 93 3.2
Galle 103 3.6
Matara 68 2.4
Hambantota 28 1.0
Ampara 57 2.0
Batticaloa 119 4.2
Trincomalee 56 2.0
Mullaitivu 09 0.3
Kilinochchi 01 0.0
Jaffna 71 2.5
Source: Data base of municipal solid waste management 2005, CEA
4.2.8 Pollution from Agriculture and Aquaculture
Agriculture
The current information revealed that the use of chemical pesticides, herbicides and fungicides in agriculture
is in significant level and some of which are persistent. These substances degrade the soil as it absorbs
contaminants in the leachage, culminating in pollution of ground water. Polluted ground water used for
agriculture and the resultant runoff from agricultural lands contaminates coastal surface waters. In addition,
the excessive use of fertilizers causes nitrate pollution in coastal areas. As per the current estimates 396888.8
Mt of Urea, 144776 Mt of MOP (Muriate or Potash), and 109708Mt of TSP (Triple Super Phosphate), have
been imported for agricultural purposes in 2012. Most of the pollutants from agriculture sector come to
the coastal areas through radial river network in the country. In this respect Kelani river has been identified
as the largest transporter of the fertilizer and pesticide runoff to the coastal areas from the tea estates. It is
also reported that Mahaveli river estuary has been polluted with agro chemicals discharged by Mahaveli
“H” region.
The impact of agriculture on water pollution
One of the adverse impacts of the green revolution is the trend towards the high use of
agrochemicals due to the use of new high yielding varieties in agriculture that are very
susceptible to various pests and diseases and have increased nutrition requirements.
Consequently, the artificial fertilizer importation and use in Sri Lanka has increased
significantly. According to the 2012 figures, 396888 Mt of urea, 144776 Mt of MOP
and 109708 Mt of STP have been imported for agricultural purposes. These figures
demonstrate the magnitude of the chemical fertilizer usage in the country and possibility
of coastal water pollution.
Aquaculture
Shrimp farm effluents reaching the Dutch Canal are high in total suspended solids
(200-600 mg/l) and have high BOD levels (60-180 mg/l). These effluents cause heavy
siltation in the canal, increasing turbidity. High sulphides and ammonia levels in
these waters are also attributed to shrimp farm effluents.
Much of the coastal pollution in the North western Province has been attributed to ad hoc development of shrimp
farming leading to the discharge of high loads of effluents from shrimp ponds. This has caused considerable
Pollution in the Dutch Canal and the surrounding coastal areas. Discharge of effluents into the Dutch Canal also
led to spreading of diseases and collapse of the shrimp industry in the North western Province. High levels of
nitrates and phosphates released from shrimp farms into the coastal waters have caused eutrophication of nearby
water courses in the region and pollution of ground water. In considering the importance of eradicating the
pollution level of the Dutch Canal, Government had to spend approximately Rs. 130Million on rehabilitation
measures. Table 4.5 depicts the status of water quality during the final part of the pond harvesting.

Table 4.5 Water Quality in Farm Effluents during the Final Part of Pond Harvesting
Small scale farms Medium scale farms

Salinity 07- 45 08-43
pH 8.1-9.6 7.9- 9.5
Total ammonia (ppm) 0.628 - > 3.5 0.52- > 3.5
Nitrite (ppm) 0.624 - 4.92 0.65- 5.78
Nitrate (ppm) 2.6 - 5.2 2.5 - 4.8
Phosphate (ppm) 2.9 -3.3 2.5 - 3.6
Sulphide (ppm) 5.6- 7.2 4.4 - 6.8
Dissolved oxygen (ppm) 1.6 - 2.6 1.8 - 2.4
Total suspended solids (ppm) 522 - 1380 496- 1240
(Source: COREA – ASLE 2009)

4.2.9 Pollution from oil spills and other discharges
Seven major commercial ports located around the island contribute to pollution of
coastal waters due to accidental release of oil. Poor reception facilities for waste oil,
ballast and bilge waters cause the port waters to be polluted. Such facilities, as well
as pollution abatement plans, are a vital requirement to ensure pollution free Ports
Sri Lanka has seven commercial ports around the island and oil pollution is a common pollution identified.
Waste oil from oil tankers, discharge of oil in bilge and ballast waters, cleaning out of fuel tanks and repair
and maintenance work by motorized fishing boats and ships around ports and fisheries harbours, cause minor oil
discharges and slicks. According to few studies carried out on water quality in Galle and Colombo harbor areas, it
was revealed that the levels of BOD, COD, N and faecal coliform are higher than the proposed standard value for
nature conservation (Information Compendium on Coastal Pollution, 2014). Although the minor oil discharges and
slicks may not cause serious impacts, they result in visual pollution leading to depreciation of the aesthetic quality
of the beaches for recreation. There have also been four moderate spills of crude oil reported in Sri Lanka marine
waters and intrusion of tar balls on to the beaches. As they pose a risk to coastal habitats and species, abatement
plans for oil discharges are required. Waste oil from service stations also ends up in coastal waters, underlining the
need for service stations to intercept the oil with interceptors. Currently most lack these devices, and even when
present they are often defective. There are specific arrangements for the disposal of waste oil from ships that call at
the Port of Colombo during loading or unloading of cargo. About 36 private companies are registered with the
Marine Environment Protection Authority (MEPA) to collect the oil waste, which is pumped into bowsers directly
from the ships. Table 4.6 depicts the waste oil collected by the operators over the past five years at the Colombo Port.
Even so the final disposal of this oil is not monitored by any regulating authority.
Table 4.6: Amounts of Waste Oil Collected or Removed By Collectors in the Colombo Port

Year Quantity
2008 5,092m3
2010 17,000m3
2011 18,988m3
2012 19,422m3
2013 22,632m3
(Source: MEPA 2013)
4.2.10 The Development of Maritime, Energy and Tourism Hubs and Potential Threat of Pollution
As per the Government Policy framework, three main economic hubs vis. Maritime, Tourism, Energy
hubs are to be mainly located in the coastal region. According to the current projections, it is envisaged
that increasing current tourist arrival of 654,000 up to 2.5 million by 2016 and developing current room
capacity 22745 up to 45,000 rooms by 2016, to develop a tourism hub in the country. The activities related
to the development of maritime hub mainly deal with development of commercial harbours and related
facilities on mass scale. In this respect the existing commercial harbours such as Colombo, Hambantota,
Trincomalee and Galle will be developed. The potential pollution threat from these developments cannot
be ignored. Thus it is essential to incorporate proper pollution mitigation measures at the planning stage
and related issues should be addressed comprehensively.
4.2.11 Current Status of Coastal Water Quality in selected Coastal Segments
Although the continuous and spatially specific data on coastal water quality parameters were not available, an
attempt was made to determine the conditions of water quality in 25 sampling locations from Norachcholai
to Nilaveli using data gathered from different sources by LHI under the study commissioned in 2014 by
the CC&CRMD. Description of the sampling locations are given in Table 4.7.
Table 4.7 Description of Sampling Locations
Location Description
Norachcholai Close to coal fired thermal power plant
Chilaw Beach Famous bathing site
Ambakandawila Water intakes located near shrimp hatcheries
Marawila Bathing site, tourism, industries, hatcheries
Negombo Beach Bathing site, tourism activities
Kelani river mouth River outfall
Mutwal Waste water sea outfall
Colombo Commercial harbor
Wellawatta Waste water sea outfall
Mount Lavinia Bathing site, tourism activities
Wadduwa Bathing site, tourism activities
Kalutara - Moragalla Bathing site, tourism activities
Beruwala Bathing site, tourism activities
Bentota Bathing site, tourism activities
Hikkaduwa Bathing site, tourism activities
Galle Commercial harbor
Unawatuna Bathing site, tourism activities
Koggala Industry, Tourism
Weligama Tourism, Fishing activities
Polhena Bathing site, Tourism activities
Bata-atha Industry
Tangalle Bathing site, tourism activities
Mirijjawila Industry, tourism
Arugam Bay Bathing site, tourism activities
Nilaveli Bathing site tourism activities
During the water quality data analysis, attention was paid by the study team on analyzing parameters such
as pH, Dissolve Oxygen (DO), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand(COD),
Total Nitrogen (TN), Total Coliform (TC), Faecal Coliform (FC) and Oil and Grease. Accordingly it
was revealed that pH levels in sampling locations stayed within natural coastal water quality conditions
reflecting pH level of 7.8 and 8.4. The DO levels in the sample locations except Colombo do not indicate
depletion below the standards. In terms of BOD levels, the analysis revealed that Mutwal, Wellawatta and
Galle satisfy only the CEA non-consumption use standards while all other sampling locations do not satisfy
both bathing and non-consumption use standards,. As per the CEA standards for bathing, the recommended
COD value must be lower than 20/mg1l. However Mutwal and Kelani river mouth have satisfied CEA
bathing standards and COD values of all other locations do not satisfy both standards. Although the
CEA has not specified a standard, acceptable range is 2mg/l to 6 mg/l. According to the analysis, it was
indicated that TN values measured in Kelani river mouth, Mutwal, Colombo and Wellawatta were not in
an acceptable range. This situation may be due to discharge of untreated sewage and contamination by
fertilizer. In accordance with CEA standard for bathing, TC value has to be lower than 1000 MPN/100ml
while recommended value for non- consumption uses value has to be lower than 2000 MPN/100 ml. The
analysis revealed that TC concentration values for non-consumption uses in all sampling locations are well
within the non-consumption use standard. However, famous bathing sites such as Mount Lavinia, Kalutara,
Unawatuna, Bentota and Polhena are not safe for direct contact activities. With respect to Faecal Coliform
(FC), acceptable bathing standard has to be lower than 50 MPN/100ml and for non-consumption uses has to
be lower than 600MPN/100ml. The analysis shows higher FC concentration than the acceptable levels for
bathing in all sampling locations except in Beruwala, Galle and Mirijjawila sampling locations. Further, FC
values in Norachcholai, Chilaw, Marawila, Wadduwa, Bentota, Koggala, Unawatuna, Weligama, Tangalle
and Bata-Atha satisfy the non-consumption use standards. The oil and grease content of all sampling
locations shows higher concentration in monsoon periods. However it has to be lower than 200 mg/l.
4.3 PLANS, POLICIES AND IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES
Although the coastal pollution is one of the major environmental issues in the coastal zone, it was not addressed in
the first generation Coastal Zone Management Plan of 1990. However, in considering the importance and priority, it
had been brought in to the revised CZMP’s of 1997 and 2004. Besides policies, strategies and actions introduced through
CZMP’s there are many policies, laws and programmes in place that have a bearing on controlling coastal water pollution.
For instance major development projects taking place in the Coastal Zone (except fishing) are subject to Environmental
Impact Assessments. These include the prescribed projects listed in the National Environmental Act, No. 56 of 1988,
with the CC & CRMD functioning as the Project Approving Agency.
The vital regulatory tools in place that could curtail industrial pollution up to some extent in coastal waters are the
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) procedures and the Environmental Pollution Licensing (EPL) scheme. The latter
is mandatory for the prescribed activities under the Gazette notification extraordinary No. 1159/22 dated 22nd November
2000. An EPL can be obtained from the CEA, BOI or a Local Authority and is valid for three years. Even so, lapses in
enforcement of pollution control, and poor technology for pollution abatement in a large number of industries result
in coastal water pollution from industrial sources.
Despite the pollution control activities being carried out by other institutions such as CEA, MC, NWSDB, MEPA,
the CC&CRMD is also currently engaged in various corrective and preventive activities to either control or minimize
water pollution in the Coastal Zone. Many of these activities require mechanisms for effective co-ordination and
collaboration with other institutions and agencies. For instance the National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWSDB)
is responsible for providing good quality water and adequate sanitation in rural and urban areas at the national level. The
problem of inadequate sanitation for under-served settlements in Colombo is also being addressed by many agencies.
Although water quality monitoring is essentially a pre-requisite for mitigation of pollution in coastal waters, there is so
far no single institution mandated with legal responsibility for regular water quality monitoring in the near shore waters,
lagoons and estuaries, and inland in the Coastal Zone. The MEPA is mandated to control the pollution of marine waters, but
only when it involves offshore sources. Several agencies such as the BOI, the CEA and CC & CRMD, however, have the
authority to monitor water quality in the Coastal Zone and to regulate discharges from development activities. Additionally,
some line agencies such as NARA, NWSDB, SLRDC and ITI and the universities and other research institutions carry
out monitoring and research from time to time.
Sri Lanka is yet to develop ambient water quality standards for different uses of coastal waters. The CEA has proposed ambient
water quality standards for different uses of coastal waters, but these require review prior to finalization, as the changes of
water quality due to seasonal effects have to be addressed more adequately. The government’s decision to establish more
industrial parks where facilities for pollution abatement will be provided will be a major step towards reducing pollution
incidences in coastal waters. The government has also prepared a National Solid Waste Management Strategy based on
suitable regulatory controls necessary for its implementation. Regulations for control of collection, storage, transport and
disposal of hazardous waste have been gazetted in 1996, and the Ministry of Environment has introduced hazardous waste
management system through the licesing scheme as per the regulations stipulated under Part 11 of the National Environmental
(Protection and Quality) Regulations No.1 0f 2008. On the other hand, addressing non-point sources - including pollution from
agro chemicals - is difficult as there are no specific policies and effective implementation mechanisms to address such
problems.
4.3.1 Future directions for managing Coastal Water Pollution
To ensure sustainability of the economic development thrust put place on the coastal region, it is essential to
manage coastal water quality to minimize pollution by formulating and implementing adequate strategies. In
addition to the regulatory measures focusing on compliance, it is necessary to adopt comprehensive and effective
programmes targeting awareness creation and water use zonation schemes.
Although the problem of coastal water pollution is a major issue to be addressed in the management of coastal
resources, the CC&CRMD cannot tackle this problem alone. Taking cognizance of the large number of institutions
and agencies that play a role in coastal pollution control, there is a clear need for integrated coastal zone
management based on collaborative arrangements. This will require considerable strengthening of the capabilities
of the Provincial Agencies and the Local Authorities to play an important role in monitoring coastal water bodies
and compliance checking within their jurisdiction. A budgetary allocation to monitor coastal water pollution
by each Provincial Agency/Local Authority is required for spatial and temporal water quality monitoring at
pre-determined sites. Proper water quality indices should be developed to enable the ranking of coastal water
resources, and engineering interventions are required to rectify conditions in coastal water bodies that are of poor
quality.
Laws and regulations should be strengthened to regulate major sources of pollution; thereby reducing pollution
loads entering coastal waters. More stringent enforcement mechanisms should also be in place to reduce the
frequency and magnitude of major pollution incidences in coastal waters. Additionally, careful attention should
be placed on formulation and introduction of a coastal water zoning scheme in compliance with the sensitive
economic activities which are expanding in the coastal region.
4.3.2 Requirement of Coastal Water Usage Zoning Scheme and Specified Criteria
To minimize issues pertaining to coastal water pollution and to ensure sustainability of economic activities in
the coastal region, water usage zoning should be introduced based on sound socio-economic and ecological
information. Zoning is commonly employed as a land and water use planning and regulatory tool to guide
and direct the type of development most favorable or advantageous to the growth and development of an
area considering the ecological constraints and the socio-economic objectives. Water zoning scheme can
ensure that different development activities take place at the sustainable level that maximizes the benefits
and limits negative impacts on the environment. In addition zoning can be used to separate different
incompatible uses and to minimize user conflicts while conserving the coastal habitats.
Requirements for successful implementation of water zoning scheme
(i) Presence of legal mandate and adequate legal provisions

(ii) Sound ecological and socio economic information on the target environment
(iii) Local participation in enforcement
(iv) Shared governance and partnership
(v) Ensuring sustainable financing
(vi) Involving all stakeholders in zonal planning process
(vii) Acknowledging multiple uses of marine and coastal zones early in the planning process
(viii) Law enforcement agencies need to be made aware of the zones.
To prevent pollution in sensitive areas of coastal waters, it is necessary to classify it into different zones as
indicated in the Table 4.8.
In view of the current economic development pressures and the rapid population growth taking place in the
coastal region, it is necessary to pay careful attention to adopting coastal water zoning scheme in the near
future. Thus, an attempt has to be made to fulfill the important pre-requisites to formulate coastal water
zoning scheme through this plan. Until water zoning is adopted, the new legal provisions introduced on
“effected areas” and “conservation areas” through Coast Conservation Amendment Act, No. 49 of 2011
could be used to achieve similar objectives at least up to some extent.
Table 4.8 Proposed Classifications for Coastal Water Usage Zoning
Description Usage
Nature Conservation Ecosystem conservation, Science and education, Aesthetic enjoyment
Fishery of Shellfish Fishery of shellfish (Mollusca)

Aquaculture of shellfish (Mollusca)
Salt pans
Water contact recreation
Ornamental production
Fishery of Finfish Fishery of finfish

Aquaculture of finfish
Fishery of non-mollusk invertebrates
Aquaculture of non-mollusk invertebrates
Non-consumptive uses Non-water contact recreation

Navigation
Harbour
Waste disposal
Sand mining
4.4 Management Objectives, Policies, Strategies and Actions
Objectives 1
Acceptable water quality for different beneficial designated users is maintained by adhering to regulations/
guidelines stipulated on the discharge of untreated or /and partially treated effluents from development
activities to coastal and marine waters.
Policy 1.1
All existing development activities will be managed in terms of water quality in accordance with CEA
emissions standards.
Strategy 1.1.1
Ensure that all exiting development activities in the coastal region comply with CEA standards for effluents
through regular monitoring of coastal water quality.
Proposed Actions
1. Expand, strengthen and continue ongoing water quality monitoring programme of CC&CRMD to check
ambient water quality in the coastal waters to capture high incidence of pollution and help identify polluting
development activities in the area.
2. Direct findings of the monitoring studies to the relevant institutions for necessary actions.
3. Identify low and high polluting development activities in the coastal region and prepare a database in collaboration
with the CEA.
4. Take necessary and appropriate actions to ensure that development activities likely to pollute the coastal
zone and coastal waters adhere to CEA standards on disposal of effluents.
5. Promote the formulation of effluent standards for those development activities that do not have disposal standards
(e.g. for Aquaculture), in collaboration with the relevant authorities.
Policy 1.2
High polluting industries will be scrutinized so as to ensure that the ambient water quality is not impaired.
Strategy 1.2.1
Identify high polluting industries and facilitate their access to technology for controlling emission of effluents
degrading ambient water quality of coastal waters; encourage and assist relevant authorities responsible to
scrutinize such industries regularly.
Proposed Actions
1. Co-ordinate with the relevant authorities and stakeholders by providing necessary information on high
polluting industries through regular monitoring of coastal waters.
2. Facilitate access to information on technology providers for pollution abatement and on cleaner production
technologies among industries affecting the Coastal Zone.
3. Assist the relevant agency to provide possible financial incentives to industries to enable them to obtain better
pollution abatement technologies.
4. Conduct outreach programmes to create awareness among high polluting industries located in the coastal
region on the importance of maintaining pollution free coastal environment.
Policy 1.3
Development activities resulting in the emission of effluent/waste-water to be discharged into designated
environmental sensitive areas/conservation areas will be managed strictly adhering to special conditions
pertaining to ambient water quality.
Strategy 1.3.1
Carry out periodic monitoring of coastal waters at selected sites to check whether new development
can be permitted in them without exceeding the maximum permissible levels of ambient coastal water
quality standards/parameters stipulated in the guidelines prepared by CCD/CEA for various designated
uses.
Proposed Actions
1. Select coastal sites of critical economic/ecological importance and establish ambient water quality for each
site with spatial and temporal water quality monitoring.
2. Identify potential designated use/s within conservation areas and affected areas to be declared under the
provisions of the CC amendment Act, No. 49 of 2011 in consultation with other relevant authorities/
stakeholders and make regulations to control other uses/development activities.
3. Identify sites where new development can be permitted, based on designated use/s and ambient water quality
of the site.
4. Carry out a study to identify likely sources of pollution at ‘critical sites’/conservation areas where ambient
water quality of coastal waters does not match designated use/s, and propose appropriate interventions for
pollution abatement to enable further development.
Objective 2
Coastal and Marine Water Quality is enhanced by Management of Pollution Sources.
Policy 2.1
Any types of waste or foreign matter either disposed in the coastal zone directly or disposed elsewhere
but the impact is felt within the coastal zone will be managed so as not to affect water quality adversely.
Strategy 2.1.1
Encourage and mobilize relevant authorities to prepare solid waste management plans to reduce adverse
impacts on coastal water pollution.
Proposed Action
1. Formulate and implement a programme to prepare plans at appropriate levels (i.e. local/regional/national)
to control the dumping of solid waste in the Coastal Zone by Local Authorities.
2. Identifying urban centres, industries, coastal tourist centres, fishing harbours and other areas emitting solid
waste for which solid waste plans are urgently needed.
3. Assisting Local Authorities to identify alternate dump sites in environmentally less vulnerable locations for
relocation of coastal dump sites.
4. Monitoring the environmental degradation of sites located within the Coastal Zone affected by dumping of
solid waste.
5. Encouraging and assisting relevant Local Authorities to implement environmentally sound ways of waste
minimisation (as an alternative to haphazard dumping of solid waste in the Coastal Zone) through projects
for composting, biogas generation, etc.
6. Frame regulations to curtail dumping of solid waste into designated ‘conservation areas’, “affected areas” and
declared “Special Management Areas”.
Policy 2.2
Faecal pollution of coastal and marine waters will be managed with collaborative action with Local
Authorities and other relevant agencies.
Strategy 2.2.1
Identify coastal waters/ sites where faecal pollution exceeds specified threshold levels for designated uses and
address the problem in collaboration with Local Authorities.
Proposed Actions
1. Decide on critical sites where faecal contamination should be curtailed in the Coastal Zone, using selection
criteria.
2. Monitor such sites that are extensively used for various designated uses such as contact.
3. Make the Local Authorities aware of the problem and the sites and assist them in reducing faecal contamination.
4. Provide findings of the monitoring studies carried out on coastal water quality at respective sites to
the Ceylon Tourist Board, hoteliers and relevant civil societies as appropriate, so that they can assist in
taking corrective action.
Policy 2.3
Oil spills at shoreline will be managed so as to minimize the degradation of coastal Resources.
Strategy 2.3.1
Identify the major sources of oil discharge in coastal waters and formulate curative/remedial action in
collaboration with relevant authorities.
Proposed Actions
1. Coordinate with MEPA to identify sources of oil discharges into the coastal zone.
2. Formulate and implement programmes with relevant authorities to reduce or capture oil discharge into
the coastal waters, particularly in harbours and SMA planning sites.
3. Promote and assist CFHC to implement the green harbor concept.
4. Conduct awareness programmes together with MEPA, CFHC, DFAR and PA to make stakeholders aware
of need of minimizing oil pollution.
Policy 2.4
Salinization of the coastal waters will be managed within the coastal zone in a manner that will not
create adverse impacts on ambient water quality.
Strategy 2.4.1
Identify the major sources of nitrate pollution and causes of high salinization and implement collaborative
remedial action.
Proposed Actions
1. Decide on likely areas with high nitrate pollution and salinization, based on objective criteria.
2. Monitor sites so affected and collaborate with relevant authorities in order to reduce pollution mentioned
above.
3. Make the Local Authorities aware of the problem and assist them in reducing faecal contamination at sites
that are known to be highly polluted, sites of high economic value, critical habitats, places of scenic beauty
or of archaeological and cultural value.
Objective 3
Pollutants entering coastal and marine waters are estimated through regular monitoring and research &
development.
Policy 3.1
. Identify pollution loads in major surface waters entering the coastal zone, and enable improving water quality
in collaboration with relevant agencies.
Strategy 3.1.1
Identify pollution loads in major surface waters entering the coastal zone, and enable improving water quality
in collaboration with relevant agencies.
Proposed Action
1. Identify the surface water bodies that are conveying pollutants into coastal waters and estimate the pollution
loads during dry and wet weather flows.
2. Assist Local Authorities /CEA and other relevant authorities to take necessary steps to reduce high pollutant
loads by providing the necessary information.
3. Collaborate with other competent agencies for possible research on water quality improvements in such water
bodies.
Policy 3.2
Collaborative activities will be carried out to reduce pollution of coastal ground water.
Strategy 3.2.1
Collaborative activities on surveillance of ground water quality and quantity will be undertaken in the
coastal zone in order to ascertain the likely changes.
Proposed Action
1. Select critical sites of high economic value, and monitor water quality of such sites in relation to designated
water uses.
2. Assist relevant authorities to abate incidences of coastal ground water pollution.
Objective 4
Coastal pollution is managed through education and the dissemination and sharing of information using
strategic communication.
Policy 4.1
Collaborative programmes will be undertaken with relevant agencies/NGOs to educate stakeholders on
pollution sources, effects & impacts and control mechanisms.
Strategy 4.1.1
Undertake collaborative programmes with competent agencies for training and skills development for
improvement of water quality.
Proposed Action
1. Carry out a needs assessment to identify the target groups and specific issues and needs that are to be addressed.
2. Identify pressure groups and communication mobilisers to collaborate with for effective training and awareness
creation programmes and formulation of collaborative programmes.
3. Train relevant personnel from the target groups for professional development on water pollution abatement
and provide awareness on pollutions sources/types, level of pollution and abatement methods.
Policy4.2
Target groups directly or indirectly involved with pollution emission will be identified and made aware
about the adverse impacts of coastal pollution and pollution reduction mechanisms.
Strategy 4.2.1
Carry out appropriate awareness programmes in collaboration with relevant partner organisations/communi
cation mobilizers to educate target groups (school children, people polluting the environment, Local Authorities.
Policy makers, etc) connected with coastal pollution.
Proposed Action
1. Together with communication partners /relevant organisations carry out a needs assessment to gauge the target
groups and specific issues for which awareness creation/communication activity is required.
2. Formulate and carry out customised training/awareness programmes for selected target groups based on
communication needs.
3. Organise workshops and campaigns for school children to reduce the pollution incidences in the Coastal
Zone.
4. Put up signboards and distribute leaflets to get public participation in coastal pollution control efforts.
REFERENCES
1. Arjuna’s Atlas of Sri Lanka, ed. T. Somasekaram, M.P. Perera, and H. Godellawatta, Dehiwala: Arjuna Consulting
Co. Ltd., 1997.
2. Bandarathilake, K. G. D. 1999. Hazardous waste management in Sri Lanka. Paper presented at Sub Regional Training
Seminar for the Implementation of the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Waste
and their Disposal. Mar. 15-19, 1999. Colombo.
3. Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2001. Annual Report of 2000. Colombo: Central Bank of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka.
4. Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2002. Annual Report of 2001. Colombo: Central Bank of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka.
5. Central Environmental Authority , 2005, Data base of municipal solid waste management.
6. Coast Conservation Department, 2014, Information Compendium on Coastal Pollution, (Unpublished Report).
7. Coast Conservation Department, Revised Coastal Zone management Plan 2004
8. Corea ASCE, 2009. Trends in Water Quality changes in Main Water Sources for shrimp culture and the need
for Standards for Shrimp Farms Effluents
9. Corea, A.S.L.F., J. M. P. K. Jayasinghe, S. U. K. Ekaratne and S. D. Johnston, 1995. Environmental impact of prawn
farming on Dutch canal: the main water source for the prawn culture industry in Sri Lanka, AMBIO (24): 423-427
10. Department of Census and Statistics, 2001. Census of Population and Housing 2001: preliminary release. Colombo:
Department of Census and Statistics.
11. Department of Government Printing, 2008 Gazette Extra Ordinary 1534/18 Dated 01.02.2008.o.
12. Department of Government Printing,1992, Gazette Extraordinary 595/16 of 02.02.92
13. Jayaweera, M. 1999. Environmental improvement study, Port of Colombo. Unpubl. Sri Lanka Ports Authority.
14. Manchanayake, E.P. and C. M. Madduma Bandara, 1999. Water Resources of Sri Lanka. Colombo: National Science
Foundation.
15. Marine Pollution Prevention Authority, 2002. Database on accidental spills in Sri Lankan waters.
16. MOENR. 2002. State of the Environment in Sri Lanka: a Report for SAARC, compiled and ed. J D S Dela. Colombo:
Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources.
17. MOFE (1999). Database of Municipal Waste in Sri Lanka. Colombo: Ministry of Forestry and Environment.
18. MOFE, 2000. The National Strategy for Solid Waste Management. Colombo: Ministry of Forestry and Environment,
Sri Lanka.
19. MOFE, 2001. State of the Environment. Sri Lanka. Colombo: Ministry of Forestry and Environment.
20. Mubarak, A.M. 2000. Water Pollution. In: Natural Resources of Sri Lanka 2000. Colombo: National Science Foundation.
21. UDA, 1994 b. Colombo Environmental Improvement Project, Colombo: Urban Development Authority, 1994.
22. UDA, 1994a. Environmental Management Strategy for Colombo Urban Area – (III) : Colombo, Urban Development
Authority.
23. University of Moratuwa, 2001. Feasibility study report for establishment of a central wastewater treatment plan for
Ratmalana/Moratuwa industrial/residential areas, Unpublished. University of Moratuwa.
Chapter 5
5.0 SPECIAL MANAGEMENT AREA (SMA)
5.1. INTRODUCTION
“In respect of any area of land within the “Coastal Zone” or adjacent to the “Coastal
Zone” or comprising both areas from the “Coastal Zone” and the adjacent area of
land, declare such area by order published in the Gazette to be a “Special Management
Area” where there is a need to adopt a collaborative approach to planning resources
management within the defined geographic area”
Coast Conservation (Amendment) Act No.49 of 2011
5.1.1 The Concept
The Concept of Special Management Areas (SMA’s) previously referred as Special Area Management
(SAM) has been identified as one of the important management tools in the field of Integrated Coastal
Resources Management (ICRM) when the coastal resources are subject to increasing pressure from economic
development, increasing population and poverty conditions in the coastal region in Sri Lanka. In addition,
requirement of a new policy for integrated collaborative management approach with specific attention on
social and economic needs of the coastal resource users and other stakeholders lead to the concept of SMAs.
Furthermore, the need for active involvement of the stakeholders of the coastal resources on site specific
basis was further advocated by various quarters due to inadequate outcomes of the other national CZM
policies. Thus Special Management Area Planning was conceived as a “bottom-up” approach for managing
coastal resources that complements the “top-down” regulatory approach practiced by CC&CRMD since
its inception. The concept of Special Management Areas (SMA’s) evolved based on the co-management
principles and involves a collaborative, adaptive and flexible approach to resource management within
a defined geographic area, was formally introduced as an auxiliary CZM policy through the National
Coastal Zone Management Plan of 1997. Prior to formal adoption, the concept was tested on the ground
in two pilot sites vis. Hikkaduwa and Rekawa under the Coastal Resources Management Project funded by
USAID in 1992. The pilot initiative contributed to demonstrate the potential of adopting SMA process as
an effective tool to manage coastal resources in a collaborative manner. Based on the experience gained
from the pilot testing of SMA, the report “Coastal 2000; Resources Management Strategy for Sri Lankas
Coastal Region” also recommended the design and implementation of Special Management Area Plans
for the specific coastal sites with special ecological and economic significance. Although SMA planning
has been tested and formally adopted by the 1997 National CZMP, there were no legal provisions to
formulate and implement the SMA Plans in a formal manner until the new legal provisions were introduced
through the Coast Conservation (Amendment) Act No.49 of 2011. Thus, at the initial phase of the process,
administrative arrangements had been made to formulate and implement SMA Plans with the involvement
of stakeholders constituting the community, local support institutions such as Pradesiya Sabas, Divisional
Secretariats, outside local beneficiaries, central government institutions such as DWLC, Forest Department,
and the external stakeholders
5.1.2 Evolution and Operational Experience
The experience gained from the implementation of first generation CZMP prepared in 1990, calls for a
greater emphasis on local level stakeholder participation in managing coastal resources. This requirement
stemmed mainly from the strong relationship that exists between the coastal resources and the resources
users. The necessity for stakeholder participation further flared up with the nature of the open access regime
of the coastal resources. Thus the SMA planning and implementation process has been adopted with the
participation of resources users, considering their social and economic needs, complementary to the heavy
emphasis on command and control measures adopted in managing coastal resources.
The initial phase of the SMA planning and implementation in Sri Lanka was preceded by two pilot projects at
the Rekawa Lagoon and the Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary in 1992. This initiative was carried out by CC&CRMD
with the financial and technical assistance provided under the Coastal Resources Management Project (CRMP)
of USAID. The viability of the SMA concept in the local scenario was tested at both sites. Based on the attractive
outcome and novel experience gained from these initiatives, the second generation CZMP of 1997 endorsed the
SMA process by recommending the formulation and implementation of Special Management Area (SMA) Plans
for 23 selected coastal sites. In addition “Coastal 2000” Strategy for coastal Resources Management also advocated
the SMA concept. The SMA site selection was based on the following criteria:
(a) The severity of social, economic and environmental issues.
(b) Relative richness and abundance of coastal ecosystems.
(c) The feasibility of management based on size, location, legal and institutional factors.
(d) The existing or potential value of economic development in the area.
In addition to the site selection criteria, planning steps to be followed in the planning process were also spelt
out in the 1997 CZM Plan. In 2005, CC&CRMD and International Union for Conservation (IUCN) with the
financial assistance provided by the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) under the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) has formulated and implemented a Special Management Area Plan for Rekawa, Ussangoda,
Kalametiya (GEF- RUK) coastal ecosystem covering 20 coastal GND’s. The goal of this SMA plan was to ensure
sustenance of the natural resources of the RUK coastal ecosystem while optimizing the social well being of the
communities residing in the Special Management Area.
Subsequently, the CC&CRMD, under the supports of the CRMP of 2000-2007funded by ADB has extended the
second round of fully fledged SMA process to several sites, namely the Bar Reef, Negombo Estuary/Muthurajawela
Marsh, Lunawa Lagoon, Madu Ganga Estuary, Hikkaduwa Nature Reserve and environs, Unawatuna Bay including
Koggala Estuary, the Mawella and Kalametiya Lagoons, and the coastal reach in Hambantota.
In addition to the SMAP formulation and implementation in compliance with the 1997 CZMP, CC&CRMD
has introduced the concept and related activities into district level projects. This has led to the incorporation of
SMA planning activities in the Hambantota Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project (HICZMP) funded
by NORAD, where SMAP activities focused on the Hambantota dunes and the Mawella Lagoon - Kudawella (Blow
hole) coastal area. A main difference in the application of the concept here was that whilst the basic principles were
the same, operational and administrative procedures were not necessarily similar. Another salient feature here was
the implementation of some identified activities of the SMA process during the planning phase.
5.2 LESSONS LEARNT AND DRAWBACKS
By and large, the SMA planning and implementation initiatives related to Coastal Resources Management in Sri
Lanka were largely driven by the government sector which was being led by the Coast Conservation and Coastal
Resource Management Department. A total of 12 SMA plans have been formulated and implemented by CC&CRMD
since 1992, under four distinct foreign funded projects. As per the evaluations/reviews carried out by Lowry K
et al., (1997), Ingegerd Landstorm (2006) De Silva Sanjive et al., (2012), Evaluation of SMA Programme in Sri
Lanka (2014) and the in-house discussions were carried out among the CC&CRMD officials. The lessons learnt
and drawbacks identified from the past experience could be highlighted in the main areas of legal and institutional,
effectiveness and impacts, sustainability and challenges.
5.2.1 Legal and Institutional
In terms of the legal and institutional aspects of the SMA, following lessons and drawbacks have been
experienced in the past and are summarized as;
• All the formulated and implemented SMA plans demonstrate and clearly evidence that administrative
or collaborative arrangement itself is not effective without proper legal framework.
• The Community Coordinating Committees which have oversight on the implementation of the SMA
plans are not legally recognized in the CC Act or any other statute. The failure to either statutorily
or administratively recognize the CCC’s emasculates their authority to implement SMA plans The
functionality of the Community Coordinating Committees (CCC) setup under the planning and
implementation process of the SMA were at a standstill in all sites in the absence of catalytic role
and the financial and technical resources of the respective projects.
• The key roles played by the Divisional Secretaries in the planning and implementation process
at the initial stages have disappeared during the post project process over time due to absence of
legal and institutional recognition of their role. In addition, capacity, resources and orientation of
the local level officials also did not match with the envisaged roles to be played by them during the
post project period.
• The auxiliary institutional arrangements made through forming new NGO’s and strengthening of
existing non-government institution to ensure continuation of SMA process had failed in many
instances.
• After completion of the project phase, the CCC’s have to be fully dependent on external donor support
for post project implementation, especially with respect to implementation of large interventions.
The spontaneous switch between totally financial dependent status to totally independent status
does not provide an interim period for consolidation and evolution of institutional capacities and
process.
• Absence or lack of prospects of statutory authority, recognition as well as individual benefits for
the community created negative impacts on participation in the SMA implementation process.

• Lack of transparency in local organizations structure and operation has negatively influenced the
decision making process and distributing/sharing benefits.
• Failed to appreciate the influence of community and intragroup heterogeneity on building

participatory and consensus based resource governance.
• Past SMA planning experience reveal that process of negotiations with multiple stakeholder groups,
a broad range of differentiating factors influence on participation and consensus building in the
planning and implementation process.
Although the national policy documents provide guidance for a locally driven collaborative management
process in SMA planning, central agencies retain the decision making functions within their own agencies
and strong local organizations have not emerged due to lack of institutional follow-up and effective social
mobilization.
5.2.2. Effectiveness and Impacts
• The past experience revealed that to ensure long term sustainability and effectiveness, SMA should
be a part of the comprehensive national level CRM planning and management effort.
• The overall status of SMA process in majority of the sites indicated adequate effectiveness (Evaluation
of SMA Programme in Sri Lanka 2014).
• The status of conservation measures initiated by other agencies has improved as a result of the SMA
process (Evaluation of SMA Programme in Sri Lanka 2014).
• The overall awareness of the importance of coastal resource management among stakeholders has
been increased notably.
• SMA planning and implementation process has created a sense of ownership among stakeholders
and community enthusiasm enhanced.
• By and large the livelihood development initiatives carried out under SMA process to ensure social
and economic well being of the communities have created little impact due to the sustainability
issues encountered.
• While ensuring sustainability, greater impacts have been created through implementation of
interventions that create common/ individual benefits among stakeholders.
• In terms of objectives of the SMA plans vs. the actual achievements, it was revealed that majority
of the investigated SMA sites achieved more than 50% of the spelled out objectives (Rekawa 59%,
Mawella/Kudawella 54% , Negombo 55%, Bar Reef 60%, Lunawa 66%, Puttalam Lagoon 56% ,
Batticaloa Lagoon 54%) , RUK 31% (Evaluation of SMA Programmes in Sri Lanka 2014).
5.2.3 Sustainability and Challenges
As per the evaluation carried out on the selected SMA sites in 2014, sustainability was measured using the
following criteria;
1. Functioning of CCC after the project period.
2. Continuation of Institutional mechanism set up by the project.
3. Continuation of financial support from other sources for SMA.
4. Continuation of projects and , programmes introduced by the SMA process.

5. Involvement of CC&CRMD after the project.
• It was revealed that irrespective of lead agency involved in SMA, all the CCC’s setup under the projects
were not functioning after the project period.
• No financial support for SMA process has been continued after the project period, except in a few instances.
• Majority of the projects and programmes have not been continued after the project period except in a few
instances.
Apart from the above, following inadequacies also contribute to lack of sustainability of the SMA process
in the past;
• Lack of pertinence of technical solutions adopted in conservation measures created negative impacts.
• The impacts of policies related to the other sectors have negatively impacted on the SMA process
creating threats to the sustainability.
• The CBO’s and NGO’s actively involved in the SMA process has limits that prevent achievement
of major objectives.
• Accommodating new economic policies in SMA planning and implementation is a major challenge
due to inadequate application of environmental valuation.
• Setting up of an institutional mechanism, in compliance with the existing legal provisons will be a
great challenge for ensuring sustainability of the SMA process.
5.3 NEW LEGAL PROVISIONS FOR SPECIAL MANAGEMENT AREA (SMA)
Although, the SMA has been adopted by the CC&CRMD , there were no proper legal provisions for formulating
and implementation of the concept until 2011. Absence of proper legal provisions under the Coast Conservation
Act or any other statute has created negative impacts on the sustainability of the SMA process. Even though the
absence of proper legal provisions has created constraints, an administrative or and institutional arrangement has
been adopted by the CC&CRMD in formulating and implementing the SMA planning process in the past with the
collaboration of Divisional secretaries and the other relevant agencies.
When the required provisions have been introduced through the Coast Conservation (Amendment) Act, No. 49 of
2011, new opportunities are created for continuation of Special Management Area planning and implementation as
a sustainable and effective supplementary planning tool for coastal resources management in Sri Lanka. As per the
new provisions (Section 22E (1)), Special Management Areas could be declared covering land within the coastal
zone or adjacent to the coastal zone or comprising both through Gazette notification. The new legal provisions
also recognized the adoption of collaborative approach for planning resources management in the defined SMA’s.
According to the new legal provisions, Special Management Areas could be declared only if such areas are included
in the Coastal Zone and Coastal Resource Management Plan prepared under the provisions of the Amendment Act.
To formulate effective institutional structure for planning and management of Special Management Areas, new
regulations have to be prepared in compliance with the legal provisions provided through Part 111c Sub Section
2 of the Amendment Act No. 49 of 2011. To achieve the desired objectives of SMA planning, regulations should
be framed and brought before Parliament as soon as convenient. If the regulations are not approved it is deemed
to have been rescinded without prejudice to any act done under the regulation. The new regulations have to be
formulated prescribing the manner and mode in which and the persons by whom, such Special Management Area
should be administered, the persons entitled to have access to these areas and the activities which can be carried
out within such areas.(under the provision in Section 22E (2).
Accordingly, the existing legal provisions have to be used with the effective participation of stakeholders comprised
of the relevant community and those who are directly attached to the SMA site, local institutions both government
and non-governmental, outside beneficiaries and the central government institutions.
5. 4 WHY SMA SHOULD BE STRENGTHENED AND ADVOCATED
Special Management Area concept that is based on the co-management principles could be considered as an effective
and viable approach to integrated coastal resources management in Sri Lanka. In comparison to other approaches,
it properly acknowledges the complex relationship among coastal and marine uses and the coastal ecosystems.
SMA process also promotes linkage and harmonization among varied types of coastal activities and the physical
processes of nature. The flexibility of management system pays proper attention on both coastal resources systems
as well as human systems. The main influencing factors behind the requirement of SMA as a complementary tool
for Integrated Coastal Resources Management are summarized below;
SMA process is viewed as an effective means of promoting sustainable management of coastal resources within a
defined geographic setting and makes it possible to deal more comprehensively and effectively with the complex
management issues.
• The decentralization policies have been pursued since late 1980s, positively contributed in adopting
collaborative management.
• Recognition of a need to formalize indigenous or traditional sustainable resources management practices

within the legal and wider governance framework to minimize coastal resource depletion, overexploitation
and user conflicts.
• The characteristics of public or state owned nature of coastal resources and the prevailing status of open
access to it present formidable challenges to manage coastal resources.
• Coastal habitats being rapidly degraded due to both man induced causes and natural phenomenon. Thus,
a user centered management approach is vital.
• To pay systematic and effective approach to counter spreading of poverty and over exploitation of marine
and coastal resources.
• To facilitate local level management interventions and to maintain consistency and compliance with national
level coastal resource management policies and regulations.
• Community demand for greater legitimacy and transparency in resource management decision making.
• Counter increasing user conflicts parallel to new development activities taking place in the coastal region.
• Requirement of empowering and building sense of ownership among civil society, communities and
community based organizations to enable to manage coastal resources in a sustainable manner.
• To address gender issues related to coastal resources uses.
• To incorporate a sustainable livelihood perspective to address site specific coastal environmental issues.
• To build resilience and reduce vulnerability among coastal communities against natural coastal hazards.
• To enable positive community perception of decentralization policies being pursued in the recent past in
administrative and political fields, and to provide an enabling environment for effective and sustainable
coastal resources management through SMA.
5.5 REQUIREMENT OF MOVING FROM A PROJECT BASED APPROACH TO A MORE PROGRAMMATIC

APPROACH
The two and half decades of planning and implementation of Special Management Area process carried out by the
Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Department and the other agencies in Sri Lanka were entirely
on a project oriented basis. As a result of this, the outcomes of the SMA planning and implementation process and
the long term sustainability of it posed a problematic situation. This situation was further complicated due to absence
of a proper legal and institutional framework. Thus the long term commitment of the main facilitating agencies came
to a standstill when the projects were terminated. Similarly, the local level organizations such as NGO’s which were
involved in the process were also unable to continue the process due to financial constraints and lack of authority,
capacity and legal and administrative recognition. The past implementation experience revealed that the post project
implementation including monitoring and scaling up of conservation and livelihood activities have come to a halt
with the closure of the project. Therefore, based on the new legal provisions and the regulations to be framed on
Special Management Areas, the planning and implementation process has to be moved to a more programmatic
approach based on collaborative resources management principles and guidelines. In this respect careful attention
has to be placed on balancing conservation objectives with the development needs in the legally declared SMA sites.
In view of the above requirement, a programme based approach has to be adopted while recognizing to practically
get involvement of the communities at the sites. The SMA programme will be formulated in compliance with legal
provisions and the new regulations as per the following guidelines:
(a) A separate Special Management Area Unit will be established within the Coast Conservation and Coastal
Resource Management Department under the Director/Coastal Resource Management.
(b) A separate financial vote will be created to ensure adequate funding from the central government for the SMA
planning and implementation.
(c) New regulations will be framed to ensure legitimacy of community participation and provide decision making
authority to the community at the designated sites.
(d) The need to establishing legal recognition for the SMA Committees and grass root process will be recognized
in selecting representatives for the SMA’s.
(e) Operational rules or code of conduct will be formulated under the new regulations for SMA Committees.
(f) Arrangements will be made to share experience on co-management with the regional countries with a view
to enhance the planning and implementation of SMA’s.
(g) The list of SMA sites will be prepared based on the new criteria introduced and incorporated into this plan.
5.6 IMPROVING EFFICACY FOR SPECIAL MANAGEMENT AREA (SMA)
Even though, there were some drawbacks and deficiencies experienced in planning, implementation and continuation of the
SMA process, the two major rounds of SMA planning and implementation process carried out by the Coast Conservation and
Coastal Resources Management Department has recognized its appropriateness and effectiveness as an ICM tool. Similarly,
the required modifications to produce better outcomes through SMA plans also identified by the CC&CRMD through lessons
learnt. Although this approach is clearly perceived as an effective one for managing coastal resources and its environment in
complex settings, several constraints and drawbacks as indicated in the preceding sections have prevented the realization of
maximum benefits from this management process. In addition, sustainability of the SMA approach posed into a complex
situation. The two major rounds of SMA planning and implementation conducted in 12 sites under the external financial
support (USAID and ADB - GoN) in project oriented nature and the other SMA interventions carried out under HICZM and
GEF-RUK provide valuable lessons to improve and strengthen future SMA planning and implementation process in other
designated sites. Further the in-depth reviews and evaluations conducted by a number of scholars on the concept of SMAP as
well as planning and implementation in Sri Lankan context were also useful in formulating new guidelines and procedures.
In addition most importantly, the new legal provisions provided through Coast Conservation (Amendment) Act, No. 49 of
2011 have given ample opportunity to enhance efficacy for SMA.
In addition the National Strategy and Action Plan prepared by the IUCN, Sri Lanka office for the National Steering Committee
for Mangroves for the Future Programme, Sri Lanka in 2009, recommends that an eco-system based Integrated Coastal
Management Policy be adopted in order to overcome the threat that a habitat based approach leads to driving the focus away
from the eco-system unit in which such habitats are nested. Such a change will have to await acceptance of the recommendation
at higher levels of policy approval and consequent re-orientation of the CC Act. This should be the focus of the CZM Plan
revision that will be done within the next few years as required by the CC Act.
Improving the efficacy of SMA planning requires addressing several key issues based on an understanding of the
basic requirements for SMA planning:
Pre-Planning Phase
1.
Necessary action has to be taken to move from project based approach to programme based approach for
planning and implementation of the overall SMA programme of the country.
2.
As per the new legal provisions of the Coast Conservation (Amendment) Act, No. 49 of 2011, a list of
appropriate candidate sites for SMA should be selected based on the new criteria and incorporated into this
plan.
3.
A preliminary situation analysis report should be prepared for each site to determine priority and to identify
legal boundaries of SMA.
4.
In compliance with the new legal provisions, new regulations for SMA should be prepared and finalized
with wider stakeholder consultation and approval for gazetting should be obtained as soon as possible.
5.
Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Department should take the lead facilitator role
for SMA with formulating separate section for SMA.
6. SMA guide book has to be prepared based on the new legal provisions, regulations in considering the
existing and future social environmental and economic trends in the coastal zone.
Planning Phase
7. There is no blue print for SMA. Each site should be considered unique, requiring application of specific integrated
methodology; planning should be based on site-specific issues, extent of area to be covered etc.
8. Equal opportunities should be emphasis on social and institutional profile when situation analysis is carried out.
9. There is a greater possibility of success when the area is smaller. Thus legal boundaries of the SMA should
be determined by the SMA Committee based on the information provided through preliminary situation
analysis and with the consultation of the other relevant stakeholders prior to declaration of the site as a
SMA site through Gazetting. However, the linkages between the SAM site and the eco-system in which it
is nested should be clearly identified.
10. SMA committee should be established in accordance with the new regulations for SMA and grass root
independent selection process should be adopted in selecting representatives for the SMA Committee to
ensure protection of local interest.
11. Formulate operational rules or code of conduct in line with the regulations to govern the SMA committee.
The operational rules should be placed specifically on tabling issues, decision making, disbursement and
management of funds, obtaining assistance from the Provincial Councils and the Central Government
Agencies and International NGO’s.
12. All discussions, decision making process and SMA Committee meetings and information compendiums
should be prepared in suitable local language (Sinhala/Tamil) where possible.
13. All decisions made during planning and implementation should be clear and well documented; binding decisions
must be clearly communicated to all involved in the process and abided by all to prevent mistrust which will
jeopardize the SMA process.
Implementation Phase
14.
Agencies and NGO having an implementation and monitoring role in SMA plans should be obliged to include
activities in fulfillment of that role, in their annual work programmes.
15.
Attempt should be made on strengthening local organizations, structure and operating rules to enhance
transparency in leadership, membership and decision making process.
16.
Full and active participation of representative stakeholder groups at all stages directly underpins success of SAM
planning and implementation, and is critical to counteract adverse influences.
17.
When institutional development commences at the local level during the planning phase, attention should
be placed to establish /strengthen both vertical and horizontal linkages between newly formed/existing
organizations and local /central government agencies.
18.
Instead of establishing local organizations/institutions across livelihoods and resources bases, community
element should be promoted.
19.
Local communities should have opportunities to derive tangible benefits from the initial stages of the SMA process
if they are to be motivated to manage natural resources.
20.
Communities should be supported at the initial stages of the SMA process with financial and technical assistance
to strengthen their organizational capacity for plan implementation; they may also require long-term financial
assistance for socio-economic development of the area.
21.
Mechanisms should be built into SMA plans for promoting self reliance in order to minimize the dependency
on external support.
22.
Wherever possible SMA processes should be incorporated into district and provincial development plans or regional
projects of the government to be in harmony and in compliance with National and Regional Development
Plans.
23.
All SMA plans should have a mechanism for participatory monitoring and feedback systems, based on indicators
identified at the outset of project planning for continued improvement of the implementation process and to
make the results tangible.
5.7 MECHANISMS FOR SMA PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION
Identification and agreement on SMA sites: The past experience through 1997 and 2004 Revised CZMP’s
After formalization and acceptance of Special Management Area (SMA) as a supplementary ICM tool, 23 sites have been
identified through CZMP of 1997 as potential SAM sites with specific complex issues to be resolved. After identification
of potential SMA sites, each site has been rated with respect to “four factors of concern” or the criteria for ranking and the sites
with highest cumulative values have been recommended as high priority sites for implementation. In view of the importance,
three additional criterions have been incorporated into the criteria used for ranking SMA sites.
Criteria used for ranking potential SMA sites for implementation
(a) The severity of social, economic and environmental issues prevailling in the sites.
(b) The relative richness and abundance of coastal eco-systems.
(c) The feasibility of management based on size, location, legal and institutional factors.
(d) The existing or potential value of economic development in the area.
(e) Level of exposure/vulnerability to climate change impact.
(f) Vulnerability to coastal disasters both episodic and chronic.
(g) Significance of archaeological and historic values of the site.
The 1997 list of potential SMA sites is considered as an incomplete one and it does not adequately represent the sites located in
the north and the eastern coastal region of the country. This was due to the difficult ground situation on account of the armed
conflict which prevented access to these areas for public consultations and site identification. It was further compounded
by the scarcity of information on possible sites within these regions.
SMA sites to be declared under the legal provisions of the Coast Conservation & Coastal Resource Management
The SMA sites identified through 1997 Revised CZMP as well as 2004 CZMP including level 11 sites have no legal
recognition for implementation unless those sites are also considered and termed as SMA sites. Therefore all potential
sites including those in which the SMA process had already been initiated under different projects and the appropriate
level 11 SMA sites have to be included into this document and termed and declared as SMA (Special Management Areas)
under the legal provisions of the Part 111 Section 22E of the Coast Conservation & Coastal Resource Management Act,
to establish legal recognition. In this respect following procedures/process will be adopted by the Coast Conservation
and Coastal Resource Management Department.
Re- designation and revitalization of SMA sites already implemented through project based approach:
Declaration of SMA Sites
As indicated in the following Table 5.1 and 5.2, all eleven Special Management Area (SMA) Sites in which planning and
implementation process initiated will be re-listed as Special Management Areas and action will be initiated to declare as
SMA sites through a government gazette notification in compliance with the legal provisions of the Coast Conservation
(Amendment) Act, No. 49 of 2011.
Establishment of legal boundaries
In this respect the legal boundaries of the SMA sites should be re-demarcated emphasizing the following;
• Status of conservation of coastal habitats.
• Degree of outcomes of the implementation of previous initiatives in accordance with the issues prevailed.
• Social and economic profile of the site.
• Balancing conservation objectives with economic needs.
• Exposure and vulnerability to climate change impacts.
Formation of Special Management Area Coordinating Committees (SMACC)
In accordance with the new regulations to be framed under the provisions of the Coast Conservation & Coastal Resource
Management Act, Special Management Area Committees (SMACC) will be formulated replacing former CCC’s. The
SAMC will be represented by central government and local government agencies, local level organizations and other
relevant stakeholders. The representatives from the local organization will be selected through grass root selection
process as specified in the new regulations. The SMAC will be co-chaired by the Divisional Secretary and the Director
General /CC&CRMD, and an appointed Senior Officer from the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management
Department. The SMACC will operate in compliance with the code of conduct formulated as per the new regulations
for SMA.
Review and updating existing SMA Plans
Special Management Area coordinating Committee will review and update the existing SMA Plans consistent with the
conservation objectives and development needs of the re-designated SMA site. In this process, the situation analysis
report should be prepared as appropriate in consultation and guidance of the SMACC.
Formulation of sustainable financial mechanism
To ensure long term sustainability of the SMA process, a sustainable financial mechanism shall be established by the
SMACC in consultation with the other stakeholders. In this respect contributions will be envisaged from central government
agencies, local government agencies as well as respective provincial councils.
Monitoring and impact analysis
To assess and evaluate results and impacts of the SMA process, monitoring mechanisms should be established by the
SMAC. In this process emphasis should be placed on monitoring, process, outputs and outcomes.
Table 5.1 Sites at which the SMA process was initiated through project based approach
District Project Site
Colombo CRMP 11 Lunawa Lagoon
Galle CRMP 11 Madu Ganga Estuary

CRMP 1/11 Hikkaduwa Nature Reserve and environs
CRMP 11
Unawatuna Bay and Koggala Estuary
Hambantota HICZMP Hambantota sand dune stretch

HICZMP/CRMP1 Mawella Lagoon
Kalametiya Lagoon
CRMP 11 Rekawa Lagoon
CRMP 1 Rekawa, Ussangoda, Kalametiya (RUK)
Gampaha CRMP 11 Negombo Estuary/Muthurajawela Marsh
Puttalam CRMP 11 Bar Reef

BMZ,IUCN,FAO-UNDP Puttalam Lagoon
Batticaloa NECDEP_ADB Batticaloa Lagoon

GEF
Ampara GEF Panama Sand Dunes
Trincomalee GEF Pigeon Island

Table 5.2 A list of sites to be declared as Special Management Areas under the legal provisions of the Coast Conservation
& Coastal Resource Management Act
District Site
Colombo o Lunawa Lagoon
o Bolgoda Lake
o Dehiwala Mt.Lavina Beach
Kalutara o Kaluganga Estuary
Galle o Madu Ganga Estuary
o Hikkaduwa Nature Reserve and environs
o Unawatuna Bay and Koggala Estuary
o Bentota –Beruwala Coastal Stretch
o Dodanduwa Lake
Matara o Polhena Beach
o Weligama Ba
Hambantota o Rekawa Lagoon
o Rekawa-Ussangoda-Kalametiya Cluster
o Kalametiya - Lunama Lagoon complex
o Mawella Lagoon-Kudawella blowhole
Ampara o Panama dunes –Arugam bay
o Periya Kalapuwa-Korai Kalapuwa
o Komari lagoon
Batticaloa o Batticaloa – Kayankani esturay / lagoon
o Uppar - Panichankerni estuary
o Kalkudah – Passikudah bay, Thanadi bay, Valachachanai Estuary
o Sallitivu Island and associated coastal area
Trincomalee o Trincomalee Bay
o Nilaweli beach, Pigeon Island, Periyakarachchi and Sinnakarachchi Estuaries
o Kuchchaveli-Poduwakattu
Mullaitivu o Nanthikadal Lagoon
o Nai Aru Estuary
Jaffna o Manalkadu Dunes
o Jaffna Estuary (town area )
o Thondaimanaru Lagoon
o Kankesanthurai and Keeramalai coastal area
o Mandativu, Delft, Nainativu Islands
o Karainagar (including Casuarina beach) coastal area
o Navali Coastal Area
Mannar o Gulf of Mannar
o Thalaimannar coastal area
o Sillavathurai , Arippu and Aruvi Aru coastal area and Bay of Kondachchi
o Weeditaltivu coral reef and associated ecosystem
Puttalam o Puttalam Estuary
o Chilaw Estuary
o Mundal Lake & Puttalam Corridor Channel
5.8 GUIDELINES FOR THE SMA PROCESS
In addition to the specific guidelines spelt out in the preceding section for the purpose of reformulating the ongoing
or already initiated SMA’s the following general guidelines are given for planning and implementation of SMA
process in the new sites. These guidelines have been developed based on the new legal provisions introduced
for SMA through Coast Conservation Coastal Resource Management Act No.57 of 1981 as Amended by Coast
Conservation Act No.49 of 2011 and taking into consideration the lessons learnt in the past. However, they have
to be adapted to meet the needs of the specific sites.
1. Selection and declaration of a site
As per the new legal provisions, only SMA sites listed in this CZMP (Table 5.1 and 5.2) can be selected by
CC&CRMD for declaration and gazetting as a Special Management Area, to adopt a collaborative resource
management process.
2. Establish legal boundaries
In conformity with the legal provisions and the regulations made under such provisions, legal boundaries
of SMA site should be determined taking into consideration both land within the coastal zone and adjacent
areas as required.
3. Establishment of a Special Management Area Committee (SMAC)
4. Prioritization of identified issues and preparation of an environmental profile or situation/site reports
5. Conduct of analysis
6. Preparation of the draft SMA Plan

7. Adoption of the Special Management Area Plan
8. Implementation of Selected Activities Simultaneously with Planning Process
9. Establish Sustainable Financial Mechanism
10. Monitoring and Evaluating of Plan Implementation
5.9 MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES, POLICIES STRATEGIES AND ACTIONS
Objective:
SMA processes oriented towards continuous enhancement of the value of natural assets of the eco systems
and improve livelihoods in the designated area through application of appropriate management tools.
Policy 1.1:
The Special Management Area (SMA) process will be implemented at the District /Divisional / local level
including terrestrial and associated coastal waters with identified stakeholder collaboration.
Strategy 1.1.1
Prepare comprehensive SMA plans in compliance with the legal provisions of the Coast Conservation Coastal
Resource Management Act No.57 of 1981 as Amended by Coast Conservation (Amendment) Act No.49 of
2011 and regulations framed under it for identified priority sites with the collaboration and effective participation
of local communities, non-governmental and governmental agencies.
Proposed Action
1. Select sites that should be managed as SMA sites.
2. Establish legal boundaries and declare such sites through gazette notification as SMA sites
3. Establish institutional mechanisms as per the guidelines provided in this CZ&CRMP in the planning of the SMA
process with local collaboration and facilitate the implementation at local/district/divisional levels.
4. Establish sustainable financial mechanisms.
5. Develop participatory monitoring plans to assess the progress and impacts of the SMA process.
Strategy 1.1.2
Develop a mechanism to enhance local collaboration and participation in SMA planning, implementation and
post implementation processes.
Proposed Action
1. Conduct stakeholder analysis in respective sites to identify and determine factors helping or hindering
stakeholder collaboration and participation in the process.
2. Develop a communication plan to ensure better collaboration and participation of all stakeholders in SMA
process.
3. Establish both vertical and horizontal link between central government / local government agencies, SMACC
and the stakeholder groups.
4. Develop an incentive scheme to encourage local collaboration and participation by ensuring tangible benefits to
communities.
Policy 1.2:
Re-designate and revitalize SMA sites already implemented through project based approaches in the past.

Strategy 1.2.1
Declare SMA sites already planned and implemented on a project based approach as SMA sites through gazette
notification to strengthen and rectify the weaknesses experienced during implementation.
Proposed Action
1. Establish SMACC as per the new regulations framed under the Coast Conservation (Amendment) Act
No.49 of 2011.
2. Follow guidelines given in section 5.2.

3. Identify main constraints, analyse lessons learnt, carry out a situation analysis and find solutions to rectify the
shortcomings experienced in the implementation of ongoing SMA plans and facilitate continuity of the process.
4. Institutionalize a programme to monitor and evaluate SMA projects, and establish a feedback mechanism to assist
enhance the management efficiency.
Policy 1.3
All SMAP should be formulated and implemented in compliance with national level legislations.
Strategy 1.3.1
Ensure maintaining consistency in planning and implementation of SMA plans /planning process with other
relevant national level legislation.
Proposed Action
1. Prepare guide book describing procedures, means and ways to maintain consistency of SMA planning and
implementation process with the national level legislation.
2. Conduct awareness programmes on SMA process among provincial, district and divisional level stakeholders.
Policy 1.4
The capacity of local authorities and concerned state agencies will be strengthened to enhance implementation
of SMA Plans.
Strategy 1.4.1
Enhance the SMA implementation capacity of Local Authorities and concerned state agencies through
training and awareness programmes and effective legislation.
Proposed Action
1. Promote training and awareness programmes on SMA processes.
2. Further strengthening of legal framework for SMA planning.
3. Promote collaborative management of coastal habitat conservation through SMACC.
4. Include guidelines for and responsibilities of communities, government/semi-government organisations, District

Secretariats and SMACCs for implementation of the SMA Plans.
5. Strengthen capacity of local level officials for SMA planning.
Policy 1.5
The Special Management Area process will be harmonized with national and regional development efforts.
Strategy 1.5.1
Incorporate and integrate planning and management of SMA sites into development plans of regional/
integrated national development projects where appropriate.
Proposed Action
1. Coordinate with the Ministry of Economic Development to identify a mechanism to incorporate SMA Plans in
regional projects/ integrated national projects.
2. Establish a mechanism to facilitate private sector participation in activities of SMA processes.
Policy 1.6
SMA planning and implementation shall utilize comprehensive valuation and incorporation of hitherto
un-recognized economic value of eco-system services.
Strategy 1.6.1
Recognition and due consideration will be placed on real economic value of the eco-system services when
decisions are made with respect to environmental conservation, development and livelihood initiatives
while balancing conservation objectives with development needs.
Proposed Action
1. Conduct environmental valuation with respect to services of the eco-systems to determine effective and fruitful
decisions where possible.
2. Carry out outreach programme to highlight importance and value of the hidden or un-recognized services of the
coastal eco-systems.

3. Enhance capacity of the collaborative institutions to conduct environmental valuations.
Policy 1.7
The livelihoods of the communities in the SMA sites will be enhanced / up- scaled to ensure sustainable utilization
of the coastal resources.
Strategy 1.7.1
The issues related to livelihoods and the coastal resources management will be comprehensively investigated and
the required mechanism to improve livelihoods of the communities on a sustainable manner will be incorporated
into the SMA process.
Proposed Action
1. Investigate issues related to utilization of coastal resource and livelihoods of the communities at the SMA sites.
2. Formulate and implement sustainable livelihood enhancement strategies based on past experiences to minimize
issues identified.
3. Promote private sector participation in developing and scaling up of livelihoods in the SMA sites.
4. Adopt appropriate monitoring mechanism to evaluate, process, outputs and the outcomes of the livelihood
development programmes implemented.
REFERENCES:
1. Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Department, (2014), Evaluation of Special Management
Area (SMA) in Sri Lanka (unpublished).
2. Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Department, (2004), Revised Coastal Zone Management
Plan.
3. Government of Sri Lanka, (2012) Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Act, No.57 of 1981.
4. Government of Sri Lanka, (2011) Coast Conservation (Amendment) Act, No. 49 of 2011.
5. Clemett, Alexandra; Senaratne, Sonali; and Banda, R; (2004) Can Coastal Zone management in Sri Lanka
Sustain Local livelihoods and Eco-systems? Policy Process Analysis Paper 2, Improving Policy Livelihood
Relationship in South Asia, Stockholm Environmental Institute (SEI), York, UK.
6. De Cosse, P.J., and Jayawickrama, S.S. 1996. Co-management of resources in Sri Lanka: Status, Issues and Opportunities.
USAID/Sri Lanka Natural Resources and Environmental Policy Project, Colombo.
7. De Silva, Sanjiv; Senaratne, Sellamuttu, Sonali;, Kodituwakku, Dekshika Charmini; Atapattu, Sitara S;(2011)
Governance Performance in Integrated Coastal Management in Sri Lanka, Country Report, Colombo IUCN
Sri Lanka.
8. CCD. 1997. Revised Coastal Zone Management Plan, Sri Lanka, 1997. Colombo: Coast Conservation Department.
Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Development.
9. Jayatilake, A.,; Pallewatta.,’ N.,; and Wickramanayake, J. 1998. The practice of community based conservation
in Sri Lanka. In Community and Conservation: Natural Resource Management in South and Central Asia. Ed.
A.Kothari, N. Pathak, R.B. Anuradha, and B. Taneja, New Delhi: Sage Publication.
10. Landstorm Ingegerd (2006), Towards Collaborative Coastal Management in Sri Lanka? a study of Special
Area Management in Sri Lanka’s Coastal Region.
11. Lowry, K.,; Pallewatte, N.,; and Dainis.A.P. 1997. Special Area Management Projects at Hikkaduwa and Rekawa..
A Preliminary Assessment. CRMP, Colombo.
12. Lowry, K., Pallewatte, N., and Dainis, A.P., 1999. Policy-relevant assessment of community-level coastal management
projects in Sri Lanka. Ocean and Coastal Management 42 (8): 717 – 745.
13. Wickramaratne, H.J.M. and A.T.White. 1992. Concept paper on Special Area Management for Sri Lankan Coasts.
Working Paper No.10, 1992. CRMP Colombo.
14. Senaratna, S. 2003. Factors influencing the sustainability of livelihoods in rural coastal communities in Sri Lanka.
PhD Upgrade Report. Imperial College London.
15. HSAMCC/CCD/NARA/Department of Wildlife Conservation/DWLC/CRMP/, 1996. Special Area Management

Plan for Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary and Environs Sri Lanka. Hikkaduwa Special Area Management and
Marine Sanctuary Coordinating Committee, Coast Conservation Department, National Aquatic Resources Agency,
Department of Wildlife Conservation and Coastal Resources Management Project.
16. RSAMCC/CCD/NARA/CRMP. 1996. Special Area Management Plan for Rekawa Lagoon, Sri Lanka. Rekawa Special
Area Management Coordinating Committee/ Coast Conservation Department/ National Aquatic Resources Agency/
and Coastal Resources Management Project.
Chapter 6
6. REGULATORY MECHANISM
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The regulatory framework of the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management Act, No.57 of 1981 is
being used as an effective management instrument by the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management
Department (CC&CRMD) for managing activities and the resources within the coastal zone. To address the major
coastal issues and to ensure sustainability of the management measures, adopting other auxiliary management
instruments such as Special Management Area (SMA), Inter-agency coordination, Compliance Monitoring,
Research and investigation and Public education and awareness plays vital role. This is complementary to the
regulatory instruments in the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Department’s coastal resources
management strategy in the recent past.
The Regulatory mechanism pertaining to the Coastal Zone constitutes the following:
 Implementation of a permit system

 Prohibition of activities whch permits are not issued
 Designation of set-back standards, variance and exemptions
 Compliance monitoring for development activities
 Control of development activities
 Controlroling unauthorized development activities
 Provision of standards and guidelines for specified development activities
 Requirement of Environmental Impact Assessment,(EIA) and Initial Environmental Examination (IEE)
 Designation and control of affected areas
 Declaration of conservation areas
 Designation and managing SMA’
Definition of the Coastal Zone
The definition of the “Coastal Zone” as defined in the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Act,
No. 57 of 1981 as amended by Act, No. 49 of 2011 is as follows;
“Coastal Zone” means that area lying within a limit of three hundred meters landwards of the Mean High Water
line and a limit of two kilometres seawards of the mean Low Water line and in the case of rivers , streams, lagoons
or any other body of water connected to the sea either permenently or periodically , the landward boundary shall
extend to a limit of two kilometres measured perpendicular to the straight base line drawn between the natural
entrance points thereof and shall include the waters of such rivers, streams, and lagoons or any other body of water
so connected to the sea , and shall also include the area lying within a further extended limit of one hundred metres
inland from the zero Mean Sea Level along the periphery”;
Figure 6.1 Coastal Zone as defined in the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Act No 57 of
1981 as ammended by Act No.49 of 2011
6.2 PERMIT SYSTEM
The principal regulatory tool used by the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management Department in
managing development activities of the “Coastal Zone “is the Permit Procedure. The main objective of this procedure
is to direct development activities in the “Coastal Zone” in such a manner that negative impacts of development
activities are averted or minimized. Through this procedure, activities that are harmful or not compatible to the
coastal environment are controlled and the quality, stability and productivity of the “Coastal Zone” are maintained.
Thus it is made mandatory under the Act for any person, whether in the private or the state sector or, intending to
engage in a development activity within the “Coastal Zone” (except for the prescribed activities for which permits
are not required) to obtain a permit issued by the Director General. Activities that may be engaged in without a
permit have been prescribed by Coast Conservation Regulation No.1 of 1983 and published in Gazette No. 260/22
of 2nd September1983.
6.2.1 Development activities within the “Coastal Zone” for which the permit is required
Development activities within the “Coastal Zone” for which the permit is required from Director General
of CC&CRMD are as follows;
 Condominiums, dwelling houses, parpet walls and related structures

 Industrial and othe commercial structures
 Tourism, recreational, swimming pools and water dependent structures
 Commercial and fisheries harbour structures and navigational channels
 Roads, bridges,tunnels and railway lines
 Public and religious structures

 Shoreline protection works to be carried out by any private individual or group
 Waste water discharge , sewage treatment facilities and ocean outfalls
 Aquaculture facilities and sea farming structures
 Disposal of solid waste
 Dredging, filling, grading or breaching sand bars.
 Landscaping and development of beach parks
 Mining and mineral extraction
 Power generation project
 Removal of sand seaweeds or seashells
 Reclamation and creation of islands and additional buffers
 Construction of conveyance lines
 Construction, mining, and breaching related to flood control or hazard control by any private
individual or group
 Construction of structures to prevent bank erosion, and filling of any water area within the “Coastal
Zone
 Any other activity likely to alter the physical nature of the “Coastal Zone”.
6.2.2 Prescribed Activities that may be engaged in without a permit issued by the Director General –
CC&CRM within the “Coastal Zone”
 Fishing
 Cultivation of crops that do not destabilize the coast
 Planting of trees and other vegetation (except beach area)
 Construction and maintenance of coast protection works by the CC&CRMD in compliance with the
Coastal Erosion Management Strategy and the emergency procedures as outlined in Chapter 2.
6.2.3 Categorization of Permits
Three categories of permits have been introduced through CZMP’s of 1990, 1997, and 2004 respectively.
Accordingly major permit, minor permit and emergency permit have been issued. As per the 2018
CZ&CRMP guidelines, all development permits will be issued by the Director General of CC&CRM under
two categories viz. “Type A” permit and “Type B” permit.
Type “A” Permit Type “B” Permit

The development activity which requires Development activity that does not require EIA or IEE
EIA or IEE is referred to as “Type A” is referred to as “Type B permit. The permits issued to
permit minimize adverse impacts during an emergency situation
are also included under category “Type B”.
The permits issued under emergency situation are as follows;

 Flood control measures or any other natural hazard control measures.
 Removal of sand bars to prevent floods.
 Construction of salt water intrusion prevention structures on a temporary basis.
 Intervention at a time when threat / destruction is caused to life of people, or public/private property,
until such time a “Type A”/”Type B” permit is obtained.
 National security purposes
The duration of the permits issued under emergency situation is determined by the Director General of the
Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management Department
The criteria that will be adopted in reviewing “Type A” and “Type B” Permits are as follows;
6.2.4 Criteria to be used by the Director General in Evaluating “Type A”and “Type B” Permits
The proposed activity

 Is consistent with the management policies spelt out in Chapter 2 – 5 and any supplementary
guidelines.
 Is not prohibited by this Plan.
 Is in compliance with the stipulated guidelines for variances and exceptions for set-back standards
where applicable.
 Meets with the National Standards set by the Central Environmental Authority for air/water quality,
noise, vaibration.
 Will not infringe upon the right of public access to and along the beach and will ensure right of
vertical and lateral public access to and along the coast.
 Ensure that existing fishing activities are not obstructed or impeded.
 Is consistent with the intent of the zoning schemes of concerned agencies and/or guidelines recognized
by CC&CRMD.
 Should not be located within the coastal zone abutting Protected Areas as specified in Table 6.3.
 Should not be located within a radius specified by the Department of Archaeology for designated
archaeological, historic or cultural sites.
 Should not be located in an affected area or conservation area declared under the CC&CRM Act.
 Will not be located in an unauthorized filled area.
 Complies with the planning requirements with respect to reservations for roads, canals, rivers,
streams, etc.
 Will not denude beach front vegetation cover.
 If they include commercial structures, dwelling houses and industries in underserved areas shall
have provision for efficient and adequate means to dispose liquid and solid waste
 No development activities should be carried out leading to disruption of the natural processes of
the sand dunes
 Should be complied with the reservations delineated for the roads and cannals
6.2.5 Guidelines for issuing Permits for Removal of Sand

The following guidelines shall apply to permits issued for sand removal for non- commercial use. It should
however be noted that, in considering the dynamic nature of the coastal zone, site specific guidelines
will be issued from time to time during the plan implementation period.
• Removal of sand shall be permitted confined to the locations that are specified by the Coast
Conservation and Coastal Resources Management Department. These specified locations are
subject to change from time to time as determined by the Department.
• Mining of sand will not be permitted in 500 m water area from the mouth of the rivers, lagoons
and other water bodies connected to the sea.
• Permit will be issued/concurrence will be given to remove sand bars to prevent negative impacts of
the floods under the direct purview of the District Secretaries of the respective areas, the Officials
of the Irrigation Department and Disaster Management Center.
• Sand removal within the “Restricted Development Zone” (500m from the mouth of the water
body) of the water areas lying within the extended coastal zone will be permitted to facilitate
navigational activities or controlling floods.
• Sand removal should not be carried out in a manner that causes damage to the existing vegetation
cover adjacent to the sand removal site
• Sand removal shall not have adverse impacts such as salt water intrusion.
Unless under exceptional circumstances, permits will not be issued for:
• Mechanical extraction of sand will not be permitted within the coastal zone
• Removal of sand from the non-accreting beaches, barrier beaches, and sand spits will not be
permitted
• Removal of sand from the newly accreted beaches or artificially nourished beaches will not be
permitted
• Permits will not be issued for specified locations where erosion has occurred within the past twelve
months
• Sand removal will not be permitted where bank erosion is visible in the rivers and the streams
and closer to the water intakes..
• Sand removal will not be permitted from the riparian land of the water bodies lying within the
coastal zone.
In exceptional circumstances, such permits will be issued, and the permit shall specify the exceptional
circumstances under which it is issued and specify conditions, if any.
6.2.6 Prohibited Activities Which Permit Do Not Issued
Activities prohibited by the CC&CRMD under the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management
Act within the “Coastal Zone” are:
 Removal of corals (note: in case of removal for research purposes and for establishment of nurseries
for replanting, a permit may be issued by the Director General specifying type, quantity, location
and period for removal).
 Removal of sand except in areas identified by the CC&CRMD as specified locations.
 Any development activity that will significantly degrade the exceptional scenic and cultural value.
 Development within designated protected areas as specified by the Department of Wildlife

Conservation and Forest Department Development activities within a specified pherypery from the
boundary of the archaeological, cultural, historic sites designated by the Department of Archaeology
or “Coastal Zone and Coastal Resources Management Plan” .
 Development activites taking place within designat “Affected areas”, “Conservation areas”,
unauthorized filled areas and sand dunes
6.2.7 Prohibited Activities in the “Affected Areas”
In accordance with the legal provisions of the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Act,
No. 57 of 1981as ammended by the Act, No. 49 of 2011, affected areas could be declared; within or adjacent
to the coastal zone or falling within both such areas or within any water body or part of any water body
or within any lagoon or part of any lagoon or any peripheral area of a lagoon could be declared through
gazette notification as required.
As per the above provisions, any development activity carried out under Section 14 in an affected area
is considered a prohibited activity. Further; filling, erection, obstruction, pollution or introduction of any
waste matter or any act which will harm the aquatic or marine life in affected areas are prohibited.
6.2.8 Prohibited Activities in the “Conservation Areas”
In accordance with the legal provisions of the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Act,
No. 57 of 1981 as ammended by the Act, No. 49 of 2011, any area in which special measures need to be
taken for the protection of the coastal and aquatic eco system could be declared as a “Conservation Area”
As per the above provision no development activity or collection and extraction of aquatic resources shall
be carried out in the conservation areas except for engagement in scientific study and research in such areas
with a permit issued by the DG/CC&CRM.
6.2.9 Setback distances for Protected Areas
The setback distances specified in the Table 6.1 are not applicable in respect of Protected Areas where any
protected area falls within coastal segment; it will be considered a “no build zone”.
Protected Areas include; Ramsar Wetland sites,Buffer Zones, Sanctuaries, Reserved Forests, Conservation
Forests, National Heritage Wilderness Areas, Strict Nature Reserves,National Parks, Nature Reserves,Jungle
Corridors,Refuges,Marine Reserves
A 300 m setback shall be applied to Fisheries Management Areas, Fisheries Reserves or any other designated
area or site declared by the Government of Sri Lanka.
A total of 200 m setback shall be applied to all coastal archaeological sites designated by the Department
of Archaeology.
6.3 SETBACK AREAS
6.3.1 Revision of Setback Areas as per the New Legal Provisions
With the amendments made to the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management Act, No.
57 of 1981 through the amendment Act, No. 49 of 2011, the definition of the “Coastal Zone” has been
changed by inclusion of 100 meter riparian land of the water bodies. Accordingly, to minimize the impact
of development activities taking place in the riparian land, the responsibility and the authority of managing
such development activities are also vested with the CC&CRMD through the new amendments. Although,
both areas have strong and close connectivity with each other, the bio- physical characteristics as well as the
level of vulnerability of both areas are varied. Thus, when determining the criteria for delineating Setbacks
or the buffer areas, different criteria have to be adopted.
6.3.2 Desired Objectives of Set-backs
 Protecting lives and properties from coastal erosion and cyclones
 Minimize public investment on coast protection structures
 Protecting and enhancing the scenic value of coastal environments ,protecting vulnerable coastal
habitats and unique natural sites;
 Providing buffer zones around coastal archeological , historical and cultural sites within the coastal
zone;
 Minimizing user conflicts among different activities taking place in the coastal zone;
 Ensuring public access to and along the coast;
 Maintaining consistency among national and regional laws and plans;
 Ensuring consistency between national development goals and environmental objectives
6.4 DEFINITION OF COASTAL SETBACK
A setback area is a geographycal strip or band within the Coastal Zone or within which certain development
activities are prohibited or significantly restricted. It is comprised of the Reservation Area and the Restricted Area
lying between the Seaward Reference Line and the Landward Reference Line of the particular coastal segment .
6.4.1 Coastal Setback Area for the development activities landward of the Mean High Water Mark:
With respect to the development activities taking place landwards of the Mean High Water Mark, an adequate
setback area should be delinated. The entire setback band is divided into two segments viz. the Reservation
Area and Restricted Area lying between the Seaward Reference Line and the Landward Reference Line of
the particular segment.

1. The Seaward Reference Line The CC&CRMD recerved the right to demarcate the set-back from
the permanent vegetation line on the beach front where Coconut (Cocosnucifera), Maharawana
(Spinifexlittoreus), Wetakeiya (Pandanusssp), or Mudilla (Barringtoniaspeciosa) exist. However
in the absence of a permanent vegetation line, CC&CRMD has the right to demarcate set-back fom
seaward reference point such as an appropriate contour line above MSL, the landward toe of the
dune or the seaward edge of the top of the cliff/rock outcrop, existing coast protection structure or
dyke.
The Landward Reference Line: will generally be the landward boundary line of the Setback area,
2.
If not stated otherwise.
Figure 6.2 : Relative Locations of the Set-back within the coastal zone
The entire coastal set-back strip of the island has devided into 105 coastal segments. For each coastal
segment numbers are assigned from 1 to 105 (Table 6.1) Each segment is further subdivided in to two areas;
Reservation and Restricted ( figure 6.2) Because it is nearest the shoreline, the reservation area corresponds
to a no – build zone in which only uses which are absolutely essential are allowed the Restricted Area
(soft zone ) can be used for a few low - impacts activities which are indicated in this plan. The width of
the Reservation and the Restricted Area will vary in accordace with vulnerability to erosion of the coastal
segment in which it is located.
6.4.2 Reservation and Restricted Areas of Setback
Reservation area is nearest to the shoreline and corresponds to a “no build zone” in which only use/
activities which are absolutely essential are allowed.
Restricted Area (or soft zone) can be used for a few low impact activities . The width of the Reservation
and Restricted Areas will vary according to the vulnerability of the particular coastal segment.
6.4.3 Criteria Used in Demarcation of Setback Areas
Criteria used by the CC&CRMD in delineating setbacks for the development activities landward of the
mean High Water Mark:
• Coastal erosion rates.

• Level of user conflicts.
• Significance of cultural and archaeological sites.
• Level of the erosion rates of the wedge of the waterbodies of the “Coastal Zone”
• Statutory limitations.
• Legal status of the site.
• Extent of coast protection measures carried out.
• Protected Areas.
• Exposure to extreme natural hazards such as tidal waves,Ttsunami, cyclone, storm surge.
• Tidal variation, significant wave height and vulnerability to sea level rise.
• Geomorphological characteristics.
• Vulnerability of coastal habitats.
• Level of development.
• Significance of other natural characteristic such as scenic beauty, naturalist and recreational and
environmental service values.
• National security considerations.
6.4.4 Permissible uses in the Reservation Area
Director General CC&CRMD may issue permits to persons engaged in the following activities if it can be
proven that the activity concerned will not have any significant adverse impacts on the particular coastal
segment or on the adjacent segments and shall not obstruct vertical and lateral access to and along the
beach.
• Coast protection structures which comply with the coastal erosion management s t r a t e g y o f t h e
CC&CRMD;
• Jetties, piers, cable lines, and slipways;
• Submerged sea water intakes, tube-wells and related structures;
• Removal of navigational obstructions;
• Extraction of minerals of commercial value;

• Submerged communication, waste disposal, power generation, sand replenishment, gas and oil
distribution and other public facilities in the near-shore;
• Submerged navigational facilities in the near-shore;
• Conservation activities for enhancing aesthetic value and stabilization of the coastal a reaas approved
by the CC&CRMD;
• Temporary structures for a period not exceeding six (6) months exclusively for fisheries activities
at the gazetted Madel Padu (Beach Seine Fishing) locations identified in the Gazette Notification
No.337/48 of February 21, 1985 provided the following criteria are met:
- roof: cadjan, Illuk, canvas, cloth or tar sheets,
- walls: cadjan, planks, plant leaves, bamboo, canvas, plastic or paper materials,
- floor: sand, mud, clay (non processed) or wood,
- foundation: no permanent foundation (piles, concrete or brick) and
- other environmental friendly structures,
- width of the structure: should be less than 30% of the width of the beach and the length of the
structure should be less than 10 m (33 f).
• Facilities for Madel Padus planned and provided by DFAR;
• Reclamation to provide additional buffers;
• Water front development in compliance with the guidelines and criteria spelt out by the CC&CRMD
in specified coastal segments;
• Tsunami domes, alarm towers, life saving observatory towers.
6.4.5 Permissible uses in the Restricted (Soft) Area
Whilst it is good management practice to leave the restricted area free from any development activity, this
may not always be socially acceptable in view of the already existing land use patterns, very high population
densities and the small land parcel sizes within the coastal zone. Hence a less stringent management
strategy will be required. While industrial structures of any kind will not be permitted, constructions within
the restricted area will be limited to dwellings and tourism related activities, provided however that such
dwellings or tourism related development do not restrict vertical and lateral access
6.4.6 Setback Exemptions
An exemption implies a significant deviation from the intent of the setback guidelines stipulated in this
Plan. Exemptions will only be granted if public interest warrants it. Exemptions may be granted by the
Director General only if the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management Advisory Council
(CC&CRM AC) determines that there are compelling reasons for allowing an exemption and recommends
such exemption.Exemptions are granted to engage in restricted activities within the setback area only if
and when the applicant has demonstrated that they meet specific criteria. The following criteria will be
considered for granting exemptions.
Criteria for granting setback exemptions
 The proposed activity should be served for a public purpose, which provides benefits to the public as a
whole asopposed to individual or private interests. The activity must be one or more of the following:
• Associated with public infrastructure such as utility, energy, communications, and transportation
facilities;
• Water dependent, generating substantial economic gain to the community, or provides better
public access to the shore.
• Associated with national security.
• Related to environmental improvement interventions such as city beautification and landscaping
• Hazard mitigation measure that leads to protect lives and property
 All reasonable steps will be taken to minimize negative environmental impacts and/or user conflicts
 There are no reasonable alternative location for serving the compelling public purpose stated.

6.4.7 Setback Variances
A variance implies a reduction of setback guidelines stipulated in this plan. Unlike in the case of an
exemption, private interests may seek set back variations. However, they may be granted only if the following
criteria are met. Variances may be granted by the Director General only if the Coast Conservation and
Coastal Resources Management Advisory Council (CC&CRMAC) determine that there are compelling
reasons for allowing a variance and recommends it.

The following criteria will be considered for granting variance from set-back requirements
Criteria for granting variances from setback requirements
• The proposed development activity is strictly limited to the Restricted (Soft) Area;
• The proposed alteration will not lead to any significant adverse environmental impacts or user
conflicts. To establish the degree of environmental impact the Coast Conservation and Coastal
Resources Management Advisory Council (CC&CRM AC) shall consider the following:
o existing erosion rates in the area in which the proposed variance is requested;
o the degree to which the activity for which the variance is proposed might reasonably be
expected to accelerate erosion rates;
o the degree to which impacts associated with the activity for which the variance is proposed
will adversely affect coastal habitats in the vicinity;
o the degree to which geomorphological characteristics of the site, such as rocks, vegetation,
or dunesreduce, or amplify potential adverse impacts;
o the elevation of the proposed site shall be considered based on the stability and land form
of the particular site
o the reciprocal effects of the proposed activity and existing coast protection structures; and
o the type of precedent that is set by a decision on this variance application.

• Due to conditions at the site in question, the setback standard will cause the applicant an undue
hardship.
• The variance requested by the applicant is the minimum necessary to relieve an undue hardship.
• The undue hardship is not the result of any prior action of the applicant.
• Degree of variance should not exceed 50% of the stipulated restricted area (other than water
dependent activities).
6.4.8 Control of the public usage of foreshore
1. Prohibited activities of the foreshore
 All development activities for the private purposes

 Construction of fences within the foreshore
 Planting of trees
 Discharge of waste water and solid waste
 Construction activities using containers and non-operative fishing vessels or equipments
2. Permisable uses for public purposes and related to national development within the foreshoe
 Beach scene operation and huts for madal operation
 Ocean outfalls, inlets
 Structures related to Ports and fisheries harbours
 Life saving towers
 Underwater cables and communication lines
 Other projects approved by the CC & CRMD
6.4.9 Guidelines for Issuing Permits for Refurbishments and Expansion of Existing Structures
As consequence to the urban development and expansion, historic, cultural and sentimental values and
the prevailing land scarcity and the higher land prices within the coastal zone, a tendency could be seen
on expanding and refurbishing the existing buildings within the coastal zone. When CC&CRMD issues
development permits for such development activities contradictions an ambiguity on prevailing set-back
standards is inevitable. To avoid such situations, following guidelines shall apply for the refurbishment
and expansion of existing buildings within the coastal zone.
(a) The present floor area of the ground floor of the existing building should not be increased or
expanded.
(b) Expansion of the ground floor of the existing buildings will not be allowed if adequate space is
not available for delineating the stipulated set-back of the relevant coastal segment.
(c) No septic tanks, swimming pools, seawalls or other structures will be located towards the sea side
of the building.
(d) If the existing building structures possess historic religious or archeological value, prior approval
of the Department of Archaeology is required for any modification or expansion.
(e) Approval of the refurbishments or expansion plans of the existing buildings should comply with
the waterfront development plans and the coast protection plans if any.
6.4.10 Guidelines for Water front and Island development for tourism and recreational activities
The major environmental and socio-economic issues that could be appeared due to establishment of water
bungalows and island development for tourism and recreational activities may vary and appear in the
following areas;
• Low level of environment threshold (ability to withstand stresses) due to fragile nature of
environmental resources.
• Limitation of the carrying capacities
• Potential effects of construction of coastal structures such as jetties, berthing facilities and other
marine structures (obstructions to sand movement around the islands, alteration of current movement
due to dredging, sedimentation of the corals, sea grass and other marine habitat, destruction of
marine habitats due to dredging and other construction in the water areas).
• Construction of additional protective structures to minimize damages
• Removal of native vegetation causing changes to erosion and accretion pattern.
• Accumulation of solid and liquid waste
• User conflicts between traditional fishing activities and tourism related activities
• Absence of historical data and information on coastal process and changes of the islands
In view of the significant negative impacts that could be appeared due to establishment of water bungalows
and island development for tourism and recreation within the “coastal zone” , following guidelines shall
apply for issuing permits.
1. Permit will be issued for such development activity based on the findings of an EIA or IEE procedures
adopted in compliance with the existing legal provisions (CC&CRM Act and National Environment
Act) on case by case basis.
2. Based on the findings of an EIA or IEE an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) has to be
prepared and implemented by the respective developer to ensure sustainable management of the
coastal environment.
3. Water front development activities shall not be located in/or adjacent to the live coral reef areas
and sea grass beds.
4. Water front development activities shall not be allowed within 1.6km radius of a National Park
declared by the Department of Wild life Conservation.
5. Siting of waterfront development activities in sanctuaries or marine protected areas will be permitted
by DWC case by case basis on the nature and the potential impacts of the project
6. Water front development will be restricted 500m of the water body and the riparian land from the
riverine estuary, lagoon or a canal mouth.
7. All water front development to be located within rivers, streams and other water bodies under the
purview of irrigation will be permitted subject to approval of the Department of Irrigation.
8. Approval should be obtained from the Central Environmental Authority for all development activities
to be located within a designated “Environmental Protected Areas” (EPA’s)
9. An Environmental Protection License (EPL) should be obtained from the Central Environmental
Authority for discharge, emit or deposit any waste within the “coastal zone from” the water front
development activities.
10. The traditional fishing activities, fishing grounds and fish migratory routes shall not be disturbed
by the proposed waterfront development activities.
11. Waterfront development within small islands shall be permitted only if adequate service area is
available in the main land (terrestrial area).
12. No waterfront development activities shall be permitted in the areas subject to security restrictions
or specific measures imposed for national security.
13. The necessary approval should be obtained from the District Secretary and respective land
commissioner for the use of the bottom or bed the lagoon or the sea.
14. Any development activity shall not be permitted within the “Conservation Areas” or “Affected
Areas” declared under the Coast Conservation & Coastal Resources Management Act, No. 57 of
1981.
15. Special provisions should be provided to ensure public access within the islands.
16. All precautionery measures /Evacuation plans should be submitted by the developer to minimize
the impacts of natural hazard
6.4.11 Guidelines for floating restaurants, Recreational Floats and overwater structures
The floating and over water structures for recreational activities within the coastal zone of Sri Lanka are
not very significant yet. But with the current development trends and the diversification needs emerged
pertaining to the tourism industry, emphasis will be placed on development such facilities in the near future.
Although these structures are important for tourism and recreation, they also can have negative impact on
traditional socio-economic activities, shoreline ecology, aesthetic and navigation. Therefore, to ensure the
sustainable tourism and recreational activities within the coastal zone following guidelines will applicable
for construction and establishment of floating restaurant, leisure homes(boathouse) or related overwater
structures such as decks, piers and recreational floats.
1. The floating restaurants, leisure homes (boathouse) or related overwater structures such as decks, piers
and recreational floats in the coastal waters within the coastal zone will allow only in the specific
locations identified by the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Department
(CC&CRMD).
2. The preliminary proposal should be submitted to the CC&CRMD prior to formulation of the detail
proposal to avoid delays in the approval process.
3. All the proposals for floating structures related to tourism and recreational is subjected to EIA/IEE
process.
4. Floating restaurants, boathouses and recreational platforms are not permitted rest on the lagoon or
a sea bed (substrate)
5. No floating structures including recreational platforms for fishing and swimming is not permitted
where coral reefs and sea grass beds are located and adjacent to the turtle nesting areas.
6. The floating restaurants, leisure homes (boathouse) or related overwater structures such as decks,
piers and recreational floats will not be permitted in areas declared as conservation areas, affected
areas and areas identified for mineral extraction including sand.
7. The floating structures for tourism and recreational activities will not be permitted close proximity
to the beach scene areas or other traditional fishing practices (such as stake net and still fishing)
taking place.
8. Dumping of solid or liquid waste into the coastal waters or adjacent water bodies will not be permitted.
9. Moorage facilities should not interfere with legal public access to the shoreline or use of the shoreline.
10. Wood treated with toxic compounds should not be used for decking, pilings or other in-water
components.
11. Application of artificial night lighting should be avoided as much as possible by focusing the light
on the dock surface, and using shades that minimize illumination of the surrounding environment.
12. All foam material whether used for floatation or for any other purpose related to the structure must
be encapsulated within a shell that prevents breakup or loss of the foam material into the water and
is not readily subject to damage by ultraviolet radiation or abrasion.
13. Floating structures should be located minimum 10 meters of native aquatic vegetation
14. To ensure safety of the coastal water users and to curtail safety hazards floating structures should
be adequately marked with reflectors .
15. No floating resturants or recreational platforms are permitted to locate in close proximity to the
defence establishment.
6.4.12 Set-backs for Artificial Island, Reclaimed Coastal Land
In view of the requirement of EIA or IEE for such development, appropriate set-back or the buffer area
will be determined based on case by case basis.
6.5 Setback Area for the development activities in the riparian land of the water bodies:
In the case of riparian land of the water bodies (rivers, streams, lagoons etc.), setback area can be defined as an
area in which certain activities are prohibited or restricted. The setback area for the riparian land of the water
bodies is delineated from the Full Supply Level (FSL), Mean High Tide Levels, or edge of the bank of the water
body towards landwards or as may be determined based on the site conditions.
A sufficient set-back shoud be delineated for the development activities within the riparian land of the rivers,
streams cannels and lagoons.Traditionally, demarcating reservations for water bodies has been practiced by the
Irrigation Department for development activities located in the riparian land of the water bodies. In considering
the bio-physical characteristics of the water bodies, set-back areas are defined under the following three major
categories;
 Lagoons and riverine estuaries connected to the sea
 Major rivers connected to the sea
 Other water bodies connected to the sea
6.5.1 “No Development Zone” and “Restricted Development Zone”:
In view of the level of vulnerability and bio-physical characteristics of the estuarine water areas and the
riparian land located in close proximity to the mouths of the rivers, lagoons and the other water bodies
are designated as either “No Development Zone” or “Restricted Development Zone” as follows;
 The water area of 500m from the mouth towards upstream of the lagoons and major rivers are
designated as “Restricted Development Zones” (RDZ).
 All rivers, lagoons and other water bodies located in the coastal zone of the protected Areas are
designated as “No Development Zones” (NDZ).
 A 500 m linear segment of riparian land extending towards the interior area from the mouth of major
rivers as specified in the “Restricted/No Development Zone”.
6.5.2 Set-back for riparian land of the major rivers canals and streams
Aset-back or structure free reservation will be applied for development activities in the riparian land of
rivers located within the coastal zone in conformity with the Government Land Regulation (1) No.9912
of 1948.10.15 and guidelines/standards practiced/stipulated by the Department of Irrigation. The river side
reference point is from the edge of the river bank or the FSL(Full Supply Level). The river categories are
as follows;
River Category Width

 Major River (width more than 15 m)

 Medium size River (width of 5m - 15 m)

 Small River and other canals (width less than 5 m)
Reservations used by Department of Irrigation will be appled for development activities in the riperian
land of rivers and canals .
However, if there is no reservation stipulated for riperian land of rivers and canals by the Irrigation Department
or any other law , CC & CRM Department will be decided the reservation for the riperian land of rivers
and canals within the coastal zone.
6.5.3. Set-back for Riparian Land of the Lagoons
A minimum of 10 meter set-back is required for the development activities in the riparian land of the lagoons
within the coastal zone . However,in view of the complex nature and bio-physical variations of the riparian
land lying within the coastal zone of the lagoons, a set-back exceeding 10 meters could be delineated by
the Director General Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management as appropriate.
6.5.4 Reference points with respect to the riparian land of the water bodies:
Lagoon side Reference point: Full Supply Level (FSL) or the Mean High Tide line of the lagoon waters.
River side Reference Point: Edge of the river bank or the Full Supply Level (FSL) of the river.
Canals and other water ways: Edge of the canal or stream bank or edge of the bank protection structure.
6.5.5 Guidelines for issuing permits for reclamation within the Riperian Land of the water Bodies
• No reclamation activities will be permitted in the extended coastal zone except for conservation and
stabilization of river banks, edge of the lagoon and the other water bodies.
• Reclamation of riparian land of the water bodies will be considered for the purpose of national
security and urban beautification programmes.
• No solid waste or e-waste dumping sites will be located in the riparian land of the water bodies
• Reclamation of riparian land of the water bodies will not be permitted landward area of 20 m from
the bank of thewater bodies .
6.6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA) AND INITIAL ENVIRONMENTAL

EXAMINATION (IEE)
The legal provisions made for the requirement of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) stated under the section
16 of the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Act has been amended by the Coast Conservation
(Amendment) Act, No. 49 of 2011as follows;
“Upon receipt of an application for a permit to engage in a development activity within the coastal zone as required
by subsection (3) of section 14, the Director General may require the applicant to furnish an Initial Environmental
Examination (IEE) report or an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) report relating to the development activity
as the case may be or both such reports. It shall be the duty of the applicant to comply with such requirement”.
In compliance with the above legal provision, when an application is received for a permit to engage in a development
activity within the Coastal Zone, the Director General Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management will
determine whether such activity requires an EIA or IEE. Although the Director General has discretionary powers,
indetermining the requirements of an EIA or IEE, the CC&CRMD will consult the CEA where necessary and due
consideration will be given to the list of prescribed projects under the NEA. It shall be the duty of the applicant to
comply with the relevant requirements.
6.6.1 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) has been defined in the Coast Conservation Act as follows:
“A written analysis of the predicted environmental consequences of a proposed development activity, and
unavoidable adverse environmental effects of the proposed development activity, a description of alternatives
to the activity which might be less harmful to the environment of the Coastal Zone, together with reasons
why such alternatives were rejected, and a description of any irreversible or irretrievable commitments of
resources required by the proposed development activity.”
An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) report will be required in case of a Project that is considered
by the Director General to have significant impactson the coastal environment or determined based on the
adequacy of an Initial Environmental Examination(IEE) report. The terms of reference (TOR) for the EIA
will be prepared by the CC&CRMD inconsultation with the related agencies on the basis of a consolidated
review process and will be provided to the proponent of the project. It is the responsibility of the applicant
to prepare the EIA in conformity with the given TOR and the general guidelines for the preparation of an
EIA that are given above. The developers are advised to consult with CC&CRMD during the design and
preparation of the EIA. This will enable the CC&CRMD to assist the developer to prepare a concise, cost
effective EIA that focuses on the most relevant issues.
On receipt of an EIA from the developer, the Director shall submit a copy of the EIA to the Coast Conservation
and Coastal Resource Management Advisory Council (CC&CRMAC) for comments. The Director shall
also publish a notice in the Gazette and in one newspaper each in Sinhala, Tamil and English, indicating
the place and time; the EIA can be inspected by the public and invite the public to submit their comments
within30 days.The CC& CRM AC will submit its comments to the Director General within 60 days. The
Director shall consider all comments received and within 60 days of receipt of comments make a decision
whethera permit can be issued and the conditions thereof (Figure 6.3).
Filing of Permit application with

CC&CRMD
Initial permit review process and site

inspection to determine If IEE or EIA
required
Director General determines EIA or No EIA or IEE required

IEE required
EIA required IEE required

Apply CZCRM Plan guidelines and
standards. Request observations
IEE from prescribe project or IEE or EIA
from other agencies
EIA from
developer required
developer
Review of EIA by
CC&CRMD,CC&CRMAC& Review of IEE by CC&CRMD
Public and CC&CRM AC
Not satisfactory, Review EIA, IEE of permit

more information application for
needed completeness
Satisfactory
Permit Decision
by CC&CRMD
Permit conditionally
granted or denied
Permit Granted
Appeal to Secretary of
Ministry
Monitoring
Permit granted or
Permit denied
with conditions
Monitoring
FIGURE 6.3: PROCEDURE FOR REVIEWING AND

ISSUING DEVELOPMENT PERMITS
6.6.2 Initial Environmental Examination (IEE)
In issuing a permit, the Director is required to ensure that the development activity will not have an
adverse effect on the environmental quality of the Coastal Zone and sustainability of the coastal resources.
To ensure this, the Director may request the developer to submit an Initial Environmental Examination
report in accordance with the legal provisions of the Section 16 (1) of the Coast Conservation and Coastal
Resource Management Act amended by Coast Conservation Act No. 49 of 2011.The Initial Environmental
Examination Report (IEE) is defined in the Amendment Act as follows:
“Initial Environmental Report means a written report wherein possible impacts of the development activity
on the environment shall be assessed with a view to determining whether such impacts are significant, and
therefore requires the preparation of an environmental impact assessment report and such report shall
contain all details and , descriptions, data, maps, designs and other information which is relevant to the
development activity”.
Apart from the prescribed development activities for which an IEE report would not be necessary, an
Initial Environmental Report will be required in the case of development activities that is considered to
have significant impacts on the coastal environment and the resources as described in “Guidance for
Implementingthe Environmental Impact Assessment Process”. It is the responsibility of the applicant
to prepare the IEE. The general guidelines for the preparation of an IEE are given below. A check list and
terms of reference for an IEE will be prepared by CC&CRMD in consultation with the relevant agencies
and will be conveyed to the developer.
On receipt of an IEE, the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resource Management Department will review
the report and if the report is sufficient to make a decision to issue or not issue the permit, a copy of such
report should be submitted to the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Advisory Council for its
comments. The council shall furnish its comments to the Director General within thirty days. If the IEE report
is insufficient to make a decision, the Director General shall request an EIA from the project proponent.
6.6.3 General guidelines for preparation of Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) and Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA)
(a) Description of proposed activity
(i) Description of the nature aims and scope of proposed activity;

(ii) Description of the methodology to be adopted during construction operation and maintenance;
(iii) Description of proposed project’s socio-economic and ecological benefits/costs; and,
(iv) Description of the long-term monitoring program for the proposed activity.
(b) Site description
(i) A description of the area within which the activity, development or operation is proposed to besited
and its environs should include:
• Location of proposed activity marked on a 1 inch to 1 mile map or 1:50,000 metric sheet;
• A copy of map produced through Google Earth to show details of the site
• A site map at a scale suitable to show the proposed activity;
• Delineation of coastal habitats as defined in Chapter 3 and their ecological state;

• Proximity to water bodies;
• Existing land use and other human activities;
• Any high priority archaeological historic and cultural sites within the Coastal Zone as listed in
table 6.4 and any high priority recreational sites
• Other relevant information
(c) Description of potential impacts
(i) The description of potential impacts should include the foreseeable direct and indirect, long-term
and short-term effects of the activity on the Coastal Zone and its resources. In this context short-
term and long term do not necessarily refer to any fixed time periods, but should be viewed in
terms of the environmentally significant consequences of the proposed action. Any irreversible or
irretrievable commitments of resources should be identified. The description should include the
potential impacts on the following:
• Coastal habitats described in Chapter 3;
• Quality and quantity of coastal waters;
• Past and present land use patterns;
• The abundance and diversity of plant and animal life;
• Erosion and depositional processes along the shore;
• Water circulation, flushing, turbidity and sedimentation;
• Freshwater runoff patterns and/or saltwater intrusion;
• Areas of archaeological, historic, cultural, and scenic significance; and,
• Public access to and along the shore and to coastal waters.
• Consequences on national security aspects
(d) Proposed mitigation measures
A statement setting out proposed measures to minimise impacts and a statement on the effectiveness of
the proposed measure should be provided. If alternative measures are considered,these should be stated
and reasons for selection of the proposed mitigation measures given.
(e) Additional requirements
The Director General / Scoping Committee may, on a case-by-case basis, specify other particulars to
be included in the IEE or EIA.The procedures for obtaining a CC&CRMD permit are summarized in
Figure 6.3. In the case of development activities that do not require an EIA, a decision on the application
will usually be made within three weeks of receiving all the required information. Consultation with
the CC&CRMD and reading this plan and appropriate references early in the project planning stage
are advised to facilitate the permit process.
.6.7 MONITORING PROCEDURES
As per the amendments made to the principle Act of the Coast Conservation, the geographic extent of the coastal
zone has been extended inclusion of riparian land of the water bodies. Thus, the controlling of development activities
also increases accordingly. In this context, monitoring of compliance is critical requirement for the management of
the Coastal Zone and its resources. In considering the above requirement, improved guidelines have been provided
in this Coastal Zone and Coastal Resources Management Plan in order to facilitate compliance monitoring.The main
objectives of compliance monitoring carried out by the CC&CRMD is to:
• Determine whether approved permits meet the standards and guidelines stipulated in the Coastal Zone
& Coastal Resource Management Plan;
• Determine the adequacy of CZM guidelines and standards in achieving CZM goals;
• Detect potential or existing inconsistencies between permit decisions and the goals of the CZ&CRM Plan,
and
• Evaluate the performance of the regional and local level officials of the CCCRMD and the sufficiency of
resources at the local level;
• Determine the effectiveness, adequacy and support of the other agencies in CZM policy implementation.
The CC&CRMD will apply one or more of the following monitoring tools to ensure degree of compliance with
permit conditions:
• Periodic inspection by CC&CRMD officials during key stages of the implementation of the activity using
astandard checklist,
• An information network based on formal and informal complaints for detecting violations in order to initiate
enforcement action against violators,
• Conduct of permit monitoring compliance surveys on an annual basis including conditions imposed through
EIA and IEE procedures,
• Cumulative Impact Assessment Monitoring emphasizing the collective and incremental impacts of numerous
individual permit decisions spread over time and space in each coastal segment,
• Verification of required developer reports, surveys, tests stipulated by CEA or any other agencies, relevant
to the development activity; and
• Verification of Certificates of Conformity required from local authority or other designated agency that the
permit conditions have been adhered to.
Setbacks for Development Activities in the Coastal Zone
Table 6.1 Setback standards for development activities in the coastal zone by segment and vulnerability
Segment Level of Vul-

Proposed Setback (M)
No. Segments Source Map Latitute Longitute nerability
Reservation Restricted Total Setback
Vellai, Palliyamulla,Baththalangunduwa and Other Islands
8°32'26.82"N 79°46'56.70"E
1 (Islands Around Kalpitiya Peninsula) Puttalam High(+) 60 60
8°24'19.50"N 79°48'44.76"E

2 Uchchamunai to 8°23'01.20"N 79°47'14.90"E 25 35
Puttalam High(+) 60
Mohoththuwaram (Mohoththuwaram Split Northern Boundary) 8°15'00.60"N 79°44'20.20"E

Mohoththuwaram (Mohoththuwaram Split Northern Boundary)
8°15'00.60"N 79°44'20.20"E
to
Puttalam No Build Zone No Build Zone
3 Mohoththuwaram / Kudawa Split Southern Boundary
8°13'41.50"N 79°43'52.10"E
(Conservation /No Build Zone)

Mohoththuwaram/Kudawa Split Southern Boundary
8°13'41.50"N 79°43'52.10"E 25 35
4 ( Kudawa Start Point ) to Puttalam High(+) 60
Udappuwa South (Cemetery ) 7°44'17.50"N 79°47'29.70"E

5 Udappuwa South (Cemetery ) to 7°44'17.50"N 79°47'29.70"E 20 35
Puttalam High (-) 55
Daduru Oya Mouth Northern Boundary 7°37' 06.70"N 79°47'56.50"E

Daduru Oya Mouth Northern Boundary to 7°37'06.70"N 79°47'56.50"E
No Build Zone
6 Chilaw Cemetery End Point (Conservation Zone / No Build Puttalam No Build Zone
7°35'48.90" N 79°47'11.60"E
Zone)

7 Chilaw Cemetery End Point to 7° 35'48.90" N 79°47'11.60"E 15 30
Puttalam Medium(-) 45
Clilaw Beach Park Northern Boundary 7° 34'53.50"N 79°47'14.30"E

8 Clilaw Beach Park Northern Boundary to 7°34' 53.50"N 79°47'14.30"E 20 30
Puttalam Medium (+) 50
North Thoduwawa River Mouth 7°29' 31.60"N 79°47'49.90"E

North Thoduwawa River Mouth to 7°29' 31.60"N 79°47'49.90"E
20 35
9 Modarawella Marawila Gembarandiya Lagoon Mouth (Club Puttalam High (-) 55
7°25'58.20"N 79°48'39.10"E
Palm Bay Hotel)
I fldgi ( Î& fPoh - YS% ,xld m%cd;dka;s%l iudcjd§ ckrcfha w;s úfYI .eiÜ m;%h - 2018'05'25

Modarawella Marawila Gembarandiya Lagoon Mouth (Club
7°25'58.20"N 79°48'39.10"E 20 30
10 Palm Bay Hotel) to Puttalam Medium (+) 50
Nainamadama Wellamankaraya Gin Oya River Mouth 7°18'12.05"N 79°50'14.16"E
119A
Segment Level of Vul- Proposed Setback (M)
Reservation Restructed Total Setback 120A
11 NainamadamaWellamankaraya Gin Oya River Mouth to Puttalam / 7°18'12.05"N 79°50'14.16"E
Medium(-) 15 30 45
Negombo Luice Place Bolanji Road Gampaha 7°13'18.70"N 79°50'19.50"E

12 Negombo Luice Place Bolanji Road to 7°13'18.70"N 79°50'19.50"E 15 25
Gampaha Low (+) 40
Duwa Pitipanaweediya Mora Wala 7°12'13.00"N 79°49'02.50"E

Duwa Pitipanaweediya Mora Wala to Gampaha/ 7°12'13.00"N 79°49'02.50"E
13 Colombo Medium(-) 15 30 45
Dikovita Harbour North Boundary 7°00'34.80"N 79°51'55.50"E

14 Dikovita Harbour North Boundary to 7°00'34.80"N 79°51'55.50"E 20 30
Colombo Medium (+) 50
Galleface Hotel Kollupitiya 6°55'14.40"N 79°50'43.60"E

15 Galleface Hotel Kollupitiya to 6°55'14.40"N 79°50'43.60"E 10 25
Colombo Low (-) 35
Wellawatta Railway Bridge 6°52'44.40"N 79°51'24.10"E

16 Wellawatta Railway Bridge to 6°52'44.40"N 79°51'24.10"E 15 30
Colombo Medium(-) 45
Mount Lavinia Hotel 6°50'06.00"N 79°51'46.10"E

17 Mount Lavinia Hotel to 6°50'06.00"N 79°51'46.10"E 15 25
Colombo Low (+) 40
Panadura River Mouth (Moratuwa Fishery Habour) 6°43'05.70"N 79°54'05.60"E

18 Panadura River Mouth (Moratuwa Fishery Habour) to 6°43'05.70"N 79°54'05.60"E 15 30
Kalutara Medium(-) 45
Pinwatta Thalpitiya Outlet 6°40'56.76"N 79°55'02.46"E

19 Pinwatta Thalpitiya Outlet to 6°40'56.76"N 79°55'02.46"E
Kalutara Low (+) 15 25 40
Kalutara Kalido Beach Strip Northern Boundary 6°35'15.60"N 79°57'17.30"E

Kalutara Kalido Beach Strip Northern Boundary to 6°35'15.60"N 79°57'17.30"E
20 Avani Hotel Katukurunda (Southward Boundary of Kalutara Kalutara No Build Zone No Build Zone
6°34'14.60"N 79°57'33.90"E
Estuary) (Proposed to Kalido Strip as a Conservation Zone)

Avani Hotel Katukurunda (Southward Boundary of Kalutara
6°34'14.60"N 79°57'33.90"E
21 Estuary) to Kalutara Medium (+) 20 30 50
Payagala South Railway Crossing 6°31'14.80"N 79°58'42.80"E

22 Payagala South Railway Crossing to 6°31'14.80"N 79°58'42.80"E 15 25
Kalutara Low (+) 40

Beruwala Kechchimale Mosque 6°28'13.40"N 79°58'24.47"E
Reservation Restructed Total Setback
Beruwala Kechchimale Mosque to Kalutara/ 6°28'13.40"N 79°58'24.47"E
23 Galle Medium (+) 20 30 50
Induruwa Headland (Saman Villa Hotel) 6°23'41.70"N 80°00'13.34"E

24 Induruwa Headland (Saman Villa Hotel) to 6°23'41.70"N 80°00'13.34"E 15 30

Galle Medium(-) 45
Madu Ganga River Mouth 6°16'26.40"N 80°02'06.60"E

25 Madu Ganga River Mouth to 6°16'26.40"N 80°02'06.60"E 15 25

Galle Low (+) 40
Hikkaduwa Fishery Habour 6°08'27.29"N 80°05'56.44"E

26 Hikkaduwa Fishery Habour to 6°08'27.29"N 80°05'56.44"E

Galle 10 25 35
Gintota River Mouth 6°03'49.10"N 80°10'26.00"E Low (-)

27 Gintota River Mouth to 6°03'49.10"N 80°10'26.00"E 15 25

Galle Low (+) 40
Dadalla Light House Hotel 6°02'28.71"N 80°11'40.82"E

28 Dadalla Light House Hotel to 6°02'28.71"N 80°11'40.82"E 10 25

Galle Low (-) 35
Galle Cement Factory Bridge 6°01'39.20"N 80°14'37.40"E

29 Galle Cement Factory Bridge to 6°01'39.20"N 80°14'37.40"E 15 25

Galle Low (+) 40
UnawatunaWelledewalaya 6°00'23.30"N 80°14'37.70"E

30 Unawatuna Welledewalaya to 6°00'23.30"N 80°14'37.70"E 10 25

Galle Low (-) 35
Unawatuna Dalawella Mitton Hotel 6°00'18.40"N 80°15'20.10"E

31 Unawatuna Dalawella Mitton Hotel to 6°00'18.40"N 80°15'20.10"E 15 30

Galle Medium(-) 45
Goviyapana Bridge 5°57'56.40"N 80°22'53.20"E

32 Goviyapana Bridge to 5°57'56.40"N 80°22'53.20"E 10 25

Matara Low (-) 35
Madiha East 5°56'12.1"N 80°30'46.7" E

121A
No. Segments Source Map Latitute Longitute nerability 122A
33 Madiha East to 5°56'12.1"N 80°30'46.7" E 10 25

Matara Low (-) 35
Matara Rest House 5°56'35.8"N 80°32'51.2" E

Matara Rest House to 5°56'35.8"N 80°32'51.2" E
34 Matara Low (+) 15 25 40
5°55'12.8"N 80°35'35.0" E
Devinuwara Light House

Devinuwara Light House to Matara 5°55'12.8"N 80°35'35.0" E
Goyambokka Peace Heaven Hotel Headland (Julgahawel-
Low (-) 10 25 35
35 la Fishing Landing Site) Hambantota 6°00'44.92"N 80°47'13.50"E

Goyambokka Peace Heaven Hotel Headland (Julgahawel-
6°00'44.92"N 80°47'13.50"E
36 la Fishing Landing Site) to Hambantota Low (+) 15 25 40
Rakawa West 6°02'34.19"N 80°51'38.27"E

37 Rakawa West to 6°02'34.19"N 80°51'38.27"E 20 30

Hambantota Medium (+) 50
Kalamatiya Henagahapugala 6°04'34.40"N 80°56'07.90"E

Kalamatiya Henagahapugala to 6°04'34.40"N 80°56'07.90"E
38 Ussangoda Wild Life National Park Southern Boundary Hambantota High(+) 25 35 60
6°05'13.20"N 80°58'36.40"E
(Lunama Side) (Kalamatiya Wild Life Sanctuary Area)

Ussangoda Wild Life National Park Southern Boundary
6°05'13.20"N 80°58'36.40"E
(Lunama Side) to
Ussangoda Wild Life National Park Northern Boundary Hambantota 300 300
39 (Close to Ussangoda Fishery Harbor) Ussangoda Wild 6° 05'43.00"N 80°59'23.90"E
Life National Park
Ussangoda Wild Life National Park Northern Boundary

6° 05'43.00"N 80°59'23.90"E
(Close to Ussangoda Fishery Harbor) to
Hambantota Low (+) 40
40 Godawaya Walawe River Mouth (Close to CC&CRMD 15 25
6°06'28.00"N 81°03'02.50"E
Office)

Segment Proposed Setback (M)
Level of Vul-
No. Segments Source Map Latitute Longitute
nerability Reservation Restricted Total Setback
Godawaya Walawe River Mouth (Close to CC &CRMD

6°06'28.00"N 81°03'02.50"E
41 Office) to Hambantota Medium (+) 20 30 50
Hambantota Sea Port Southern Boundary (Mirijjawila) 6° 06'53.16"N 81° 5'43.98"E

Hambantota Sea Port Northern Boundary(Target Road
6°07'23.10"N 81°07'36.40"E
42 Hambantota) to Hambantota High(+) 25 35 60
Bundala National Park Southern Boundary Hambantota 6° 08'01.51"N 81°07'59.32"E

43 Sub Zone - Hambantota Fishery Habour to 6°07'27.00"N 81°07'34.80"E
Hambantota Low (-) 15 25 40
Hambantota Bombu Canal Outlet 6°07'50.60"N 81°07'43.20"E

44 Bundala National Park Southern Boundary Hambantota to 6° 08'01.51"N 81°07'59.32"E
Hambantota 300 300
Kirindi Oya River Mouth (Bundala National Park) 6°11'46.70"N 81°17'44.90"E

Kirindi Oya River Mouth to 6°11'46.70"N 81°17'44.90"E
45 Kirinda Andagala Healand Start Point (Close to Andagala Hambantota High(+) 45 80 125
6°12'09.30"N 81°19'27.50"E
Modara)

Kirinda Andagala Healand Start Point (Close to Andagala
6°12'09.30"N 81°19'27.50"E
46 Modara) to Hambantota Low (+) 25 40 65
Kirinda Temple Rock 6°11'55.91"N 81°19'27.12"E

Kirinda Temple Rock to 6°11'55.91"N 81°19'27.12"E
47 Yala Palatupana Sltda Tourism Zone End Point Hambantota High(+) 45 80 125
6°16'26.67"N 81°25'11.56"E
(Gode(Kalapuwa)Lagoon Boundary)

Yala Palatupana SLTDA Tourism Zone End Point (Go-
Hambantota 6°16'26.67"N 81°25'11.56"E
48 de(Kalapuwa) Lagoon Boundary) to 300 300
Yala National Park Northern Boundary (Okanda) Ampara 6°21'46.50"N 81°31'44.00"E
Yala National Park Northern Boundary (Okanda) to 6°21'46.50"N 81°31'44.00"E 45 80

49 Ampara High(+) 125
Panama Lagoon Mouth Becon Lamp Rock 6° 46'02.61" N 81°49'32.37"E
50 Panama Lagoon Mouth Becon Lamp Rock to 6° 46'02.61" N 81°49'32.37"E 35 60

Ampara Medium (+) 95
Kudakalli Crocadile Rock (Hada Oya River Mouth) 6° 48' 32.71"N 81°49'27.14"E

51 Kudakalli Crocadile Rock (Hada Oya River Mouth) to 6° 48' 32.71"N 81°49'27.14"E 45 80
Ampara High(+) 125
Arugambay Ulla Surfing Point 6° 50' 21.70"N 81°50'08.90"E
123A
Segment Level of Vulner- Proposed Setback (M)
No. Segments Source Map Latitute Longitute ability
124A
Arugambay Ulla Surfing Point to 6° 50' 21.70"N 81°50'08.90"E
52 Ampara Low (-) 20 30 50
6° 51' 03.20"N 81°49'55.10"E
Arugambay Bridge

Arugambay Bridge to 6° 51' 03.20"N 81°49'55.10"E
53 Viski Point Sand Dune Start Point (Kanahar Gramam Ampara High(+) 45 80 125
6° 55' 05.60"N 81°50'52.10"E
(326 Km Post)

Viski Point Sand Dune Start Point (Kanahar Gramam
6° 55' 05.60"N 81°50'52.10"E
54 (326 Km Post) to Ampara Medium (+) 35 60 95
Sangamankanda Point 7° 01' 21.39"N 81°52'42.46"E

Sangamankanda Point to 7° 01' 21.39"N 81°52'42.46"E
55 Thambattai (Closed toThambattai Kovil and Gayatri Ampara Medium(-) 30 50 80
7°08' 24.70"N 81°51'29.30"E
Thapovanam 354 .5 Km Post)

Thambattai (Closed to Thambattai Kovil and Gayatri
7°08' 24.70"N 81°51'29.30"E
56 Thapovanam 354.5 Km post) to Ampara High(+) 45 80 125
Alayadiwembu (Narrow Strip ) 7°12' 26.40"N 81°51'43.75"E

57 Alayadiwembu to Ampara 7°12' 26.40"N 81°51'43.75"E 25 40
Low (+) 65
Oluvil Harbour Southern Boundary 7°16' 32.70"N 81°51'49.90"E

Oluvil Harbour Northern Boundary (Close To Light
7°16' 55.20"N 81°51'59.30"E
58 House) to Ampara Medium(-) 30 50 80
Nindavur Wowal Lagoon Mouth (Theater Road ) 7°20' 02.70"N 81°51'47.30"E

59 Nindavur Wowal Lagoon Mouth (Theater Road ) to Ampara 7°20' 02.70"N 81°51'47.30"E 25 40
Low (+) 65
Baticaloa - Ampara District Boundary 7°27' 15.40"N 81°49'09.72"E

Baticaloa - Ampara District Boundary to Baticaloa/ 7°27' 15.40"N 81°49'09.72"E
60 Ampara Medium(-) 30 50 80
7°41'40.38"N 81°44'05.40"E
Kaththankudy Dean Road Al Tharika Mosque
61 Kaththankudy Dean Road Al Tharika Mosque to Baticaloa 7°41'40.38"N 81°44'05.40"E 35 60

Medium (+) 95
Kallady Beach Park (Sarawanaady Road) 7°43'05.10"N 81°43'08.80"E

62 Kallady Beach Park (Sarawanaady Road) to Baticaloa 7°43'05.10"N 81°43'08.80"E 45 80

High(+) 125
Baticaloa Light House (Paalmeenmadu) 7°45'18.50"N 81°41'07.50"E
Level of Vulner- Proposed Setback (M)
Segment
Segments Source Map Latitute Longitute ability
No.
Baticaloa Light House (Paalmeenmadu) to 7°45'18.50"N 81°41'07.50"E
63 Baticaloa Medium(-) 30 50 80
Punniyakudah Point 7°49'41.80"N 81°37'07.80"E

Punniyakudah Point to 7°49'41.80"N 81°37'07.80"E
64 Baticaloa High(+) 45 80 125
Pasikudah Fishery Landing Site 7°55'59.50"N 81°33'36.30"E

Pasikudah Fishery Landing Site to 7°55'59.50"N 81°33'36.30"E
High (-) 110
65 Baticaloa 40 70
Nasivanthive Lagoon Mouth 7°56'46.50"N 81°32'42.80"E

Nasivanthive Lagoon Mouth to 7°56'46.50"N 81°32'42.80"E
66 Baticaloa Low (+) 25 40 65
Challitivu Munai Point (Close to Challitivu Island) 8°06'36.20"N 81°27'34.70"E

Challitivu Munai Point (Close to Challitivu Island) to 8°06'36.20"N 81°27'34.70"E
67 Baticaloa Medium(-) 30 50 80
Lankapatuna 8°21'24.60"N 81°23'19.00"E

Lankapatuna to 8°21'24.60"N 81°23'19.00"E
68 Trincomalee Medium (+) 35 60 95
Foul Point (Thirukonamalai Light House) 8°31'31.57"N 81°19'07.40"E

Foul Point (Thirukonamalai Light House) to 8°31'31.57"N 81°19'07.40"E
69 Trincomalee Low (-) 20 30 50
Muthur East River Mouth (Close to Police Station) 8°27'42.60"N 81°15'33.40"E

Muthur East River Mouth (Close to Police Station) to 8°27'42.60"N 81°15'33.40"E
70 Trincomalee Medium(-) 30 50 80
Gangei Bridge 8°27'37.50"N 81°13'44.10"E

Gangei Bridge to 8°27'37.50"N 81°13'44.10"E
Irrakkandy bridge (River Mouth) 8°43'55.40"N 81°10'24.60"E


125A
Segment Level of Vulner- Proposed Setback (M)
No. Segments Source Map Latitute Longitute ability 126A
Irrakkandy bridge (River Mouth) to 8°43'55.40"N 81°10'24.60"E

Salpayaru Bridge 8°47'27.80"N 81°07'13.10"E

Salpayaru Bridge to 8°47'27.80"N 81°07'13.10"E
Kuchchaveli Puduwakattu 8° 51' 33.40"N 81° 05'6.10"E

74 Kuchchaveli Puduwakattu to Trincomalee 8° 51' 33.40"N 8° 05' 06.10"E 25 40
Low (+) 65
Kallarawa (Close to Thiriyaya Junction) 8 °53' 04.52"N 81°02'09.08"E

Kallarawa (Close to Thiriyaya Junction) to 8 °53' 04.52"N 81°02'09.08"E
Pulmude Arisimale Point 8 °56' 17.05"N 81°00'26.64"E

Pulmude Arisimale Point to 8 °56' 17.05"N 81°00'26.64"E
76 Trincomalee High(+) 45 80 125
Kokilai Lagoon Southern Boundary 8° 59' 02.80"N 80°58'00.20"E

Kokilai Lagoon Southern Boundary to 8° 59' 02.80"N 80°58'00.20"E
77 Mulative High (-) 40 70 110
Mulative Town 9° 16' 03.40"N 80°49'16.10"E

Mulative Town to 9° 16' 03.40"N 80°49'16.10"E
78 Mulative Medium(-) 30 50 80
Mulative Mohotthuwaram/ Vattuvan Lagoon 9°16' 23.80"N 80°48'47.60"E

Mulative Mohotthuwaram/ Vattuvan Lagoon to Mulative 9°16' 23.80"N 80°48'47.60"E 70
79 Naliatannitoduvay (Chundikulam National Park Southern High (-) 40 110
Kilinochchi
Boundary) 9°27'34.20"N 80°37'26.30"E
Naliatannitoduvay (Chundikulam National Park Southern

9°27'34.20"N 80°37'26.30"E
Boundary) to
80 Kilinochchi 300 300
Chundikulam National Park Northern Boundary (Kadd-
9°33'43.70"N 80°29'24.30"E
aikadut)
81 Chundikulam Northern Boundary (Kaddaikadut) to Jaffna 9°33'43.70"N 80°29'24.30"E Medium(-) 30 50 80

Mamunai Village 9° 39' 45.50"N 80°21'49.80"E

82 Mamunai Village to Jaffna 9°39'45.50"N 80°21'49.80"E High(+) 45 80 125

Thumpalai (Point Pedro) 9°49'05.00"N 80°15'16.60"E

83 Thumpalai(Point Pedro) to Jaffna 9°49'05.00"N 80°15'16.60"E 20 30

Low (-) 50
Ariyalai 9°38'11.50"N 80°04'25.40"E

84 Karaitivu Island Jaffna 9°45'43.80"N 79°53'06.70"E 30 50

Medium(-) 80
9°42'24.80"N 79°51'55.30"E

9°35'58.20"N 79°58'43.20"E
85 Mandativu Island Jaffna Low (+) 25 40 65
9°38'16.20"N 79°59'19.56"E
Allapiddy to 9°36'53.10"N 79°57'42.00"E

86 Jaffna Medium(-) 30 50 80
Velanai Iyanar Kovil 9°37'52.40"N 79°54'52.80"E
9°38'48.60"N 79°52'02.60"E 20 30
87 Kytes Island Jaffna Low (-) 50
9°42'10.90"N 79°51'45.20"E
127A
128A

88 Punkudutivu Island Jaffna 9°35'22.40"N 79°48'26.60"E 25 40
Low (+) 65
9°35'17.50"N 79°48'07.50"E

89 Nainathivu Island Jaffna 9°37'08.30"N 79°46'30.70"E
Low (+) 25 40 65
9°35'05.30"N 79°46'23.80"E

Jaffna
90 Delft Island (Delf National Park) High(+) 45 80 125
Other Island
91 Analaitivu, Eluvaitivu, Iranative and other Islands
Jaffna/ Medium(-) 30 50 80

Kilinochchi

Pooneryn Kalmunai Point to Kilinochchi 9°35'56.70"N 80°03'08.30"E 20 30
92 Low (-) 50
Pallikuda 9°29'11.10"N 80°11'08.60"E

93 Pallikuda to Kilinochchi 9°29'11.10"N 80°11'08.60"E 25 40
Low (+) 65
Devil Point 9°23'19.50"N 80°03'11.10"E

94 Devil Point to Kilinochchi 9°23'19.50"N 80°03'11.10"E 30 50
Medium(-) 80
Nachchikuda (Nawanthurai Point) 9°16'06.10"N 80°06'46.80"E

Nachchikuda (Nawanthurai Point) to Mannar 9°16'06.10"N 80°06'46.80"E 35 60
95 Medium (+) 95
PalliAru North Ward Point 9°09'34.50"N 80°05'54.10"E

96 PalliAru North Ward Point to Mannar 9°09'34.50"N 80°05'54.10"E 45 80
High(+) 125
Wankalai Point 8°56'15.30"N 79°54'11.30"E

97 Mannar South Bar to Mannar Island 8°57'53.40"N 79°53'08.60"E 20 30
Low (-) 50
Erukkalampiddi Causeway Point 9°01'54.80"N 79°52'16.50"E


Erukkalampiddi Causeway Point Via Ushimukkanmunai
98 Mannar Island 9°01'54.80"N 79°52'16.50"E 30 50
Point to Medium(-) 80

PesalaiVankalaipadu 9°04'48.50"N 79°50'48.60"E

99 PesalaiVankalaipadu to Mannar Island 9°04'48.50"N 79°50'48.60"E 20 30
Low (-) 50
Thalaimannar Light House/Pier 9°06'26.90"N 79°43'51.40"E

100 Thalaimannar Light House/Pier to Mannar Island 9°06'26.90"N 79°43'51.40"E 30 50
Medium(-) 80
Mannar Island South Bar 8°57'53.40"N 79°53'08.60"E

101 Mannar Island South Bar to Mannar Island 8°57'53.40"N 79°53'08.60"E No. Build
No. Build Zone
VankalaiPoint (Proposed Conservation /No. Build Zone.) 8°56'15.30"N 79°54'11.30"E Zone

102 Vankalai Point to 8°56'15.30"N 79°54'11.30"E 45 80
Mannar High(+) 125
Vankalai Sanctuary Southern Boundary 8°53'26.30"N 79°55'44.70"E

Vankalai Sanctuary Southern Boundary to 8°53'26.30"N 79°55'44.70"E
103 Mannar Medium(-) 30 50 80
Arippu East 8°47'43.10"N 79°55'28.60"E
104 Arippu East to Mannar 8°47'43.10"N 79°55'28.60"E 25 40

Low (+) 65
Pukkulam Modaragam Aru 8°33'48.70"N 79°55'12.80"E

105 Pukkulam Modaragam Aru to Puttalam 8°33'48.70"N 79°55'12.80"E
300 300
Kala Oya River Mouth (Wilpattu National Park) 8°17'53.60"N 79°49'55.00"E

129A
Table 6.2 : Classification of Coastal Segments by Level of
130A
Vulnerability and Setback Distances (in meters)
Level of Vulner- Coastal Segments Nos. 1- 44 Coastal Segment Nos. 45-105

ability
Reservation Restricted Total Reservation Restricted Total
Area Area Setback Area Area Setback
Low (-) 10 25 35 20 30 50
Low (+) 15 25 40 25 40 65
Medium (-) 15 30 45 30 50 80
Medium (+) 20 30 50 35 60 95
High (-) 20 35 55 40 70 110
High (+) 25 35 60 45 80 125
Protected Areas Protected Areas
Conservation Zones Conservation Zones

Table 6.3 Protected Areas Bordering the Coastal Zone of Sri Lanka
Name Location/Geographical Coordinate** Coastal Length Extent (ha) Year of Establish-
(k.m) ment
Latitude(N) Longitude (E)
1.Bar Reef Sanctuary 8°16’00 - 8°32’00” 79°40’75 - 79°49’70” 75 30,670 1992.04.03

2.Honduwa Island Sanctuary 6°27’17 - 6°23’55” 79°58’31 - 80°00’16” 9 1973.11.19
3.Telwatta Sanctuary* 6°16’00 - 6°08’55” 80°01’53 - 80°03’52” 1,425 1938.02.25
4.Ambalangoda – Hikkaduwa Rocky Islets Sanctuary 6°09’00 - 6°08’00” 80°08’00 - 80°05’00” 638m 1 1940.10.25
5.Hikkaduwa National Park 04.8 102 2002.10.08
6.Parappaduwa Nuns Island and Polgasduwa Sanctuary* Entire Island and lagoon 22 1,988 1988.08.17
7.Kalametiya lagoon Sanctuary* 6°05’00 - 6°06’00” 80°56’00 - 80°59’00” 4.72 2,525 1984.06.28
8.Bundala National Park 6°07’00 - 6°14’00” 80°07’00 - 81°17’00” 21.33 6,216 2004.07.28
9.Nimalawa Sanctuary 6°08’20 - 6°46’05 81°08’46 - 81°49’25” 03.25 1,066 1993.02.18
10.Ruhuna(Yala) – National Park* 6°16’00 - 6°42’00 81°15’00 - 81°41’30” 45.4 97,881 1938.02.25
11.Yala Strict Natural Reserve* 6°16’00 - 6°42’00 81°15’00 - 81°41’30” 28,906 1938.03.01
12.Kumana National Park* 6°16’00 - 6°42’00 81°04’00 - 81°45’00” 15.4 35,665 2006.09.05
13.Kudumbigala Sanctuary * 6°46’05 - 6°57’23 81°49’25 - 81°51’30” 12.35 6,534 2006.02.20
14.Seruwila – Allei Sanctuary * 8°20’00 - 8°25’00 81°20’00 - 81°23’00” 15.8 15,540 1970.10.09
15.Greater Sober Island Entire Island 03.91 65 1963.06.21
16.Little Sober Island Sanctuary* Entire Island 898m 7 1963.06.21
17.Pigeon Island National Park Entire Island 08.34 471 2003.06.04
18.Kokilai Lagoon Sanctuary* 8°56’00 - 9°03’00 80°52’00 - 80°58’00” 01.15 1,995 1951.05.18
19.Chundikulam National Park* 9°26’00 - 9°32’00 80°24’00 - 80°37’00” 32.56 19,565 2015.06.22
20.Paritivu Islands Sanctuary* Entire Island 02.38 970 1973.05.18
21. Wilpattu National Park* 36.8 131,667 1938,1941,1973
22. Madampawila Sanctuary 01.2 1,217 2007.09.21
23.Rekawa Sanctuary 3.58 271 2006.05.25
24.Godawaya Sanctuary 4.15 232 2006.05.25
25. Ussangoda National Park 04.0 349 2010.05.06
26. Rumassala Sanctuary 5.0 171 2003.01.03
27. Vankalai Sanctuary 14.8 4,839 2008.09.08
28.Adams bridge National Park 57 18,990 2015.06.22
29. Delft National Park 1,846.28 2015.06.22
30. Veduthalathivu Natural reserve 32.8 29,180 2016.03.01

Source: 1. IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas 1989

2. Department of Wildlife Conservation (2016), Marine Protected Areas & associated Marine Protected Areas
131A
6.8 MANAGING SITES OF SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE AND PUBLIC ACCESS
The previous CZMP’s of 1990 and 1997 addressed the issue of loss and degradation of sites of special significance
within the coastal zone that include archaeological, historical, religious, cultural sites and scenic areas as a separate
Chapter. In addition enhancement and protection of both lateral and vertical access to and along the coast was also
emphasized. However, to maintain consistency and produce user friendly Coastal Zone and Coastal Resource
Management Plan, these aspects have been incorporated into this Chapter instead of addressing as a separate
issue. The sites of special significance located within the coastal zone are of considerable importance for the
preservation of the cultural heritage of the country. These sites are prone to be despoiled than the monuments in
the hinterland due to natural causes such as coastal erosion, tsunami as well as rapid development activities. Thus
it is important to take necessary management interventions to preserve these sites through adequate management
interventions.
6.8.1 Ensuring Public Access
Coastal access can be defined as the right of approach and using an approach (access) to or along a
coastal margin by the public, in a physical and visual sense. With the rapid development of the coastal
zone in the recent past, public access to and along the coast emerged as a critical issue. The public
right to access to the beach for purposes of residential, recreational and economic activities has been
traditionally recognized in the past. However in recent times, the rapid development of fishing activities,
shrimp aquaculture, tourism, harbour development, coast protection, human settlements and natural
security requirements have produced access restrictions to, and along the beach in numerous ways.
In the context of economic development activities thriving in the coastal zone after eradication of the
terrorism in the northern and the eastern coastal region, public access plays an important role specifically
since the ownership of the foreshore, beach, coastal waters and the bottom of the sea are vested with
the state; it is therefore incumbent upon the state to ensure public has free access to those resources to
carry out their legitimate activities.
In considering the importance of ensuring public access to and along the beaches, new legal provisions
have been introduced through Coast Conservation (Amendment) Act, No. 49 of 2011 to formulate
“Coastal Access Plan” under Part 111D Section 22 of the amendments. Thus in compliance with the
legal provision, action will be initiated by the CC&CRMD to formulate and implement a “National
Coastal Access Plan”.
6.8.2 Archaeological, historical, religious and cultural sites
The high priority archaeological, historical, religious and cultural sites have been identified through a
field survey conducted in 1989 and updated in 2002. The list of high priority sites are given in Table
6.4. As per the field survey, the following management problems have been identified;
• Absence of proper management guidelines has led to degrading the quality of the high priority
sites within the coastal zone due to unplanned and unauthorized development activities.
• Lack of awareness on the importance of the sites among the public and the sectoral agencies
have led to degradation due to encroachments and development.
• Lack of financial commitment from the respective agencies for implementing conservation plans
resulted in loss and degradation of the sites.
• Some of the high priority sites in the north and the eastern coastal segments have been damaged
due to the civil conflict that prevailed during the last three decades.
• Lack of proper consideration of the value and significance of the sites have contributed to
degradation and attention of the authorities.
In considering the above management problems, necessary policy guidelines, management strategies
and actions have been introduced by the CC&CRMD through the 1990, 1997 and 2004 CZMP’s
respectively. Although the effectiveness of previous management strategies and actions could not be
presented in a quantifiable manner, the development activities in the vicinity of such sites have been
effectively controlled through the development permit system, EIA and IEE while enhancing the public
awareness.
In view of the above specific attention will be given to protect these valuable monuments (see Table 6.4)
through the development permit system and application of new legal provision in the Coast Conservation
and Coastal Resources Management Act, No.57 of 1981.
Table 6.4
High priority archaeological, historical, religious and cultural sites within the
Coastal Zone (Updated in 2002)
Place Type GN Division GND No.
Puttalam District
1 Kudiramalai pre-historic site A/H/C Pukulam 634
2 Kollan Kanatta pre-historic site A/H/C Pukulam 634
3 Dutch Church* H/C Sinnakudirippu 631
4 Dutch Fort* H/C Sinnakudirippu 631
5 Dutch House A/H Sinnakudirippu 631
6 St. Anne’s Church H/R/C Mudalaipali 625/626
7 Sri Mariamman Kovil H/R/C Udappuwa 594
8 Kali Amman Kovil H/R/C Udappuwa 594
9 Mohideen Jumma Mosque H/R/C Udappuwa 594
10 Sri Pathasrdhi Draupadi Kovil H/R/C Udappuwa 594
11 Ayyanar Kovil H/R/C Karukkaponai 582
12 Wanawasa St.Anthony’s Church H/R/C Karukkaponai 582
13 St. Anthony’s Church, Thoduwawa S. H/R/C Thoduwawa S. 531
14 St. Anthony’s Chruch H/C/R Ulhitiyawa North 294
Gampaha District
15 Kudapaduwa Church H/C/R Ettukala 73
16 St. Sebastian Church H/C/R Wellaweediya 158
17 Main Street Church H/C/R Munnakkare 156
18 District Court Building A/H Munnakkare 156
19 Negombo Fort A/H Munnakkare 156
20 Church of Our Lady of Sindrathri H/C/R Duwa 162A
21 Shipwreck A(M) Duwa 162A
22 St. Anne’s Church H/C/R Pitipana 162
23 St. Mary Magdalena Church H/C/R Talahena 163
24 St. Babara’s Church H/C/R Talahena 163
25 St. Anthony’s Church H/C/R Kepungoda 163A
26 St. Joseph’s Church H/C/R Pamunugama 164
27 Shipwrecks A(M) Uswetakeyyawa 167
28 Church of Our Lady of Mount Carmel H/C/R Palliyawatta 168
CZMP 2004 7-2


Colombo District
29 Whist Bungalow A/H/C Modara 2
30 Siva Kovil H/C/R Modara 2
31 St. James’ Church H/C/R Aluth Mawatha 4
32 Jumma Mosque H/C/R Aluth Mawatha 4
33 Sri Ponnambalameswar Kovil H/C/R Kochchikade 9
34 St. Thomas’ Church H/C/R Kochchikade 9
35 St. Anthony’s Church H/C/R Kochchikade 9
36 Colombo Fort A/H/C Fort 20
37 Colombo Harbour A/H/C Fort 20
38 Jami Ul-Alfar Mosque H/C/R Fort 20
39 Gordon Gardens H/C Fort 20
40 St. Peter’s Church H/C Fort 20
41 Hotel Taprobane H/C Fort 20
42 Khan Clock Tower H/C Fort 20
43 Naval Headquarters H/C Fort 20
44 Galbokke Lighthouse H/C Fort 20
45 Cargills, Department Stores H/C Fort 20
46 President’s House H/C Fort 20
47 Former General Post Office Building H/C Fort 20
48 Chatham Street Clock Tower H/C Fort 20
49 Dutch Hospital H/C Fort 20
50 Prison Cell of Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe H/C Fort 20
51 Old Parliament Building H/C Fort 20
52 Old Secretariat H/C Fort 20
53 Galle Face Green H/C Slave Island 21
54 Beira Lake H/C Slave Island 21
55 Taj Samudra Hotel H/C Slave Island 21
56 Galle Face Court H/C Kollupitiya 37
57 Galle Face Hotel H/C Kollupitiya 37
58 Temple Trees H/C Kollupitiya 37
59 St. Andrew’s Scots Kirk R/H/C Kollupitiya 37
60 Sri Darmakirtiyaramaya R/H/C Kollupitiya 37
61 Dutch Reformed Church R/H/C Bambalapitiya 38
62 Borah Mosque R/H/C Wellawatta 38
CZMP 2004 7-3

63 Ramakrishna Mission R/H/C Mount Lavinia 47
64 Dutch Church R/H/C Mount Lavinia 541
65 St. Thomas College H/C Mount Lavinia 541
66 Grand Hotel H/C Mount Lavinia 541
67 St. Francis Xavier’s Church H/C Angulana 547
68 Duwe Dewale Church H/C Angulana 547
69 Lunawa Devale R/H/C Uyana 552
70 Methodist Church R/H/C Uyana 552
71 St. Joseph’s Church R/H/C Uyana 552
72 Talarukkharamaya R/H/C Katukurunda 555
73 Bodhirajaramaya R/H/C Egoda Uyana 556
Kalutara District
74 Rankot Viharaya R/H/C Pattiya North 685

75 Sri Sudharmaramaya R/H/C Nalluruwa 692
76 Samudraramaya R/H/C Talpitiya 697
77 Parana Walawwa H/C Molligoda 704
78 Sri Sudharma Dharma Salawa R/H/C Mahawaskaduwa 714
79 Asokaramaya R/H/C Kalutara North 717
80 Pulinatalaramaya R/H/C Kalutara North 717
81 Kalutara Fort R/H Kalutara South 725
82 Kalutara Bodhiya (Gangatilaka Vihara) R/H/C Kalutara South 725
83 Church of the Infant Christ R/H/C Kalamulla 731
84 St. Joseph’s Church R/H/C Kuda Paiyagala 734
85 Rajeswari Church R/H/C Kuda Paiyagala 734
86 St. Joseph’s Church R/H/C Maha Paiyagala 735
87 Francis Xavier’s Church R/H/C Maha Paiyagala 735
88 Purana Chetiyaramaya R/H/C Magalkanda 746
89 Kechchimale Mosque R/H/C Paranakade 753/757
90 Beruwala Lighthouse H/C Paranakade 753/757
91 Maradana Mosque R/H/C Maradana 754
92 Duwe Viharaya R/H/C Moragalla 760/761
CZMP 2004 7-4


Galle District
93 Bentota Rest House H/C Pahurumulla 1
94 Bentota Rajamahavihara R/H/C Pahurumulla 1
95 Village Council Building H/C Angagoda 2
96 Sri Gnanawimala Purana Vihara R/H/C Ahungalla 18
97 Samudraramaya R/H/C Ahungalla 18
98 Sumanaramaya R/H/C Ahungalla 89
99 Jumma Muslim Mosque R/H/C Balapitiya 89
100 Sri Subhadraramaya R/H/C Balapitiya 89
Ambalangoda Rest House and
101 H/C Balapitiya 82
Dutch Church School
102 Modara Devale R/H/C Maha Ambalangoda 82
103 Chetiyagiri Purana Viharaya R/H/C Maha Ambalangoda 80
104 Shipwreck A(M) Akurala 76
105 Sinigama Devalaya R/H/C Sinigama 64
106 Subhadraramaya R/H/C Totagamuwa 61
107 Sailabimbaramaya R/H/C Dodanduwa 51
108 Nashir Mohamed Mosque R/H/C Gintota 103
109 Miran Mosque R/H/C Gintota 103
110 Hussain Mosque R/H/C Gintota 103
111 Devol Devalaya R/H/C Gintota 103
112 Shipwreck A(M) Gintota 103
113 Veheragala R/H/C Gintota 103
114 Galle Fort H/C Galle Fort 96
115 Ahangama Maha Viharaya R/H/C Ahangama Central East 157,156
116 St. Mary’s Church R/H/C Dangedara South,Kaluwella 97A, 98C
117 Sri Minachchi Sundanesvar Temple R/H/C Dangedara South,Kaluwella 97A, 98C
118 Sri Kadira Velayudha Swamy Kovil R/H/C Dangedara South,Kaluwella 97A,98C
119 The Closenberg H/C Magalla 99
120 Shipwreck M.A Magalla 99
121 Welle Devalaya R/H/C Unawatuna West 137
122 Ariyakara Viharaya R/H/C Talpe South 132
123 Sri Subhadraramaya R/H/C Koggala 144 A
Birth Place of Martin Wickramasinghe
124 H/C Koggala 144 A
and Folk Museum
CZMP 2004 7-5

125 Devagiri Vihara (Hirugal Devale) R/H/C Koggala 144 A
126 Air Base H Koggala 144 A

127 Aluth Walawwa H/C Kataluwa West 162
Matara District
128 Rajakulawadana Raja Maha Viharaya R/H/C Mahawediya 382
129 Theruvila Kovil R/H/C Mahawediya 382
130 Veluvanaramaya R/H/C Mirissa South 406
131 Bodhi Tree and Devalaya R/H/C Mirissa South 406
132 Sri Subhadraramaya R/H/C Mirissa South 406
133 Samudragiri Viharaya R/H/C Mirissa South 406
134 Sri Subhadraramaya R/H/C Kamburugamuwa 408
135 Samudrateera Viharaya R/H/C Kamburugamuwa 408
136 Kompannawatta Kovil R/H/C Madihe 411
137 Pujita Nivasa H/C Madihe 411
138 Jaya Maha Viharaya R/H/C Polhena 412
139 Galagediyawa Viharaya R/H/C Polhena 412
140 Matara Fort R/H/C Kadaweediya 417B, C
141 Church of Our lady of Matara R/H/C Ganigasmulla 416
142 Wellamadama Ambalama H/C Medawatta 425
143 Kihireli Viharaya R/H/C Devinuwara West 433A
144 Vishnu Devalaya R/H/C Devinuwara West 433A
145 Muhandiram Walawwa H/C Devinuwara West 433A
146 Lighthouse H/C Devinuwara West 433A
147 Sinhasana Kovila R/H/C Devinuwara West 433A
148 Wanawasa Raja Maha Viharaya R/H/C Devinuwara West 433A
149 Talgashena Viharaya A/R/H/C Gandara E &.W. 473/473A
150 Siri Sumanarama R/H/C Kottegoda 440
151 Abhayadeera Walawwa H/C Kottegoda 440
152 Gurukanda Viharaya R/H/C Batigama 451
153 Maligatenna Raja Maha Viharaya R/H/C Dodampahala E. 453A
Veherahena Minikirule Raja Maha R/H/C Dodampahala E. 453A
154 Viharaya
CZMP 2004 7-6

Hambantota District
155 Wdukaramaya R/H/C Kudawella W.&.E 464A, B
156 Tangalla Fort H/C Kotuwegoda 458
157 Tangalla Bodhiya R/H/C Kotuwegoda 458
158 Giribandu Viharaya R/H/C Kotuwegoda 458
159 Burial Ground H/C Kotuwegoda 458
160 Rest House (Old wing) H/C Kotuwegoda 458
161 Vehera Navaya R/H/C Bata Ata 562
162 Ussangoda A Lunama 555
163 Gothapabbata Viharaya A/R/H/C Walawa 586
164 Godavaya Port A/H Walawa 586
165 Martello Tower H/C Hambantota 584
166 New Mosque R/H/C Hambantota 584
167 Bundala Archaeological Reserve A Bundala 604
168 Telulla Buddhist Ruins A/H Bundala 604
169 Kirinda Viharaya R/H/C Kirinda 601
170 Palatupana Fort H/C Kirinda 601
171 Shipwreck Egypt (1922) A(M) Kirinda 601
172 Shipwreck (1961) A(M) Kirinda 601
173 Patanagala A/H/C Magama 602
174 Minihagalkanda A/H Magama 602
Ampara District
175 Megalithic Site, Kumana A Kumana 1
176 Samuddra Viharaya R/H/C Kumana 1
177 Megalithic Site, Panama A Panama 2
178 Okandamalai A/R/H/C Panama 2
179 Velayudha Swami Kovil R/H/C Panama 2
180 Muhudu Maha Viharaya R/H/C Potuvil Dir.l 3
181 Arugam Bay Port A/H Potuvil Dir.l 3
182 Komari Lighthouse H/C Komari 9
183 Sangamankanda A/H/C Komari 9
184 Komari A/H/C Komari 9
185 Tirichchipulavai Sri Murugan Kovil R/H/C Komari 96
CZMP 2004 7-7


186 Chitra Velayudha Kandaswamy Kovil R/H/C Thirukkovil 10
187 Kirulegama Monastic Site A/R/H/C Thirukkovil 10
188 Kannaki Amman Alayam R/H/C Thambavil Div.l 12
189 Palukamam Kovil R/H/C Padiruppu Div.l&2 66
190 Draupathi Amman Kovil R/H/C Padirippu Div.l &2 66
191 Kudikadakarai Mosque R/H/C Kalmunai Div.3 59
Batticaloa District
192 Dutch Fort H/C Koddaikallar Div-l&2 113
193 Amparavillippillaiyar Kovil R/H/C Koddaikallar Div-l&2 113
194 Kannaki Amman Kovil R/H/C Eruvil 115
195 Jami-ul Lafreen Mosque R/H/C Katthankudi Div.l 167
196 Batticaloa Fort H/C Puliyantivu 179
197 Shipwreck A(M) Puliyantivu 179
198 Church of the Holy Names of Jesus R/H/C Kalkudah 204
199 Sittandi H/C Valachchenai Tamil Div. 205
200 Periyakaduveikarai H/C Valachchenai Tamil Div 205
201 Shipwreck A(M) Kayanderni 211A
202 Panichchankerni H/C Mankerni 211
Trincomalee District
203 Illangaturai Port A/H Ichchilampattai 214
204 Monastic Site A/H/C Nawathkanikadu 215
205 Tampalakamam A/H/C Tampalakamam South 228A
206 Galmetiyana Tank A/H Tampalakamam South 228L
207 Thirnkoneswaram Kovil R/H/C Trincomalee Town 244B
208 Fort Fredrick H/C Triucomalee Town 244B
209 Gokanna Viharaya R/H/C Trincomalee Town 244B
210 Memorial Column, Swamy Rock H/C Trincomalee Town 244B
211 Trincomalee Harbour A/H Trincomalee Town 244B
212 Shipwreck, Trincomalee Harbour A(M) Trincomalee Town 244B
213 Fort Ostenberg H/C. Trincomalee Town 244B
214 Floating Dock Wreck A(M) Trincomalee Town 244B
215 Kuchchaveli Monastic Site A/H/C Kuchchaveli 239
216 Palvakki H/C Kuchchaveli 239
CZMP 2004 7-8

Mullaitivu District
217 Mulaitivu Fort H/C Mulaitivu Town 233
218 Monastic Site, Kurundanmalai A/H/C Mulaitivu Town 233
Jaffna District
219 Pas Payl Port A/H Mullian 149
220 Nakar Koyil R/H/C Nakar Koyil 145
221 Vallipuram Burial A/H Thunnalai 131
222 Point Pedro Lighthouse H/C Tumpalai 140
223 Hartley College H/C Point Pedro 137
224 KKS Lighthouse H/C Kankasanthurai 67
225 KKS. Fort H/C Kankasanthurai 67
226 Sambalturai Port (Jambukolapattana) A/H/C Keeramalai 64A
227 Keeramalai Springs H/C Keeramalai 64A
228 Naguleswaram Sivam Kovil R/H/C Keeramalai 64A
229 Vishnu Kovil A/H/C Keeramalai 64A
230 Monastic Site, Keeramalai A/H/C Keeramalai 64A
231 Tiruvadi Nilai A/H/C Chulipuram 49
232 Megalithic Site, Annaikottai A/H/C Annaikottai 40
233 Jaffna Fort H/C Colomboturai 8
234 Karainagar Lighthouse H/C Karainagar North 9
235 Hammenheil Fort H/C Karainagar North 9
236 Megalithic Site A/H Karainagarweet North 9
237 Port of Kayts (Uratota) A/H Allaipiddy 19
238 Portuguese Fort, (Urindi Kottai) H/C Allaipiddy 19
239 Fort Eyrie H/C Allaipiddy 19
240 Allaippiddy A/H/C Allaipiddy 19
241 Nagadeepa Viharaya R/H/C Nainativu 04
242 Nagapooshani Amman Kovil R/H/C Nainativu 04
243 Pungudutivu R/H/C Pungudutivu 05
244 Dutch Fort H/C Delft Central 02
245 Nolan’s Bungalow H/C Delft Central 02
246 Portuguse Fort H/C Delft West 01
247 Stable, Tarapitti H/C Delft West 01
CZMP 2004 7-9


248 Monastic Site, Vadiresankottai A/H/C Delft West 01
249 Dutch Tower, Kuvindan H/C Delft East 03
250 Elephant Pass Fort H/C Mukavil 153
Mannar District
251 Mannar H/C Thoddaveli 194

252 Mannar Dutch Fort H/C Thoddaveli 194
253 Talaimannar Lighthouse (02) H/C Talaimannar 192
254 Vankalai Settlement A/H/C Vankalai 195
255 Tambapanni Port A/H Arippu 198
256 Dona Katherina’s Rest (Alli Rani Kottai) H/C Arippu 198
257 Dutch Fort H/C Arippu 198
258 Uruvela A/H/C Kokkupadayan 202
259 Megalithic Site, Marichchukaddi A Marichchukaddi 203
CZMP 2004 7-10

Protected Monument and Archaeological Reserve
Type A - Archaeological Value C - Cultural Value
H - Historical Value R - Religious Value
REFERENCES:
1. Government of Sri Lanka: 1981. Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management Act (No: 57).
2. Government of Sri Lanka: 1981. Coast Conservation (Amendment) Act (No: 64).
3. Government of Sri Lanka: 2011. Coast Conservation (Amendment) Act (No: 49).
4. Government of Sri Lanka: 1980. National Environment Act (No: 47).
5. CCD: “Coastal 2000: Recommendations for a Resource Management Strategy for Sri Lanka’s Coastal Region”.
6. CCD: Coastal Zone Management Plan 2004.
7. Government of Sri Lanka: 1940. Archealogical Ordinance and the subsequent revisions of 1956, 1998 and 2000.
8. Ministry of Public Administration: Circular No. 21/92 of 21st May, 1992.
9. Government of Sri Lanka: 1985. Gazette Notification No. 337/48 of Feb 21st.
10. IUCN. 1989. Directory of SA Protected Areas.
06–552
Printed at the Department of Government Printing, Sri Lanka.

Coastal Zone and Coastal Resource Management Plan-2018

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Coastal Zone and Coastal Resource Management Plan-2018

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Y%S ,xld m%cd;dka;%sl iudcjd§ ckrcfha .

wxl 2072$58 - 2018 uehs ui 25 jeks isl=rdod - 2018'05'25

PART I : SECTION (I) — GENERAL

Ministry of Mahaweli Development and Environment,

1A PG 04054 - 507 (05/2018)

1.1.1. Context and Setting

1.1.2 Major Deviation from 2004 CZMP

1.2 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COASTAL ZONE

1.2.1 The Bio- physical Characteristic

1.2.2 The Impact of the 2004 Tsunami

THE ROLE OF THE CC&CRMD IN COASTAL ZONE AND COASTAL RESOURCES

CC&CRMD aims to accomplish Mission

 To improve status of the coastal environment.

1.3.1 Key Achievements

 Mitigating impacts of coastal erosion up to a substantial level.

1.3.2 External Technical Assistance

1.4.1 New Legal Provisions through 2011 CC Act Amendments

 Preparation of a “Coastal Zone and Coastal Resources Management Plan”.

 Provision for declaration of beach parks and conservation areas.

 Provision for designation and institutionalization of Special Management Areas

 Provision for formulating a coastal access plan.

Figure 1.1 :“COASTAL ZONE” THE NEW DEFINITION (ILLUSTRATED)

1.4.2 The Preparatory Process

1.4.3 Structure and the Content of the Plan

2.1.1 Nature of the Problem

Table 2.1 Reported location of Emergency Coastal Erosion 2010 -2013

Coastal District Location Description/Remarks

Coastal District Location Description/Remarks

Colombo Wedikanda –Ratmalana

(Source: Shoreline Status report 2014)

2.1.2 Past Management Activities and its effectiveness

Initiatives carried out in early 1980’s

Initiatives under MPCEM

2.2 ISSUES, THREATS AND CHALLENGES

2.2.1 Natural processes and events contributing to coastal erosion

2.2.2 Impacts of 2004 Tsunami on Coast Protection and Coastal Erosion

2.2.3 Anthropogenic Activities that Accelerate Erosion

Activity Current Result Effect on coast Example of site

• Loss of sand to offshore.

• Trapping of sand in entrance channels and outer harbours.

Sand Mining in the Rivers

Sand Mining on the Beaches and Dunes

Table 2.3 Annual Sand Consumption 2003 – 2012*

Year Extraction (Million m3)

Type of Amount % of Amount % of Amount % of AMOUNT

Source: Coastal Zone Management Plan - 2004

2.2.4 Future Impacts of Climate Change

After 25 years coastal erosion extent = 50 m

25 year 50 year 75 year 100 25 year 50 year 75 years 100

Colombo 959 1133 1327 1534 201 375 569 776

Gampaha 3638 4154 4631 5073 459 976 1452 1894

Puttalam 11334 12583 13716 14809 1113 2362 3494 4587

Mannar 8024 8262 8518 8758 248 486 741 981

Jaffna 10321 11164 12014 12891 864 1706 2557 3434

Mulaitivu 912 1004 1092 1180 88 180 268 355

Trincomalee 2315 2529 2791 3033 252 467 729 971

Batticaloa 2325 2443 2568 2702 130 247 372 507

Ampara 1880 2175 2479 2762 293 588 892 1175

Hambantota 4265 5553 6516 7322 885 2173 3136 3942

Matara 1277 1634 1994 2401 384 741 1101 1508

Galle 5622 6462 7249 8014 776 1617 2403 3169

Kalutara 1956 2370 2790 3203 417 830 1251 1664

Source: Shoreline Status Report - 2014

Figure 2.1: Sea Level Rise Exposure Map of Sri Lanka