NAZEER HUSSAIN UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING
FALL SEMESTER 2018

LECTURE 1

Refrigeration is the process of cooling of a space or substance below the environmental

temperature.

Refrigeration is a process of removing heat from a low-temperature reservoir and transferring it to a

high-temperature reservoir.

 The applications of refrigeration include household refrigerators, industrial freezers, air

conditioning, heat pumps and cryogenics.
 Refrigerator is used to maintain the temperature of colder space whereas heat pump is used to
maintain the temperature of warmer space.
 Cooling to a temperature lower than 150K (-190F, -123C) is called cryogenics.

Cryogenics (from Greek κριοζ ,, icy cold), deals with phenomena occurring at very low temperatures.

The main components of a refrigeration system are the condenser, the compressor, the
evaporator and the expansion valve.

A HEAT ENGINE is a device by which system is made to undergo a cyclic process that results
in conservation of heat and work.

Working substance is a material which converts heat into work.

INSULATING STAND: It insulates the working substance from thermal contact with the
surrounding. This is used for performing adiabatic process.

REFRIGERATION CYCLES (reversed carnot and joules cycle)

Reversed Carnot Cycle:

Process a-b: Absorption of heat by the working fluid from refrigerator at constant low

temperature T2 during isothermal expansion.

Process b-c: Isentropic compression of the working fluid with the aid of external work. The
temperature of the fluid rises from T2 to T1.
Process c-d: Isothermal compression of the working fluid during which heat is rejected at
constant high temperature T1.

Process d-a: Isentropic expansion of the working fluid. The temperature of the working fluid
falls from T1 to T2.
VAPOUR ABSORPTION AND VAPOUR COMPRESSION CYCLE

The vapor absorption refrigeration system comprises of all the processes in the vapor compression refrigeration system
like compression, condensation, expansion and evaporation. In the vapor absorption system the refrigerant used is
ammonia, water or lithium bromide. The refrigerant gets condensed in the condenser and it gets evaporated in the
evaporator. The refrigerant produces cooling effect in the evaporator and releases the heat to the atmosphere via the
condenser.

The major difference between the two systems is the method of the suction and compression of the refrigerant in the
refrigeration cycle. In the vapor compression system, the compressor sucks the refrigerant from evaporator and
compresses it to the high pressure. The compressor also enables the flow of the refrigerant through the whole
refrigeration cycle.
In the vapor absorption cycle, the process of suction and compression are carried out by two different devices called as
the absorber and the generator. Thus the absorber and the generator replace the compressor in the vapor absorption
cycle. The absorbent enables the flow of the refrigerant from the absorber to the generator by absorbing it.
Another major difference between the vapor compression and vapor absorption cycle is the method in which the energy
input is given to the system. In the vapor compression system the energy input is given in the form of the mechanical
work from the electric motor run by the electricity. In the vapor absorption system the energy input is
given in the form of the heat. This heat can be from the excess steam from the process or the hot water. The heat can
also be created by other sources like natural gas, kerosene, heater etc. though these sources are used only in the small
systems.
The absorber is a sort of vessel consisting of water that acts as the absorbent, and the previous absorbed
refrigerant.
The absorption refrigeration system comprises of condenser, expansion valve, evaporator, absorber, pump and
generator.
An absorption refrigerator is a refrigerator that uses a heat source (e.g., solar energy, a fossil-
fueled flame, waste heat from factories, or district heating systems) to provide the energy needed to
drive the cooling process.
In the early years of the twentieth century, the vapor absorption cycle using water-ammonia systems
was popular and widely used, but after the development of the vapor compression cycle it lost much
of its importance because of its low coefficient of performance (about one fifth of that of the vapor
compression cycle). Nowadays, the vapor absorption cycle is used only where waste heat is
available or where heat is derived from solar collectors.

Vapour Compression Cycle

 JOULES CYCLE

Initially joule came up with his own cycle called JOULE CYCLE, which we know it as
Open cycle gas turbine plant. In joule cycle, the gas after expanding in turbine, gets
released into atmosphere.

>Brayton later took joule cycle as reference and developed BRAYTON CYCLE, which
we know it as Closed cycle gas turbine plant. Here the same gas gets compressed and
expanded within the cycle.

The advantage of Brayton cycle is that

1. Any working fluid can be used, preferably with higher gamma value for higher efficiency
2. Any cheaper fuel can be used, as the products of combustion don't come in direct contact
with turbine blades
3. It can be made compact, as it is possible to locate combustion chamber away from system.
It's only disadvantage is an extra heat exchanger and cooler are required during
operation.
LECTURE 2

REFRIGERANT AND ITS TYPES

In refrigerating systems, such as air conditioners, the fluid that absorbs and releases the heat is called refrigerant. 
The process starts in the evaporator component of the system.

A refrigerant is a substance or mixture, usually a fluid, used in a heat pump and refrigeration
cycle. In most cycles it undergoes phase transitions from a liquid to a gas and back again. Many
working fluids have been used for such purposes.

Fluorocarbons, especially chlorofluorocarbons, became commonplace in the 20th century, but they
are being phased out because of their ozone depletion effects. Other common refrigerants used in
various applications are ammonia, sulfur dioxide, and non-halogenated hydrocarbons such as
propane.

Properties of a Refrigerant
The ideal refrigerant would have favorable thermodynamic properties, be noncorrosive to
mechanical components, and be safe, including freedom from toxicity and flammability.

It would not cause ozone depletion or climate change.

The desired thermodynamic properties are a boiling point somewhat below the target
temperature, a high heat of vaporization, a moderate density in liquid form, a relatively high
density in gaseous form, and a high critical temperature.

Few more properties of a refrigerant:

1. Smaller vapor density

2. Enthalpy of vaporization
3. Thermal conductivity
4. Dielectric strength
5. Critical temperature
6. Specific heat
7. Leak tendency
8. Toxicity
9. Availability

List of refrigerants

Chemical refrigerants are assigned an R number which is determined systematically

according to molecular structure. Common refrigerants are frequently referred to as
Freon (a registered trademark of DuPont). The following is a list of refrigerants
with their Type/Prefix, ASHRAE designated numbers, IUPAC chemical name,
molecular formula, CAS registry number / Blend Name, Atmospheric Lifetime in
years, Semi-Empirical Ozone depletion potential, net Global warming potential over a
100-year time horizon, Occupational exposure limit/Permissible exposure limit in
parts per million (volume per volume) over a time-weighted average (TWA)
concentration for a normal eight-hour work day and a 40-hour work week, ASHRAE
34 Safety Group in Toxicity & Flammability (in Air @ 60 °C & 101.3 kPa) classing,
Refrigerant Concentration Limit / Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health in parts
per million (volume per volume) & grams per cubic meter, Molecular mass in Atomic
mass units, Normal Boiling Point (or Bubble & Dew Points for the Zeotrope(400)-
series)(or Normal Boiling Point & Azeotropic Temperature for the Azeotrope(500)-
series) at 101,325 Pa (1 atmosphere) in degrees Celsius, Critical Temperature in
degrees Celsius and Critical Pressure (absolute) in kiloPascals.

CFC R-11 Trichlorofluoromethane CCl3F

CFC R-12 Dichlorodifluoromethane CCl2F2
H R-12B1 Bromochlorodifluoromethane CBrClF2 or CF2ClBr
H R-12B2 Dibromodifluoromethane CBr2F2
CFC R-13 Chlorotrifluoromethane CClF3
H R-13B1 Bromotrifluoromethane CF3Br

Compounds used as refrigerants may be described using either the appropriate prefix above
or with the prefixes "R-" or "Refrigerant." Thus, CFC-12 may also be written as R-12 or
Refrigerant 12. Types: There are many different types of refrigerants. They are
grouped into Class A or B, depending on their toxicity level. Toxicity is the ability of a
substance to be harmful to humans. They are also given a flammability classification,
indicated by a 1 (no flammability), 2 (low flammability), or 3 (high flammability).  A
listing of the toxicity and flammability of some of the most common refrigerants is shown in
Table 1 below. Table 1: ASHRAE Safety Classifications of Common Refrigerants

Toxicity Grouping Flammability

Refrigerant Number Number

R-11 A 1

R-12 A 1

R-22 A 1

R-123 B 1

R-124 A 1
Latent heat the heat required to convert a solid into a liquid or vapour, or a liquid into a
vapour, without change of temperature. Latent heat is related to changes in phase between
liquids, gases, and solids.

Sensible heat is related to changes in temperature of a gas or object with no change in phase.

PRIMARY Refrigerants which cool the substance by the absorption of latent heat. These are
generally used in vapour compression systems.
Examples of primary refrigerants are: ammonia, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, methylene
Chloride and fluorinated hydrocarbons.

SECONDARY Refrigerants which cool substances by absorption of sensible heat.

Examples are: air, water, calcium chloride brine, glycol etc.
 LECTURE 3
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONING PLANT
The central air conditioning plants or the systems are used when large buildings, hotels, theaters, airports,
shopping malls etc are to be air conditioned completely. The window and split air conditioners are used for single
rooms or small office spaces. If the whole building is to be cooled it is not economically viable to put window or
split air conditioner in each and every room. Further, these small units cannot satisfactorily cool the large halls,
auditoriums, receptions areas etc.
When traditional air conditioners are not enough to completely cool a massive multi-story building, central
air conditioning plants are used instead, but how do they work?

Central air conditioning plants require a dedicated room in which the compressor, condenser, thermostatic
expansion valve and evaporator are kept. These systems function the same way they do in any other air
conditioning unit, except they are much larger in scale and have higher capacities. These massive machines
pump out cooled air, which is sent throughout the building with the use of ductwork, resulting in quiet, yet
highly efficient air conditioning in every room.

To operate and maintain central air conditioning systems you need to have good operators, technicians and
engineers. Proper preventative and breakdown maintenance of these plants is vital.

There are two types of central air conditioning plants or systems: 

1) Direct expansion or DX central air conditioning plant : In this system the huge compressor,
and the condenser are housed in the plant room, while the expansion valve and the evaporator or the
cooling coil and the air handling unit are housed in separate room. The cooling coil is fixed in the air
handling unit, which also has large blower housed in it. The blower sucks the hot return air from the
room via ducts and blows it over the cooling coil. The cooled air is then supplied through various
ducts and into the spaces which are to be cooled. This type of system is useful for small buildings.

2) Chilled water central air conditioning plant:  This type of system is more useful for large
buildings comprising of a number of floors. It has the plant room where all the important units like the
compressor, condenser, throttling valve and the evaporator are housed. The evaporator is a shell and
tube. On the tube side the Freon fluid passes at extremely low temperature, while on the shell side the
brine solution is passed. After passing through the evaporator, the brine solution gets chilled and is
pumped to the various air handling units installed at different floors of the building. The air
handling units comprise the cooling coil through which the chilled brine flows, and the blower. The
blower sucks hot return air from the room via ducts and blows it over the cooling coil. The cool air is
then supplied to the space to be cooled through the ducts. The brine solution which has absorbed the
room heat comes back to the evaporator, gets chilled and is again pumped back to the air handling
unit. 
 How Central AC Systems Work

The best air conditioner is the one you don’t have to think about.  It comes on the moment the
indoor temperature set on the thermostat requires cooling performance, and then runs quietly
and efficiently when needed.  But when it’s time to perform routine maintenance, make
repairs or replace your system, it’s helpful to understand how an air conditioning system
works.

The Refrigeration Cycle

 Using electricity as its power source, the refrigerant flows through a closed system of
refrigeration lines between the indoor unit and the outside unit.

 Warm air from the inside of your house is pulled into ductwork by a motorized fan.

 The refrigerant is pumped from the exterior compressor coil to the interior evaporator
coil, where it absorbs the heat from the air.

 This cooled air is then pushed through connecting ducts to vents throughout the home,
lowering the interior temperature.

 The refrigeration cycle continues again, providing a consistent method to keep you
cool.
Parts of a Central AC System

To get a better sense of how your air is cooled, it helps to know a little bit about the parts that
make up the air conditioning system. A typical central air conditioning system is a two-part
or split system that includes:

 The outdoor unit contains the condenser coil, compressor, electrical components and a
fan.
 The evaporator coil, which is usually installed on top of the gas furnace inside the
home.
 A series of pipes, or refrigeration lines, connecting the inside and outside equipment.
 Refrigerant, the substance in the refrigeration lines that circulates through the indoor
and outdoor unit.
 Ducts that serve as air tunnels to the various spaces inside your home.
 A thermostat or control system to set your desired temperature.

Benefits

 Indoor comfort during warm weather – Central air conditioning helps keep your
home cool and reduces humidity levels.
 Cleaner air – As your central air conditioning system draws air out of various rooms
in the house through return air ducts, the air is pulled through an air filter, which
removes airborne particles such as dust and lint. Sophisticated filters may remove
microscopic pollutants, as well. The filtered air is then routed to air supply duct-work
that carries it back to rooms.
 Quieter operation – Because the compressor-bearing unit is located outside the
home, the indoor noise level from its operation is much lower than that of a free-
standing air conditioning
LECTURE 4

HEAT PUMPS