Facts

Chung-hua Jen-min Kung-ho-kuo • Zhongguo • Zhonghua Renmin

Also Known As Gongheguo • People’s Republic of China • Chung-hua • Chung-kuo •
Zhonghua
Head Of Government Premier: Li Keqiang
Capital Beijing (Peking)
Population (2022 est.) 1,412,952,000
Currency Exchange Rate 1 USD equals 6.987 Chinese yuan renminbi
Head Of State President: Xi Jinping, assisted by Vice President Li Yuanchao
single-party people’s republic with one legislative house (National People’s
Form Of Government
Congress [3,0001])
Official Language Mandarin Chinese
Official Religion none2
Official Name Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo (People’s Republic of China)
Total Area (Sq Km) 9,572,900
Total Area (Sq Mi) 3,696,118
Monetary Unit renminbi (yuan) (Y)
Population Rank (2021) 1
Population Projection 2030 1,408,712,000
Density: Persons Per Sq Mi (2022) 382.3
Density: Persons Per Sq Km (2022) 147.6
Urban-Rural Population Urban: (2018) 59.6% • Rural: (2018) 40.4%
Life Expectancy At Birth Male: (2015) 74 years • Female: (2020) 78.4 years
Literacy: Percentage Of
Population Age 15 And Over Male: (2018) 98% • Female: (2018) 95%
Literate
Gni (U.S.$ ’000,000) (2020) 14,880,745
Gni Per Capita (U.S.$) (2020) 10,610
1
Statutory number; includes 36 seats allotted to Hong Kong and 12 to Macau.2Many Chinese practice both
Chinese folk-religion and Buddhism.

China, Chinese (Pinyin) Zhonghua or (Wade-Giles romanization) Chung-hua,

also spelled (Pinyin) Zhongguo or (Wade-Giles romanization) Chung-kuo,
officially People’s Republic of China or Chinese (Pinyin) Zhonghua Renmin
Gongheguo or (Wade-Giles romanization) Chung-hua Jen-min Kung-ho-
kuo, country of East Asia. It is the largest of all Asian countries and has the
largest population of any country in the world. Occupying nearly the entire
East Asian landmass, it covers approximately one-fourteenth of the land area
of Earth. Among the major countries of the world, China is surpassed in area
by only Russia and Canada, and it is almost as large as the whole of Europe.
China has 33 administrative units directly under the central government; these consist
of 22 provinces, 5 autonomous regions, 4 municipalities (Chongqing, Beijing, Shanghai,
and Tianjin), and 2 special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau). The island
province of Taiwan, which has been under separate administration since 1949, is
discussed in the article Taiwan. Beijing (Peking), the capital of the People’s Republic, is
also the cultural, economic, and communications centre of the country. Shanghai is the
main industrial city; Hong Kong is the leading commercial centre and port.

Within China’s boundaries exists a highly diverse and complex country.

Its topography encompasses the highest and one of the lowest places on Earth, and its
relief varies from nearly impenetrable mountainous terrain to vast coastal lowlands.
Its climate ranges from extremely dry, desertlike conditions in the northwest to
tropical monsoon in the southeast, and China has the greatest contrast in temperature
between its northern and southern borders of any country in the world.

LAND

China stretches for about 3,250 miles (5,250 km) from east to west and 3,400
miles (5,500 km) from north to south. Its land frontier is about 12,400 miles
(20,000 km) in length, and its coastline extends for some 8,700 miles (14,000
km). The country is bounded by Mongolia to the north; Russia and North Korea to
the northeast; the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea to the east; the South China
Sea to the southeast; Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar (Burma), India, Bhutan, and Nepal to
the south; Pakistan to the southwest; and Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan,
and Kazakhstan to the west. In addition to the 14 countries that border directly
on it, China also faces South Korea and Japan, across the Yellow Sea, and
the Philippines, which lie beyond the South China Sea.

Broadly speaking, the relief of China is high in the west and low in the east;
consequently, the direction of flow of the major rivers is generally eastward. The surface
may be divided into three steps, or levels. The first level is represented by the Plateau of
Tibet, which is located in both the Tibet Autonomous Region and the province
of Qinghai and which, with an average elevation of well over 13,000 feet (4,000 metres)
above sea level, is the loftiest highland area in the world. The western part of this region,
the Qiangtang, has an average height of 16,500 feet (5,000 metres) and is known as the
“roof of the world.”

The second step lies to the north of the Kunlun and Qilian mountains and (farther
south) to the east of the Qionglai and Daliang ranges. There the mountains descend
sharply to heights of between 6,000 and 3,000 feet (1,800 and 900 metres), after which
basins intermingle with plateaus. This step includes the Mongolian Plateau,
the Tarim Basin, the Loess Plateau (loess is a yellow-gray dust deposited by the wind),
the Sichuan Basin, and the Yunnan-Guizhou (Yungui) Plateau.

The third step extends from the east of the Dalou, Taihang, and Wu mountain ranges
and from the eastern perimeter of the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau to the China Sea.
Almost all of this area is made up of hills and plains lying below 1,500 feet (450 metres).

The most remarkable feature of China’s relief is the vast extent of its mountain chains;
the mountains, indeed, have exerted a tremendous influence on the country’s political,
economic, and cultural development. By rough estimate, about one-third of the total
area of China consists of mountains. China has the world’s tallest mountain and the
world’s highest and largest plateau, in addition to possessing extensive coastal plains.
The five major landforms—mountain, plateau, hill, plain, and basin—are all well
represented. China’s complex natural environment and rich natural resources are
closely connected with the varied nature of its relief.

Apart from the three elevation zones already mentioned, it is possible—on the basis of
geologic structure, climatic conditions, and differences in geomorphologic
development—to divide China into three major topographic regions: the eastern,
northwestern, and southwestern zones. The eastern zone is shaped by the rivers, which
have eroded landforms in some parts and have deposited alluvial plains in others; its
climate is monsoonal (characterized by seasonal rain-bearing winds). The northwestern
region is arid and eroded by the wind; it forms an inland drainage basin. The southwest
is a cold, lofty, and mountainous region containing intermontane plateaus and inland
lakes.

The three basic regions may be further subdivided into second-order geographic
divisions. The eastern region contains 10 of these, the southwest contains two, and the
northwest contains three. Below is a brief description of each division.

The eastern region

The Northeast Plain

The Northeast Plain (also known as the Manchurian Plain and the Sung-liao Plain) is
located in China’s Northeast, the region formerly known as Manchuria. It is bordered to
the west and north by the Da Hinggan (Greater Khingan) Range and to the east by
the Xiao Hinggan (Lesser Khingan) Range. An undulating plain split into northern and
southern halves by a low divide rising from 500 to 850 feet (150 to 260 metres), it is
drained in its northern part by the Sungari River and tributaries and in its southern part
by the Liao River. Most of the area has an erosional rather than a depositional surface,
but it is covered with a deep soil. The plain has an area of about 135,000 square miles
(350,000 square km). Its basic landscapes are forest-steppe, steppe, meadow-steppe,
and cultivated land; its soils are rich and black, and it is a famous agricultural region.
The river valleys are wide and flat with a series of terraces formed by deposits of silt.
During the flood season the rivers inundate extensive areas.
The Changbai Mountains

To the southeast of the Northeast Plain is a series of ranges comprising the

Changbai, Zhangguangcai, and Wanda mountains, which in Chinese are collectively
known as the Changbai Shan, or “Forever White Mountains”; broken by occasional open
valleys, they reach elevations mostly between 1,500 and 3,000 feet (450 and 900
metres). In some parts the scenery is characterized by rugged peaks and precipitous
cliffs. The highest peak is the volcanic cone of Mount Baitou (9,003 feet [2,744 metres]),
which has a beautiful crater lake at its snow-covered summit. As one of the major forest
areas of China, the region is the source of many valuable furs and famous medicinal
herbs. Cultivation is generally limited to the valley floors.
The North China Plain

Comparable in size to the Northeast Plain, most of the North China Plain lies at
elevations below 160 feet (50 metres), and the relief is monotonously flat. It was formed
by enormous sedimentary deposits brought down by the Huang He and Huai River from
the Loess Plateau; the Quaternary deposits alone (i.e., those from the past 2.6 million
years) reach thicknesses of 2,500 to 3,000 feet (760 to 900 metres). The river channels,
which are higher than the surrounding locality, form local water divides, and the areas
between the channels are depressions in which lakes and swamps are found. In
particularly low and flat areas, the underground water table often fluctuates from 5 to
6.5 feet (1.5 to 2 metres), forming meadow swamps and, in some places, resulting in
saline soils. A densely populated area that has long been under settlement, the North
China Plain has the highest proportion of land under cultivation of any region in China.
The Loess Plateau

This vast plateau of some 154,000 square miles (400,000 square km) forms a unique
region of loess-clad hills and barren mountains between the North China Plain and the
deserts of the west. In the north the Great Wall of China forms the boundary, while the
southern limit is the Qin Mountains in Shaanxi province. The average surface elevation
is roughly 4,000 feet (1,200 metres), but individual ranges of bedrock are higher,
reaching 9,825 feet (2,995 metres) in the Liupan Mountains. Most of the plateau is
covered with loess to thicknesses of 165 to 260 feet (50 to 80 metres). In
northern Shaanxi and eastern Gansu provinces, the loess may reach much greater
thicknesses. The loess is particularly susceptible to erosion by water, and ravines and
gorges crisscross the plateau. It has been estimated that ravines cover approximately
half the entire region, with erosion reaching depths of 300 to 650 feet (90 to 200
metres).
The Shandong Hills

These hills are basically composed of extremely ancient crystalline shales and granites of
early Precambrian age (i.e., older than about 2.5 billion years) and of somewhat younger
sedimentary rocks dating to about 540–420 million years ago. Faults have played a
major role in creating the present relief, and, as a result, many hills are horsts (blocks of
the Earth’s crust uplifted along faults), while the valleys have been formed by grabens
(blocks of the Earth’s crust that have been thrust down along faults). The Jiaolai
Plain divides this region into two parts. The eastern part is lower, lying at elevations
averaging below 1,500 feet (450 metres), with only certain peaks and ridges rising to
2,500 feet and (rarely) to 3,000 feet (900 metres); the highest point, Mount Lao,
reaches 3,714 feet (1,132 metres). The western part is slightly higher, rising to 5,000 feet
(1,524 metres) at Mount Tai, one of China’s most sacred mountains. The Shandong Hills
meet the sea along a rocky and indented shoreline.
The Qin Mountains

The Qin (conventional Tsinling) Mountains in Shaanxi province are the greatest chain of
mountains east of the Plateau of Tibet. The mountain chain consists of a high and
rugged barrier extending from Gansu to Henan; geographers use a line between the
chain and the Huai River to divide China proper into two parts—North and South. The
elevation of the mountains varies from 3,000 to 10,000 feet (900 to 3,000 metres). The
western part is higher, with the highest peak, Mount Taibai, rising to 12,359 feet (3,767
metres). The Qin Mountains consist of a series of parallel ridges, all running roughly
west-east, separated by a maze of ramifying valleys whose canyon walls often rise sheer
to a height of 1,000 feet (300 metres) above the valley streams.
The Sichuan Basin
This is one of the most attractive geographical regions of China. The Sichuan Basin is
surrounded by mountains, which are higher in the west and north. Protected against the
penetration of cold northern winds, the basin is much warmer in the winter than are the
more southerly plains of southeast China. Except for the Chengdu Plain, the region is
hilly. The relief of the basin’s eastern half consists of numerous folds, forming a series of
ridges and valleys that trend northeast to southwest. The lack of arable land has obliged
farmers to cultivate the slopes of the hills, on which they have built terraces that
frequently cover the slopes from top to bottom. The terracing has slowed down the
process of erosion and has made it possible to cultivate additional areas by using the
steeper slopes—some of which have grades up to 45° or more.
The southeastern mountains

Southeastern China is bordered by a rocky shoreline backed by picturesque mountains.

In general, there is a distinct structural and topographic trend from northeast to
southwest. The higher peaks may reach elevations of some 5,000 to 6,500 feet (1,500 to
2,000 metres). The rivers are short and fast-flowing and have cut steep-sided valleys.
The chief areas of settlement are on narrow strips of coastal plain where rice is
produced. Along the coast there are numerous islands, where the fishing industry is well
developed.
Plains of the middle and lower Yangtze

East of Yichang, in Hubei province, a series of plains of uneven width are found along
the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang). The plains are particularly wide in the delta area and
in places where the Yangtze receives its major tributaries—including large areas of
lowlands around Dongting, Poyang, Tai, and Hongze lakes, which are all hydrologically
linked with the Yangtze. The region is an alluvial plain, the accumulation of sediment
laid down by the rivers throughout long ages. There are a few isolated hills, but in
general the land is level, lying mostly below 160 feet (50 metres). Rivers, canals, and
lakes form a dense network of waterways. The surface of the plain has been converted
into a system of flat terraces, which descend in steps along the slopes of the valleys.
The Nan Mountains

The Nan Mountains (Nan Ling) are composed of many ranges of mountains running
from northeast to southwest. These ranges form the watershed between the Yangtze to
the north and the Pearl (Zhu) River to the south. The main peaks along the watershed
are above 5,000 feet, and some are more than 6,500 feet. But a large part of the land to
the south of the Nan Mountains is also hilly; flatland does not exceed 10 percent of the
total area. The Pearl River Delta is the only extensive plain in this region and is also the
richest part of South China. The coastline is rugged and irregular, and there are many
promontories and protected bays, including those of Hong Kong and Macau. The
principal river is the Xi River, which rises in the highlands of eastern Yunnan and
southern Guizhou.

The southwest

The Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau

This region comprises the northern part of Yunnan and the western part of Guizhou; its
edge is highly dissected. Yunnan is more distinctly a plateau and contains larger areas of
rolling uplands than Guizhou, but both parts are distinguished by canyonlike valleys and
precipitous mountains. The highest elevations lie in the west, where Mount Diancang
(also called Cang Shan) rises to 13,524 feet (4,122 metres). In the valleys of the major
rivers, elevations drop to about 1,300 to 1,600 feet (400 to 490 metres). Particularly
sharp differences in elevation and the greatest ruggedness of relief occur in the western
part of the region, in the gorges of the large rivers. In the eastern part, karst processes
(creating sinks, ravines, and underground streams in the limestone landscape) have
developed very strongly. Scattered throughout the highlands are small lake basins,
separated by mountains.
The Plateau of Tibet

This great upland massif occupies about one-fourth of the country’s area. A large part of
the plateau lies at elevations above 13,000 to 16,500 feet (4,000 to 5,000 metres). The
border ranges of the plateau (the Kunlun Mountains and the Himalayas) are even
higher, with individual peaks rising to heights of 23,000 to 26,000 feet (7,000 to 8,000
metres) and higher. As a rule, the interior (i.e., Tibet-side) slopes of these border
mountains are gentle, while the exterior slopes are precipitous. The plateau’s eastern
and southern periphery is the source of many of the world’s great rivers, including the
Yangtze, Huang He, Mekong, Salween, Indus, and Brahmaputra. Only in the low valleys,
chiefly along the Brahmaputra valley, are there centres of human settlement.

The Qaidam (Tsaidam) Basin, occupying the northwestern portion of the Plateau of
Tibet, is the largest, as well as the lowest, depression in the plateau. The broad
northwestern part of the basin lies at elevations between approximately 8,800 and
10,000 feet (2,700 and 3,000 metres), and the narrow southeastern part is slightly
lower. Gravel, sandy and clay deserts, semideserts, and salt wastes predominate within
the basin.

The northwest

The Tarim Basin

North of the Plateau of Tibet and at the much lower elevation of about 3,000 feet (900
metres) lies the Tarim Basin. It is hemmed in by great mountain ranges: the Tien
Shan (Tian Shan; “Celestial Mountains”) on the north, the Pamirs on the west, and
the Kunlun Mountains on the south. Glacier-fed streams descend from these heights
only to lose themselves in the loose sands and gravels of the Takla Makan Desert, which
occupies the centre of the basin. The Takla Makan is one of the most barren of the
world’s deserts; only a few of the largest rivers—such as the Tarim
and Hotan (Khotan)—cross the desert, but even their flow is not constant, and they have
water throughout their entire courses only during the flood period. The area of the basin
is about 215,000 square miles (557,000 square km), and its elevations range from 2,500
to 4,600 feet (750 to 1,400 metres) above sea level. Its surface slants to the southeast,
where Lop Nur (a salt-encrusted lake bed) is situated.
The Junggar Basin
North of the Tarim Basin is another large depression, the Junggar (Dzungarian) Basin.
It is enclosed by the Tien Shan on the south, while to the northeast it is cut off
from Mongolia by the Altai Mountains. The surface of the basin is flat, with a gentle
slope to the southwest. The larger portion of the land lies at elevations between about
1,000 and 1,500 feet (300 and 450 metres), and in the lowest part the elevation drops to
just below 650 feet (200 metres). In general the main part of the basin is covered by a
broad desert with barchans (crescent-shaped sand dunes that move); only in certain
parts are dunes retained by vegetation.
The Tien Shan

The Chinese (eastern) part of the Tien Shan consists of a complex system of ranges and
depressions divided into two major groups of ranges: the northern and the southern.
The groups are separated by a strip of intermontane depressions that itself is broken up
by the interior ranges. Ancient metamorphic rock constitutes the larger portion of the
ranges in the interior zone; Paleozoic (i.e., about 250 to 540 million years old)
sedimentary and igneous sedimentary beds form its northern and southern chains,
while Mesozoic (about 65 to 250 million years old) sandstones and conglomerates fill
the intermontane depressions in the interior zone and constitute the foothill ridges. The
height of the main Chinese chains of the Tien Shan is between 13,000 and 15,000 feet
(4,000 and 4,600 metres), with individual peaks exceeding 16,000 feet (4,900 metres);
the interior chains reach 14,500 feet (4,400 metres). In the western part, where
precipitation is adequate, large glaciers are formed, reaching a length of more than 20
miles (32 km). Large rivers with heavy flows, such as the Ili (Yili) River and its
tributaries, begin their courses there, and the predominantly alpine meadow steppe is
one of the best grazing lands of China.
Drainage

China has more than 50,000 rivers with individual drainage areas exceeding
40 square miles (100 square km). Of the total annual runoff, about 95 percent
drains directly into the sea (more than 80 percent into the Pacific Ocean, 12
percent into the Indian Ocean, and less than 1 percent into the Arctic Ocean) and 5
percent disappears inland.
The three principal rivers of China, all of which flow generally from west to east,
draining into the China Sea, are the Huang He, the Yangtze, and the Xi. The Huang He,
which rises in the Kunlun Mountains, is the northernmost of the three; it drains into
the Bo Hai (Gulf of Chihli), north of the Shandong Peninsula. The Yangtze, the longest
river in the country, rises in the Tibetan Highlands and flows across central China,
draining into the East China Sea north of Shanghai. The Xi River, the southernmost of
the three, rises in the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau and empties into the South China Sea via
the Pearl River Delta at Guangzhou (Canton).

The distribution of surface water in China is extremely uneven. Only a small part of the
country has sufficient quantities year-round. Much of the country has abundant runoff
but only during the rainy summer, when enormous surpluses of water are received.
From the southeast to the northwest, the surface water decreases as the relief becomes
more mountainous. A vast area of the northwest lacks water throughout the year. North
China (north of the Qin Mountains–Huai River line), with its flat relief and
long history of agriculture, contains almost two-thirds of China’s cultivated land;
paradoxically, because of scanty and erratic precipitation, the average annual runoff in
the North accounts for only about one-sixth of the total for the country as a whole.
Soils of China
China, with its vast and diverse climatic conditions, has a wide variety of soils. Indeed,
all the soil types of the Eurasian continent, except the soils of the tundra and the highly
leached podzolic-gley soils of the northern taiga (boreal forest), are found in China. As a
result of the climatic differences between the drier and cooler North and the wetter and
hotter South, soils may be grouped into two classifications. Generally speaking, the soils
north of the Qin Mountains–Huai River line are pedocals (calcareous) and are neutral to
alkaline in reaction; those south of this line are pedalfers (leached noncalcareous soils),
which are neutral to acid.

PEOPLE

China is a multinational country, with a population composed of a large number of

ethnic and linguistic groups. The Han (Chinese), the largest group, outnumber the
minority groups or minority nationalities in every province or autonomous region
except Tibet and Xinjiang. The Han, therefore, form the great homogeneous mass of the
Chinese people, sharing the same culture, the same traditions, and the same written
language. For this reason, the general basis for classifying the country’s population is
largely linguistic rather than ethnic. Some 55 minority groups are spread over
approximately three-fifths of the country’s total area. Where these minority groups are
found in large numbers, they have been given some semblance of autonomy and self-
government; autonomous regions of several types have been established on the basis of
the geographic distribution of nationalities.

The government takes great credit for its treatment of these minorities; it has advanced
their economic well-being, raised their living standards, provided educational facilities,
promoted their national languages and cultures, and raised their literacy levels, as well
as introduced a written language where none existed previously. It must be noted,
however, that some minorities (e.g., Tibetans) have been subject to varying degrees of
repression. Still, of the 50-odd minority languages, only 20 had written forms before the
coming of the communist regime in 1949; and only relatively few written languages—
e.g., Mongolian, Tibetan, Uighur, Kazakh (Hasake), Dai, and Korean (Chaoxian)—were
in everyday use. Other written languages were used chiefly for religious purposes and by
a limited number of people. Educational institutions for national minorities are a
feature of many large cities, notably Beijing, Wuhan, Chengdu, and Lanzhou.
Languages

Several major language families are represented in China. By far the largest groups are
speakers of Sino-Tibetan and Altaic languages, with considerably smaller numbers
speaking Indo-European, Austroasiatic, and Tai languages.
Sino-Tibetan of China
The Sino-Tibetan family, both numerically and in the extent of its distribution, is by far
the most prominent; within this family, Han Chinese is the most widely spoken
language. Although unified by their tradition—the written ideographic characters of
their language as well as many other cultural traits—the Han speak several mutually
unintelligible dialects and display marked regional differences. By far the most
important Chinese tongue is Mandarin, or putonghua, meaning “ordinary language” or
“common language.” There are three variants of Mandarin. The first of these is
the northern variant, of which the Beijing dialect, or Beijing hua, is typical and which is
spoken to the north of the Qin Mountains–Huai River line; as the most widespread
Chinese tongue, it has officially been adopted as the basis for a national language. The
second is the western variant, also known as the Chengdu or Upper Yangtze variant; this
is spoken in the Sichuan Basin and in adjoining parts of southwestern China. The third
is the southern variant, also known as the Nanjing or Lower Yangtze variant, which is
spoken in northern Jiangsu and in southern and central Anhui. Some authorities also
recognize a fourth variant, Northwestern, which is used in most of northwestern China.
Related to Mandarin are the Hunan, or Xiang, language, spoken by people in central
and southern Hunan, and the Gan dialect. The Huizhou language, spoken in southern
Anhui, forms an enclave within the southern Mandarin area.

Less intelligible to Mandarin speakers are the dialects of the southeast coastal region,
stretching from Shanghai to Guangzhou (Canton). The most important of these is
the Wu language, spoken in southern Jiangsu and in Zhejiang. This is followed, to the
south, by the Fuzhou, or Northern Min, language of northern and central Fujian and by
the Xiamen-Shantou (Amoy-Swatow), or Southern Min, language of southern Fujian
and easternmost Guangdong. The Hakka language of southernmost Jiangxi and
northeastern Guangdong has a rather scattered pattern of distribution. Probably the
best known of these southern dialects is Yue, particularly Cantonese, which is spoken in
central and western Guangdong, Hong Kong, and in southern Guangxi—a dialect area in
which a large proportion of overseas Chinese originated.

In addition to the Han, the Manchu and the Hui (Chinese Muslims) also speak
Mandarin and use the Chinese writing system. The Hui, firm adherents of Islam, are
descendants of Persian and Central Asian Muslims who traveled to China as merchants,
soldiers, and scholars and intermarried with several Chinese nationalities. They are
intermingled with the Han throughout much of the country and are distinguished as Hui
only in the area of their heaviest concentration, the Hui Autonomous Region of Ningxia.
Other Hui communities are organized as autonomous prefectures (zizhizhou)
in Xinjiang and as autonomous counties (zizhixian) in Qinghai, Hebei, Guizhou,
and Yunnan. Increasingly, the Hui have been moving from their scattered settlements
into the area of major concentration, possibly in order to facilitate intermarriage with
other Muslims.

The Manchu claim that they are descendants of the Manchu warriors who invaded
China in the 17th century and founded the Qing dynasty (1644–1911/12). Manchu is
virtually a dead language—though it is closely related to Sibo (or Xibe), which is still
vital—and the Manchu have been completely assimilated into Han Chinese culture. They
are found mainly in North China and the Northeast, but they form no separate
autonomous areas above the commune level.
The Zhuang (Zhuangjia) are China’s largest minority group. Most of them live in
the Zhuang Autonomous Region of Guangxi. They are also found in national
autonomous areas in neighbouring Yunnan and Guangdong. They depend mainly on
rice cultivation for their livelihood. In religion the Zhuang are animists, worshipping
particularly the spirits of their ancestors. Members of the Buyi (Zhongjia) group are
concentrated in southern Guizhou, where they share an autonomous prefecture with
the Miao (Hmong) group. The Dong people are settled in small communities in Guangxi
and Guizhou; they share with the Miao group an autonomous prefecture set up in
southeast Guizhou in 1956.

Tibetans are distributed over the entire Qinghai-Tibetan highland region.

Outside Tibet, Tibetan minorities are found in five Tibetan autonomous prefectures in
Qinghai, two in Sichuan, and one each in Yunnan and Gansu. The Tibetans still
maintain their tribal characteristics, but few of them are nomadic. Though essentially
farmers, they also raise livestock and, like other tribal peoples in the Chinese far west,
hunt to supplement their food supply. The major religion of Tibet has been Tibetan
Buddhism since about the 17th century; before 1959 the social and political institutions
of this region were still based largely on that faith. Many of the Yi (Lolo) are
concentrated in two autonomous prefectures—one in southern Sichuan and another in
northern Yunnan. They raise crops and sometimes keep flocks and herds.

The Miao-Yao (Hmong-Mien) peoples, with their major concentration in Guizhou, are
distributed throughout the central south and southwestern provinces and are found also
in some small areas in eastern China. They are subdivided into many rather distinct
groupings. Most of them have now lost their traditional tribal practices through the
influence of the Han, and it is only their language that serves to distinguish them. Two-
thirds of the Miao are settled in Guizhou, where they share two autonomous prefectures
with the Dong and Buyi groups. The Yao people are concentrated in the Guangxi-
Guangdong-Hunan border area.

In some areas of China, especially in the southwest, many different ethnic groups are
geographically intermixed. Because of language barriers and different economic
structures, these peoples all maintain their own cultural traits and live in relative
isolation from one another. The Han are active in the towns and fertile river valleys of
some of these locales, while the minority peoples continue to base their livelihood on
more-traditional forms of agriculture or on grazing their livestock on hillsides and
mountains. The vertical distribution of these peoples is in zones—usually the higher they
live, the less complex their way of life. In former times they did not mix well with one
another, but now, with highways penetrating deep into their settlements, they have
better opportunities to communicate with other groups and have benefited from
improved living conditions.
Altaic of China
While the minorities of the Sino-Tibetan language family are thus concentrated in the
south and southwest, the second major group of languages—the Altaic languages—is
represented entirely by minorities in northwestern and northern China. The Altaic
languages comprise three language families: Turkic, Mongolian, and Manchu-Tungus.
The Turkic language family is by far the most numerous of the three. The Uighur, who
are Muslims, form the largest Turkic-speaking minority. They are distributed over
chains of oases in the Tarim and Junggar basins of Xinjiang and mainly depend on
irrigated agriculture for a livelihood. Other Turkic minorities in Xinjiang are splinter
groups of nationalities living in neighbouring countries of Central Asia, including
the Kazakhs and the Kyrgyz, all being adherents of Islam. The Kazakhs and Kyrgyz are
pastoral nomadic peoples who still show traces of tribal organization. The Kazakhs live
mainly as herders in northwestern and northern Xinjiang (notably in the Ili
River region), tending flocks in summer pastures and retiring to camps in the valleys
during the winter. The Kyrgyz are high-mountain pastoralists and are concentrated
mainly in the westernmost part of Xinjiang.

The Mongolians, who are by nature a nomadic people, are the most widely dispersed of
the minority nationalities of China. Most of them are inhabitants of the Inner Mongolia
Autonomous Region. Small Mongolian and Mongolian-related groups of people are
scattered throughout the vast area from Xinjiang through Qinghai and Gansu and into
the provinces of the Northeast (Jilin, Heilongjiang, and Liaoning). In addition to the
Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Mongolians are established in two autonomous
prefectures in Xinjiang, a joint autonomous prefecture with Tibetans and Kazakhs in
Qinhai, and several autonomous counties in the western area of the Northeast. Some
Mongolians retain their tribal divisions and are pastoralists, but large numbers practice
sedentary agriculture, and others combine crop growing with herding. Those who
depend on animal husbandry travel each year around the pastureland—grazing sheep,
goats, horses, cattle, and camels—and then return to their point of departure. A few
engage in hunting and fur trapping to supplement their income. Mongolian languages
are sometimes divided into a western group (including Oirat and Kalmyk) and an
eastern group (including Buryat and Mongol), but their subclassification is
controversial. Religion is the main unifying force, and most Mongolians profess Tibetan
Buddhism.
Other languages

A few linguistic minorities in China belong to neither the Sino-Tibetan language family
nor the Altaic language group. The Tajiks of westernmost Xinjiang are related to the
people of Tajikistan, and their language belongs to the Iranian branch of the Indo-
European family. The Kawa people of the border area adjacent to Myanmar (Burma)
speak a tongue of the Mon-Khmer branch of the Austroasiatic family. Speakers of
languages in the Tai family are concentrated in southern Yunnan, notably in two
autonomous prefectures—one whose population is related most closely to the Thai of
northern Thailand and another whose Tai speakers are related to the Shan people of
Myanmar. The Li of Hainan Island form a separate group whose dialects are related to
the Tai and Austronesian languages. They share with the Miao people a district in the
southern part of the island. A significant number of Koreans are concentrated in an
autonomous prefecture in eastern Jilin along the North Korean border.
Religion

China is one of great centres of world religious thought and practices. It is known
especially as the birthplace of the religio-philosophical schools
of Confucianism and Daoism (Taoism), belief systems that formed the basis of Chinese
society and governance for centuries. Buddhism came to China perhaps as early as the
3rd century BCE and was a recognized presence there by the 1st century CE.
The country became an incubator for many of the great present-day Buddhist sects,
including Zen (Chan) and Pure Land, and, by its extension into Tibet, the source of
Tibetan Buddhism. In addition, hundreds of animist, folk, and syncretic religious
practices developed in China, including the movement that spawned the Taiping
Rebellion of the mid-19th century.

The political and social upheavals in China during the first half of the 20th
century had a disintegrating effect on Confucianism, Daoism, and (outside
Tibet) Buddhism, and traditional observances of these were greatly weakened.
From 1949 the country became officially atheist, although state-monitored
religious practices continued to be allowed. However, some religions were
persecuted, notably Tibetan Buddhism after China assumed military control of
Tibet in 1959. The Chinese government has gradually relaxed many of its
earlier restrictions on religious institutions and practices, but it still curtails
those it considers threats to the social and political order (e.g., the spiritual
exercise discipline called Falun Gong, or Falun Dafa).
About one-half of China’s people claim that they are nonreligious or atheist.
Adherents to various indigenous folk religions, collectively about one-fifth of the
total population, comprise the largest group of those professing a belief. Many
Chinese who are identified as adherents of folk religions also embrace aspects
and rituals of other religions. Members of non-Han minorities constitute the
bulk of those following Buddhism and Islam. Christians are a small but
significant and growing minority, many of them converts to Evangelical
Protestant denominations.

CURRENCY
renminbi, (Chinese: “people’s money”) also called yuan, monetary unit of China. One
renminbi (yuan) is divided into 100 fen or 10 jiao.

The People’s Bank of China has exclusive authority to issue currency. Banknotes are
issued in denominations from 1 fen to 100 renminbi. The obverse of some banknotes
contains images of communist leaders, such as Mao Zedong, leader of China’s
communist revolution, whose likeness is pictured on several notes; lower
denominations often contain images of people dressed in traditional attire. The reverse
side of most coins, which range in denominations from 1 fen to 1 renminbi, contains
images of historic buildings and the country’s diverse landscape. Renminbi became the
official name of the currency in 1969.

As China became one of the world’s preeminent centres of finance and trade in the early
21st century, the renminbi rose as a global currency. In recognition of the renminbi’s
elevated status, in November 2015 the International Monetary Fund (IMF) announced
that the renminbi was to become one of its reserve currencies. Thus, it would join the
U.S. dollar, the euro, the British pound sterling, and the Japanese yen as one of the
IMF’s Special Drawing Rights currencies used for intergovernmental loans. The
renminbi’s status change took effect in late 2016.

tael, a Chinese unit of weight that, when applied to silver, was long used as a unit
of currency. Most taels were equivalent to 1.3 ounces of silver.

China did not have an officially established national currency until 1933, and hence
external trade was conducted in foreign currencies and internal trade in ounces, or taels,
of silver. The tael was seldom minted in the form of a coin but rather served as a
standard unit of account; actual transactions were completed with ingots of silver, with
bank notes or checks expressed in taels, or with silver coins, especially the Spanish or
Mexican dollars that flowed into China in great volume in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Bar silver imported into China by the Spaniards and others was remelted and cast into
specially shaped ingots weighing about 50 taels; these were known as sycees and formed
a considerable part of China’s bank reserves until 1933.

Taels varied considerably in weight over China, depending on the scales used in a
particular region or locality. The most important currency tael was the Shanghai tael,
whose fine-silver equivalent was 518 grains. The Shanghai tael’s
exchange value fluctuated with the price of silver in London and New York City and was
the basis for wholesale trade and foreign-exchange transactions in China’s most
important commercial city.

From ancient times the money used by the common people in small transactions was
the cash, a bronze coin that was equal in value to one-thousandth of a tael. Beginning in
the late 19th century, however, retail trade began to be conducted with Mexican and,
later, Chinese silver dollars, fractional silver coins, and 10-cash copper pieces. Finally, in
1933 China’s Nationalist government officially abolished the tael, replacing it with the
new Chinese standard dollar, or yuan, which remains the basic unit of China’s currency.

DYSNASTIES OF CHINA

The history of China is generally presented according to the dynasty to which the
period’s ancient rulers belonged. From its inauguration in c. 2070 BC to the abdication
of its last emperor in 1912, China was ruled by a series of 13 successive dynasties.
1. Xia Dynasty (c. 2070-1600 BC)

The Xia dynasty was the first Chinese dynasty. It was founded by the legendary Yu the
Great (c. 2123-2025 BC), known for developing a flood control technique that stopped
the Great Flood that ravaged farmer’s crops for generations.

There is a severe lack of documented evidence about this dynasty and therefore very
little is known about the Xia period. Most scholars believe that stories about it were
spoken, rather than written. It is not until the Zhou Dynasty, 554 years later, that we see
written recordings of this first Chinese dynasty. For this reason, some scholars believe it
to be mythical or quasi-legendary.

2. Shang Dynasty (c. 1600-1050 BC)

The Shang dynasty is the earliest recorded Chinese dynasty supported by

archaeological evidence. 31 kings ruled much of the area along the Yellow River.

Under the Shang dynasty, there were advances in maths, astronomy, art and military
technology. They used a highly developed calendar system and an early form of
modern Chinese language.

3. Zhou Dynasty (c. 1046-256 BC)

The Zhou dynasty was the longest dynasty in the history of China, ruling the region for
almost 8 centuries.

Under the Zhous, culture flourished and civilisation spread. Writing was codified,
coinage was developed and chopsticks came into use.

Chinese philosophy blossomed with the birth of the philosophical schools of

Confucianism, Taoism and Mohism. The dynasty saw some of the greatest Chinese
philosophers and poets: Lao-Tzu, Tao Chien, Confucius, Mencius, Mo Ti and the
military strategist Sun-Tzu.
Zengzi (right) kneeling before Confucius (center), as depicted in a painting from the Illustrations of the ‘Classic of
Filial Piety’, Song dynasty

Image Credit: National Palace Museum, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The Zhous also developed the Mandate of Heaven – a concept that was used to justify
the rule of kings, who had been blessed by the gods.

The dynasty ended with the Warring States period (476–221 BC), in which various city-
states battled each other, establishing themselves as independent feudal entities. They
were finally consolidated by Qin Shi Huangdi, a brutal ruler who became the first
emperor of a unified China.

4. Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC)

The Qin dynasty marked the beginning of the Chinese Empire. During Qin Shi
Huangdi’s reign, China was greatly expanded to cover the Ye lands of Hunan and
Guangdong.
Although short-lived, the period saw ambitious public works projects including the
unification of state walls into a single Great Wall. It saw the development of a
standardised form of currency, a uniform system of writing and a legal code.
The Qin emperor was remembered for his ruthless megalomania and suppression of
speech – in 213 BC he ordered the burning of hundreds of thousands of books and the
live burial of 460 Confucian scholars.

He was also responsible for building a city-sized mausoleum for himself, guarded by
the life-sized Terracotta Army of more than 8,000 life-sized soldiers, 130 chariots with
520 horses and 150 cavalry horses.

5. Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 AD)

The Han dynasty was known as a golden age in Chinese history, with a prolonged
period of stability and prosperity. A central imperial civil service was established to
create a strong and organised government.

‘The Gansu Flying Horse’, depicted in full gallop, bronze sculpture. China, AD 25–220
Image Credit: G41rn8, CC BY-SA 4.0 , via Wikimedia Commons

China’s territory was extended to most of the China proper. The Silk Road was opened
up to connect to the west, bringing in trade, foreign cultures and the introduction of
Buddhism.
Under the Han dynasty, Confucianism, poetry and literature flowered. Paper and
porcelain were invented. China’s earliest written record on medicine, the Yellow
Emperor’s Canon of Medicine, was codified.
The name ‘Han’ was taken as the name of the Chinese people. Today, the Han Chinese
make up the dominant ethnic group in China and the largest in the world.

6. Six Dynasties Period

Three Kingdoms (220-265), Jin Dynasty (265-420), Period of the Northern and Southern
Dynasties (386-589).

Six Dynasties is the collective term for the six successive Han-ruled dynasties during
this turbulent period. All had their capitals at Jianye, present-day Nanjing.

The Three Kingdoms period has been romanticised repeatedly in Chinese culture –
most notably in the novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms.
Dan meets up with Total War: Three Kingdoms game developers Pete Stewart and Dominique Starr to discuss fact
and fiction within gaming narratives and the historical research undertaken to give a realistic representation.

WATCH NOW

7. Sui Dynasty (581-618)

The Sui dynasty, although brief, saw great changes in Chinese history. Its capital was
held at Daxing, present-day Xi’an.

Confucianism disintegrated as the dominant religion, making way for Taoism and
Buddhism. Literature flourished – it is thought that the legend of Hua Mulan was
composed during this time.
Under Emperor Wen and his son, Yang, the army was enlarged to the largest in the
world at the time. Coinage was standardised across the realm, the Great Wall was
expanded and the Grand Canal was completed.

8. Tang Dynasty (618-906)

The Tang dynasty, sometimes known as the Golden Age of Ancient China, was
considered the high point in Chinese civilisation. Its second emperor, Taizong, was
regarded as one of the greatest Chinese emperors.

The period saw one of the most peaceful and prosperous periods of Chinese history. By
the time of the rule of Emperor Xuanzong (712-756), China was the largest and most
populous country in the world.

Major achievements were seen in technology, science, culture, art and literature,
especially poetry. Some of the most beautiful pieces of Chinese sculpture and
silverwork originate from the Tang dynasty.
Emperor Taizong (626–649) receives Gar Tongtsen Yülsung, ambassador of the Tibetan Empire, at his court; later
copy of an original painted in 641 by Yan Liben (600–673)

Image Credit: Yan Liben, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The dynasty also saw the only female monarch in the history of China – Empress Wu
Zetian (624-705). Wu organised a secret police force and spies across the country,
making her one of the most effective – yet popular – monarchs in Chinese history.

9. Five Dynasties Period, Ten Kingdoms (907-960)

The 50 years between the fall of the Tang dynasty and establishment of the Song
dynasty were dominated by internal strife and chaos.

In north China, 5 would-be dynasties followed one another in succession. During the
same period, 10 regimes dominated separate regions of south China.

Despite the political turmoil, some key developments took place during this time. The
printing of books – which had begun in the Tang dynasty – became popular.

10. Song Dynasty (960-1279)

The Song dynasty saw the reunification of China under the Emperor Taizu. Major
inventions included gunpowder, printing, paper money and the compass.

Plagued with political factions, the Song court eventually fell to the challenge of the
Mongol invasion and was replaced by the Yuan dynasty.
 A 12th-century painting by Su Hanchen; a girl waves a peacock feather banner like the one used in dramatical
theater to signal an acting leader of troops

Image Credit: Su Hanchen, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

11. Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368)

The Yuan dynasty was established by the Mongols and ruled by Kublai Khan (1260-
1279), grandson of Genghis Khan. Khan was the first non-Chinese ruler to take over the
entire country.

Yuan China was considered the most important part of the vast Mongol Empire, which
stretched from the Caspian Sea to the Korean peninsula.

Khan created the new capital city of Xanadu (or Shangdu in Inner Mongolia). The main
centre of the Mongol Empire was later moved to Daidu, present day Beijing.
The Mongols’ reign in China came to an end after a series of famines, plagues, floods
and peasant uprisings.

12. Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)

The Ming dynasty saw a huge growth in China’s population and general economic
prosperity. However the Ming emperors were dogged with the same problems of
previous regimes and collapsed with the invasion of the Manchus.

During the dynasty, the Great Wall of China was completed. It also saw the construction
of the Forbidden City, the imperial residence in Beijing. The period is also known for its
blue-and-white Ming porcelains.

Suzannah Lipscomb explores the rich prose and diaries from travellers during the late Ming Dynasty.

LISTEN NOW

13. Qing Dynasty (1644-1912)

The Qing dynasty was the last imperial dynasty in China, succeeded by the Republic of
China in 1912. The Qing were made up of ethnic Manchus from the northern Chinese
region of Manchuria.
The Qing dynasty was the 5th largest empire in world history. However by the early 20th
century its rulers were weakened by rural unrest, aggressive foreign powers and military
weakness.

During the 1800s, Qing China faced attacks from Britain, France, Russia, Germany and
Japan. The Opium Wars (1839-42 and 1856-60) ended with Hong Kong ceding to
Britain and the humiliating defeat of the Chinese army.
On 12 February 1912, 6-year-old Puyi – the last emperor of China – abdicated. It
brought an end to the thousand-year imperial rule of China and marked the beginning of
republic and socialist rule.

INVENTIONS

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Chinese zodiac, or shengxiao (/shnng-sshyao/ 'born resembling'),

is represented by 12 zodiac animals. In order, they are the Rat, Ox, Tiger,
Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, and Pig.
Chinese zodiac years begin/end at Chinese New Year (in January/February).
Each year in the repeating zodiac cycle of 12 years is represented by a zodiac
animal, each with its own reputed attributes.

2022 is a year of the Tiger, starting from February 1st, 2022 and ends on
January 21st, 2023. 2023 is a year of the Rabbit, starting from January 22nd,
2023, and ending on February 9th, 2024.
Chinese people believe that a person's horoscope, personality, and love
compatibility are closely associated with his/her Chinese zodiac sign,
determined by his/her birth year.

Chinese Zodiac Years

Chinese Zodiac Sign Years
Rat ...1948, 1960, 1972, 1984, 1996, 2008, 2020…

Ox …1949, 1961, 1973, 1985, 1997, 2009, 2021…

Tiger …1950, 1962, 1974, 1986, 1998, 2010, 2022…

Rabbit … 1951, 1963, 1975, 1987, 1999, 2011, 2023 ...

Dragon … 1952, 1964, 1976, 1988, 2000, 2012, 2024 …

Snake … 1953, 1965, 1977, 1989, 2001, 2013, 2025 …

Horse … 1954, 1966, 1978, 1990, 2002, 2014, 2026 …

Goat … 1955, 1967, 1979, 1991, 2003, 2015, 2027 …

Monkey … 1956, 1968, 1980, 1992, 2004, 2016, 2028 …

Rooster … 1957, 1969, 1981, 1993, 2005, 2017, 2029 …

 Dog … 1958, 1970, 1982, 1994, 2006, 2018, 2030 …

Pig … 1959, 1971, 1983, 1995, 2007, 2019, 2031 …

You may want to read more about Chinese zodiac years.

For the starting date of a zodiac year, there are two schools of thought in
Chinese astrology: Chinese New Year or the Start of Spring.

 Chinese New Year, day 1 of the Chinese lunar year, falls somewhere in
the period January 21st to February 20th.
 The Start of Spring is the 1st of the 24 Solar Terms, beginning on February
3rd or 4th.

Most Chinese people use Chinese New Year as the start of the zodiac year. This
is popular Chinese astrology. Only traditionalists and professional astrologers
use the first solar term.
Therefore, for example if you were born in January or February in 1997, you
might be an Ox or a Rat.

Chinese Zodiac Signs' Personality

Chinese zodiac animals have astrological and cultural meanings. Chinese
people associate each animal sign with certain characteristics. It's believed that
people born in a given year have the personality of that year's animal.
Rat: quick-witted, resourceful, versatile, kind.
Ox: diligent, dependable, strong, determined.
Tiger: brave, confident, competitive, unpredictable.
Rabbit: quiet, elegant, kind, responsible.
Dragon: confident, intelligent, enthusiastic.
Snake: enigmatic, intelligent, wise.
Horse: animated, active, energetic.
Goat: calm, gentle, sympathetic.
Monkey: sharp, smart, curious.
Rooster: observant, hardworking, courageous.
Dog: lovely, honest, prudent.
Pig: compassionate, generous, diligent.
Chinese Zodiac Signs' Lucky/Unlucky Things
Lucky Things
Chinese Lucky Lucky Lucky
Lucky Flowers
Zodiac Sign Numbers Colors Directions

blue, gold, west, northwest

Rat 2, 3
green
lily, African violet
and southwest

white,
Ox 1, 4 yellow, tulip, peach blossom north, south
green

blue, gray, east, north,

Tiger 1, 3, 4
orange
yellow lily, cineraria
south

red, pink, east, south and

Rabbit 3, 4, 6
purple, blue
plantain lily, jasmine
northwest
 gold, silver,
bleeding-heart glory east, north,
Dragon 1, 6, 7 grayish
bower, dragon flowers south
white

black, red, east, west, and

Snake 2, 8, 9
and yellow
orchid and cactus
southwest

yellow and east, west, and

Horse 2, 3, 7
green
calla lily and jasmine
south

brown, red,
Goat 2, 7
and purple
carnations and primroses north

white, blue, chrysanthemum, crape north,

Monkey 4, 9
gold myrtle northwest, west

gold, brown,
Rooster 5, 7, 8
and yellow
gladiola, cockscomb south, southeast

red, green, east, south, and

Dog 3, 4, 9
and purple
rose, cymbidium orchids
northeast
 yellow, gray, east and
Pig 2, 5, 8
brown, gold
hydrangea and daisy
southwest

Unlucky Things
Chinese Zodiac Unlucky
Unlucky Colors Unlucky Direction
Sign Numbers

Rat 5, 9 yellow, brown south and southeast

Ox 5, 6 blue southwest

Tiger 6, 7, 8 brown southwest

dark brown, dark yellow, north, west, and

Rabbit 1, 7, 8
white southwest

Dragon 3, 8 blue, green northwest

northeast and
Snake 1, 6, 7 brown, gold, white
northwest
 Horse 1, 5, 6 blue, white north and northwest

Goat 4, 9 blue and black southwest

Monkey 2, 7 red, pink south, southeast

Rooster 1, 3, 9 red east

Dog 1, 6, 7 blue, white, gold southeast

Pig 1, 7, red, blue, green southeast

Best Matches for the 12 Zodiac Signs

 Rat: Rat, Ox, Dragon, or Monkey
 Ox: Rat, Snake, or Rooster
 Tiger: Horse, Dog, or Pig
 Rabbit: Goat, Dog, or Pig
 Dragon: Rat, Monkey, or Rooster
 Snake: Ox or Rooster
 Horse: Tiger, Goat, or Dog
 Goat: Rabbit, Horse, Goat, or Pig
 Monkey: Rat, Dragon, or Dog
 Rooster: Ox, Dragon, or Snake
 Dog: Tiger, Rabbit, Horse, or Monkey
 Pig: Tiger, Rabbit, or Goat

The sequence of the 12 signs is popularly explained by a myth about when the
Jade Emperor (the supreme immortal) wanted to select 12 animals to be his
guards. All creatures on Earth were summoned to participate in a race. The
earlier one went through the Heavenly Gate, the better the rank one would
have.

 Rat and Ox got up very early. On the way to the Gate, Rat jumped onto
the back of the Ox to cross the river. He won first place by
suddenly jumping down from Ox's back and dashed to the feet of the
Emperor when they're near to the Heavenly Gate. Ox was second.
 Tiger and Rabbit came third and fourth because both are fast and
competitive, but Tiger was faster.
 Good-looking Dragon was fifth and was immediately noticed by the Jade
Emperor, who said Dragon's son could be sixth. Just then, Snake came
forward and said Dragon was his adoptive father; so Snake ranked sixth.
 Horse and Goat arrived. They were very kind and modest and each let
the other go first. They were ranked seventh and eighth.
 Monkey had fallen well behind. But he jumped between trees and
stones, and caught up to be ninth. Last were Rooster, Dog, and Pig.

Why is the cat not one of the 12 zodiac animals? It is said that Cat and Rat got
as far as crossing the river together on Ox's back, but Rat pushed Cat into the
water. Cat was washed away and didn't get to the Heavenly Gate in time to get
a ranking. After that a great enmity grew between Cat and Rat, so that rats
scatter in all directions when a cat appears.
The story is widespread (and widely varying) among Chinese. Though it is made
up, it might be interesting for you to tell your children and friends.

What is the luckiest/unluckiest Chinese zodiac sign?

In Chinese culture, the top 5 luckiest/most popular zodiac
signs are Dragon, Snake, Pig, Rat, and Tiger conventionally.
There is a popular Chinese folk saying that 9/10 Goats are inadequate
(十羊九不全 '10 Goats 9 incomplete'), which implies that most people born in
a year of the Goat are destined for bad luck. Most Chinese people also believe
that people born in a Goat year will grow up to be followers rather than
leaders. Although this is an outdated superstition, it has a real effect on
Chinese society.
Conversely, the Dragon is the most coveted zodiac sign, with Chinese births
peaking in Dragon years.

What are the differences between Chinese zodiac

and western astrology?
The main similarity between the two systems is that both systems are based
on time periods of birth, and they both have 12 symbols or signs with
associated personalities and fortunes.
However, there are big differences in their origins and astrological theory.
With the Chinese zodiac, the 12 signs are derived from the ancients' musings
about archetypal animals, people's personalities and fortunes, and their
relationships with one another and years of birth. A myth about a celestial
race was later developed to explain the Chinese zodiac sequence.
This differs from Western astrology, where the 12 zodiac signs are based on
constellations' positions relative to the earth. The constellations were named
according to Greek mythology and astrological theory was developed based on
the stars supposed influence on human personalities and lives.

Chinese Zodiac in Other Asian Countries

The Chinese zodiac has a great influence on several other Asian countries, such
as the South Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Singapore, Thailand, and Myanmar. In
some countries, the zodiac signs are the same as the Chinese ones, while some
of the animals differ in other countries.
The 12 Chinese zodiac animals in order are: Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon,
Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, and Pig. These animal signs
are exactly the same in South Korea, North Korea, Singapore, and Cambodia.

 The 12 Japanese zodiac animals in order are: Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit,
Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, and Boar.
 The 12 Vietnamese zodiac animals in order are: Rat, Buffalo, Tiger, Cat,
Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, and Pig.
 The 12 Thai zodiac animals in order are: Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Naga (a
mythical half-human-half-snake spirit), Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey,
Rooster, Dog, and Pig.
 The 8 Burmese zodiac animals are: Garuda (a mythical bird), Tiger, Lion,
Elephant (with tusks), Rat, Guinea Pig, and Dragon.
Mandarin
As one of the six official languages
used by UN (United Nations),
Chinese now has earned itself
greater status in the World. The
official language of China is the
Mandarin, which is the very name of
'Hanyu' or 'Putonghua', belonging to
Sino-Tibetan.

Putonghua is a parlance in mainland

China. It is the common language of
all modern Han nationality people. In
Taiwan Province and Hong Kong, it is
called 'Guoyu' while in Singapore and
Malaysia, it is often called 'Huayu'.
Chinese Characters
Mandarin is shaped and based on the
Beijing dialect and other dialects
spoken in the northern areas of China. Students are often taught mandarin as 'Yuwen'
in their schoolbooks. It is beyond all doubt that mandarin is used as a mother tongue
by the most people accounting for about one fifth of the world's population. Chinese
once had very great influence on some peripheral countries with their languages and
characters, such as Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese.

English is a required course and universal education in China and has great popularity.
Nowadays many Chinese people can speak basic English, especially the youth,
students, and staff of service trades like hotels, restaurants, airlines, banks and post
offices.
In large cities there are more people who can
communicate with foreigners in English than
smaller towns & cities. Some may master a
second foreign language like French, German,
Japanese, Italian, and Spanish. However, in rural
or remote areas, few people can speak English or
other foreign languages.

The language barrier now is not a problem at all

for those that wish to come to China. You can
refer to the Basic Expressions in Chinese.

Learn to Speak Chinese

Bilingual Sighboard in a Toilet

Greetings Introduction Thanks & Appreciation

Farewell In a Trouble Congratulations

Apology & Forgiveness Numbers Currency

Asking about Price At a Restaurant On a City Bus/Subway

On a Taxi At the Railway Station At the Airport

Shopping At the Hotel At the Tourist Attraction

At the Hospital Asking for Directions

Dialects
With a vast territory and huge population, China has many different dialects which are of
great complexity. Divided into official and non-official dialects, they vary between
different areas. The official dialects generally refer to the northern dialects, while the
non-official dialects are often spoken in the southeast part of the country. Below is a table
showing the dialects in detail:

Categories Dialects Spoken in Areas

 Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei Province, Henan Province, Shandong Province, Liaoning
North China
Province, Jilin Province, Heilongjiang Province, Part of Inner Mongolia

Northwest Shanxi Province, Shaanxi Province, Gansu Province, Part of Qinghai Province, Ningxia
China Province and Inner Mongolia

Official Most areas of Hubei Province (southeastern and eastern parts excluded ), Yunnan
Southwest
Province, Guizhou Province, Sichuan Province, north sides of Hunan Province and
China
Guangxi Province

Areas along the northern and southern banks of Yangtze River in Anhui Province,
Yangtze-
Northern areas of Yangtze River in Jiangsu Province (Huizhou excluded), Southern
HuaiRiver
areas of Yangtze River (northernmost to Nanjing and southernmost to Zhenjiang)

Wu Southern part of Jiangsu Province; Zhejiang Province

Gan JiangxiProvince

Xiang HunanProvince; northern part of Guangxi Province

Non-
Yue GuangdongProvince; Southeast part of Guangxi Province
official
FujianProvince; Taiwan Province; Guangdong Province (Chaozhou, Shantou), Hainan
Min
Province

Eastern and northern part of Guangdong Province; Western part of Fujian Province;
Hakka
Southern part of Jiangxi Province; Taiwan Province
Due to the differences between each of the
dialects, there are obvious obstacles to people
speaking their own dialects and communicating
with each other, especially among the non-official
dialects.

Characters
The Chinese character has more than 3,000 years
of history. It is a kind of hieroglyphic which
originated from carapace-bone-script in the Shang
Dynasty (16th - 11th century BC). It then
developed into different forms of calligraphic
handwritings like large seal script, small seal
script, official script, regular script, cursive script
and running script.

There are altogether 80,000 Chinese words or so

that originate from ancient times; however, only
about 3,000 words for daily use are available to
express over 99% of the information in written
form because a word contains many different Chinese Characters
meanings. The character is now of two kinds –
Simplified and Traditional. Simplified style are
often used in mainland China, Singapore, and oversea Chinese communities in Southeast
Asia, while the latter is often accepted in Taiwan Province, Hong Kong, Macau and oversea
Chinese communities in North America.
Minorities
Actually the Mandarin and characters used by Han people are also the common language
for other minorities. Among all the 55 ethnic minorities, the people of Hui and Man
nationalities also use Mandarin and its characters. 29 ethnic minorities have their own
traditional languages like Tibetan, Yi, Mongol, Uygur, Kazak, Lahu, Chaoxian and Kirgiz.
Some minorities, like Dai nationality and Jingpo nationality, use even more than one kind
of language and characters.

These snacks

We have the Chinese to thank for a wide variety of dishes and snacks. They introduced us
to pancit (which is for long life, as they say), dim sum (hello, siomai rice), lumpia, and even our
favorite taho.

via GIPHY
Calling your older siblings 'Ate' and 'Kuya'

The words ate, and kuya are not actually Filipino. These family terms are from Hokkien
Chinese. Ate is from a ci (a” is a prefix for relationships; “ci” means older sister) while kuya is
from ko a (“ko” is an appellation for older brother; “a” is a suffix). Ditse (second eldest sister),
diko (second eldest brother), sanse(third eldest sister), and sangko (third eldest brother) are also
Chinese.

Fireworks for celebrations

Filipinos love festivities, and when we celebrate, we want to make it as extra as possible. During
festivals and holidays (Christmas, New Year, etc.), pyrotechnics are usually present to welcome
a celebration or to drive away evil spirits. Apparently, we got this grand practice from China.

via GIPHY

Feng Shui

Ancient art and science which traces its roots 3,000 years ago, Feng Shui have been part of the
Filipino culture. Btw, Feng means “wind,” and Shui means “water”—two elements associated
with good health which equals to good fortune. To let good feng shui enter your home or office,
you should de-clutter your area, let natural light and air enter, consider color scheming and the
order of furniture and fixture.

Round fruits are 'required' for New Year

When New Year’s Eve comes, the usual Filipino table has oranges, chicos, rambutan, apples,
pears, and other round fruits. Expect at least 12 kinds of round fruits as they symbolize 12
months of prosperity.

via GIPHY

Chinese garter

Chinese garter actually originated from China (surprise!). Our childhood afternoons and class
dismissals are for Chinese garter “tournament” with friends and classmates. The game involves
two teams. The main goal is to jump over the garter (it can be an actual garter or a makeshift one
made of rubber bands tied together) without being tripped.

Tikoy for Chinese New Year

Tikoy or Nian Gao is a type of rice cake made from glutinous rice and considered as the
centerpiece during Chinese New Year. Eating Nian Gao, which is a homonym for “higher year,"
is regarded as good luck. In the Philippines, tikoy have different flavors like ube and pandan.
These traditions have been a part of the Filipino culture for as long as we can remember. But one
thing’s for sure; these Chinese influences helped shape the Filipino culture of yesterday and
today.

Got any Chinese practices or traditions you are thankful for? Share them with us!

Chinese influences in Philippine culture

Tsinoy Culture / By Tulay Staff

First published in Tulay Monthly 1, no. 3 (August 1988): 7

Did you know that the Filipino word lithaw (plough) and the word puthaw (axe) came
from the Chinese words luey-thaw (犁頭) and po-thaw (斧頭) because it was the
Chinese who taught the Filipinos the new techniques of farming, fruit growing and
vegetable gardening? The early Chinese traders brought to the Philippines a wide
range of technological know-how and cultural elements that became part of the
Filipino way of life.

Below are some of the most important Chinese influences in Philippine culture.
 The art of domesticating carabaos and training them for deep and tidy
ploughing was handed onto Filipinos by Chinese settlers in the early days.
Furthermore, the use of the cast-iron plough which greatly increased food
production was also introduced by the Chinese.
 Farm implements and
sugarcane press replica

 The process of extracting sugar from sugar cane was introduced by the
Chinese and the early stone presses came from China; the process of refining
sugar by claying was also taught by the Chinese.
 Masonry or building in stone and the use of lime as a binder of stone
buildings was introduced by Chinese artisans shortly after the Spanish
conquest. Many of our famous churches, like San Agustin Church, were largely
built by Chinese hands and many of the famous religious images and
sculptures were carved by Chinese artisans.
 Metal tools (fish hooks,needles, and other artifacts made of metals) were first
brought to the Philippines by the Chinese.
 The art of sophisticated pottery-making, textile weaving and dyeing,
carpentry, smith crafting, soap and candle making were taught by the Chinese.
  Many of the utensils and materials we use for our daily needs have Chinese
names because they came from the Chinese — like bakya, susi, siyanse,
baktaw, bimpo, bilao, bithay, hikaw, tanso, sotsuwa, kusot and many others.

 Food processing techniques that brought us the miki, misua, bihon, tausi,
tokwa and taho and culinary arts that brought us hopya, tikoy, humba, goto,
batsoy, siopao and siomai were acquired from the Chinese.
 Many varieties of vegetables like petsay, kintsay, kuchay, upo, toge, bataw,
sitaw adopt Chinese nomenclature because they were introduced to the
Philippines from China.Other Chinese food products erstwhile unknown in the
Philippines but later became popular are dried sea cucumbers, dried shrimps
(hebi), swallow’s nest, dried lily buds (kimchamchuy), arrowhead bulbs, ginger
and many others.
 The art of printing is among the most significant contributions of the Chinese
to the Philippines; the first three books ever printed in the Philippines were
done by a Chinese named Keng Yong of Binondo, in 1593.
The close link and depth of interaction between the early Chinese and Filipinos are
evidenced by the Filipinos’ adoption of Chinese kinship terms: ate, kuya, ditse, sanse,
diko, sanko, inkong, impo, inso and others.