Psychology & Neuroscience © 2016 American Psychological Association

2016, Vol. 9, No. 2, 198 –214 1983-3288/16/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pne0000050

Current Perspectives on the Anatomo-Clinical

Method in Neuropsychology

Juliana Burges Sbicigo, Vitor Geraldi Haase

Luciane da Rosa Piccolo, Natália Becker, Federal University of Minas Gerais
Simone Nazareth Vedana,
Jaqueline de Carvalho Rodrigues,
and Jerusa Fumagalli Salles
Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

Neuropsychology is an interdisciplinary field that studies the relationship among

cognition, behavior, emotions and the brain, based on structure–function correlation
models developed in the last 150 years. This study presents a discussion concerning the
anatomo-clinical method in neuropsychology considering theoretical-methodological
advancements that have contributed to this scientific discipline in recent decades. This
method assumes that inferences concerning a given cognitive function can be made
based on a correspondence between clinical manifestations and the brain injury site.
First, we review historical aspects related to the emergence of the practice of exploring
neuropsychological abilities in specific areas of the brain, that is, structure–function
relationships. Then we discuss the limitations of the anatomo-clinical method and,
finally, the current conception found in Neuropsychology, considering advanced im-
aging and cerebral stimulation techniques. The current conception of localizationism is
more distributed. Large-scale networks are dedicated to specific functions such as
language, face and object recognition, executive functions, spatial attention, and
memory. The conclusion is that the anatomo-clinical method is still essential to
grounding structure–function relationships, though caution should be applied in its use
considering current conceptions of the brain being a complex system of interconnected
regions subject to variations according to sociodemographic variables.

Keywords: neuropsychology, cognition, mental functions, neuropsychological

disorders, localizationism

Neuropsychology is an interdisciplinary field ship is established from a conceptual nervous

that studies the relationships among cognition,
behavior and emotions in the presence of brain
dysfunctions or injuries, psychiatric disorders or
developmental disorders (Lezak, Howieson, &
Loring, 2004; Pennington, 2009). This relation-
Juliana Burges Sbicigo, Luciane da Rosa Piccolo, Natália
Becker, Simone Nazareth Vedana, Jaqueline de Carvalho
Rodrigues, and Jerusa Fumagalli Salles, Institute of Psy-
chology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul; Vitor
Geraldi Haase, Department of Psychology, Federal Univer-
sity of Minas Gerais.
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-
dressed to Juliana Burges Sbicigo, Institute of Psychology,
Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Ramiro Barcelos,
2600/114, Porto Alegre, RS 90035-003, Brazil. E-mail:
julianasbicigo@gmail.com
198
system based on a structure–function correla-
tion developed over 150 years of clinical expe-
rience and neuropsychological research (Haase
et al., 2012). Studies using the anatomo-clinical
method were crucial to the development of this
field of knowledge. This method assumes that
inferences regarding a given cognitive function
are possible based on correspondence between
clinical manifestations and the brain injury site
(Catani et al., 2012; Shallice, 1988).
Even though this method was key to under-
standing neuropsychological functioning patterns,
conclusions derived from it present a series of
limitations, because scientific advancements sup-
port the conception of the brain as a highly com-
plex and interconnected system and not merely a
system with separate compartments in which cog-
 ANATOMO-CLINICAL METHOD IN NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
nitive functions are located. There is, however,
confusion regarding the role of the anatomo-
clinical method in neuropsychology especially be-
cause advanced brain-imaging techniques and so-
phisticated theoretical models of cognitive
functions seem to have condemned this method to
obsolescence.
This study presents a discussion regarding
aspects related to the emergence of the
anatomo-clinical method and its main contribu-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
tions to understanding relationships between
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
structures and functions. We also discuss some
limitations of this method in its traditional con-
ception and, finally, clarify the current concep-
tion of the anatomo-clinical method in neuro-
psychology.
Anatomo-Clinical Method: Historical
Aspects, Contributions, and Limitations
Records regarding the first brain observations
refer to those performed by the Greeks in an-
cient times, in addition to isolated references
from the Sumerians and Egyptians. For the
Greeks, the brain’s role was to maintain con-
sciousness and clinical manifestations were cor-
related to the site of head trauma experienced by
those wounded in war (Bertolucci, 2004). Cen-
turies before Hipocrates, ancient medical prac-
tice also tried to understand brain functioning
across brain surgeries. Brain surgical practices
are described by Greeks around 654 B.C. to treat
a range of cranial injuries caused by different
weapons (Agelarakis, 2006). There are registers
about trepanations surgeries on European and
Asian countries around 1685. These procedures
are related to the posterior developed cranioto-
mies (Finger, 1994). Up to the 19th century,
little was known about the cerebral cortex, as it
was a virtually untapped subject (Zilmer, Spi-
ers, & Cullbertson, 2008).
Franz J. Gall (1758 –1828) inaugurated the
anatomo-clinical method with the development
of phrenology, a doctrine according to which
personality traits, one’s cognitive profile or
skills on a given field depended on the size of
individual cranial protrusions or indentations
(Gardner, 1994). Interestingly, Gall (1825) ar-
gued that the location of language was in the
frontal lobes, specifically in the middle portion
of the supraorbital plate. His theory was based
on inferences from cranioscopy evidences, his
collections of skulls and reports of cases with
199
brain pathology (including dementia, intellec-
tual deficit and aphasic soldiers, some with pre-
sumed damage to the frontal lobe). He reported
that the expressive aphasia was located in a
frontal brain region and distinguished between
two forms of language: spoken language and
naming (Brown & Chobor, 1992). Bouillaud
(1825), disciple of Gall, reviewed a number of
cases of aphasia and corroborated the relation-
ship between language and anterior frontal
lobes, providing clinical evidence to your find-
ings. As for Gall (1825) brain damage was more
a source of evidence, Bouillaud (1825) empha-
sized the cases of pathological symptoms as
unique source of information on the neuroana-
tomical location (instead of cranial promi-
nences), what represents a conceptual change
which paved the way for further insights into
the language.
Phrenology was challenged by Pierre Flou-
rens (1794 –1867) who verified in his studies
with animal models, that motor functions were
located in the cerebellum and vital functions in
the medulla, but does not support other struc-
ture–function relationships as described by Gall
(Kristensen, Almeida, & Gomes, 2001). How-
ever, Flourens had performed surgical ablations
in birds, animals whose cerebral cortex does not
perform a role as important in regulating behav-
ior as it does in mammals (Pearce, 2009).
The initial scientific evidence using the
anatomo-clinical method correlating the cogni-
tive function to a cerebral area emerged about
150 years ago. At that time, Paul Broca (1824 –
1880) published his findings showing a correla-
tion between the left posterior lower frontal lobe
and speech production based on clinical assess-
ments and postmortem anatomical studies of
patients for whom this region was compromised
(Broca, 1861; Lorch, 2011). He described what
is called Broca’s aphasia, a language disorder
that, at the time, was attributed to the muscles of
speech organs that did not receive adequate
brain signals. This fact marked the discovery
that cognitive function is separated between the
brain’s left and right hemispheres. The Broca’s
discovery, however, can be seen both as the
culmination of phrenological period (in which
the language had already been related to the
frontal area and aphasia was described) as the
beginning of scientific basis. With previous
findings of Gall and Bouillaud, Broca’s discov-
ery seemed inevitable (Brown & Chobor, 1992;
 200 SBICIGO ET AL.
Zago, Lorusso, Porro, Franchini, & Cubelli,
2015). Broca argued that it was more accurate
than the phrenologists in determining the loca-
tion of linguistic functions (Broca, 1861).
Even though the scientific foundation of neu-
ropsychology and the anatomo-clinical method
is traditionally attributed to Paul Broca, Carl
Wernicke has an important contribution in this
sense, once he was the one who formulated the
theoretical framework for classical neuropsy-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
chology and also exerted a comprehensive and
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
lasting influence extending into the mid20th
century (Gage & Hickok, 2005). Among Wer-
nicke’s disciples, there are researchers who
were associated with the description and
anatomo-clinical interpretation of some of the
main neuropsychological syndromes: Ludwig
Lichtheim (1845–1928) developed the first the-
oretical models of aphasias (Lichtheim, 1885);
Heinirch Lissauer (1861–1891) postulated the
distinction between apperceptive and associa-
tive agnosia (Lissauer & Jackson, 1988); Joseph
Jules Dejerine (1849 –1917) conceptualized
pure alexia as disconnection syndrome (Hen-
derson, 2010); Karl Hugo Liepmann (1861–
1891) was a pioneer in the study of apraxias
(Goldenberg, 2003); Karl Kleist (1879 –1960),
in turn, was a pioneer in the investigation of
post frontal injuries involving personality
(Neumärker & Bartsch, 2003); and Kurt Gold-
stein (1878 –1965), whose contributions have
been superficially interpreted as illustrative of
the holistic approach (Geschwind, 1964; Nop-
peney & Wallesch, 2000).
Wernicke (1848 –1904) identified the center
of speech comprehension, the superior posterior
temporal lobe in the left hemisphere, based on a
condition called fluent aphasia. Fluent aphasia
is a condition in which there was no motor
compromise, that is, the patient was capable of
talking but the speech made no sense and
sounded like an unknown foreign language (Ge-
schwind, 1965). According to Finger (1994)
and Gage and Hickok (2005), Wernicke’s the-
oretical conceptions are mistakenly interpreted
as a “strict” form of localizationism, consider-
ing that his conception of the central nervous
system approached contemporary hodological
and connectionist concepts. Based on Gage and
Hickok’s interpretation, largely documented in
citations of original documents, it is possible to
reconstruct the conception of the brain held by
Wernicke as a highly complex and integrated
system involving functional centers and their
connections.
Wernicke asserted that cognitive processes
emerged from the interaction of different corti-
cal areas, each performing a specific function
and communicating with each other through a
complex network of white matter fibers. Wer-
nicke (1974) also postulated that cortical con-
nect patterns are influenced by experience, ap-
proximating and anticipating contemporary
connectionist concepts (Gage & Hickok, 2005).
Gage and Hickok (2005) emphasized the fact
that most textbooks on neurology and neuropsy-
chology reproduce only one of the figures used
by Lichtheim (1885) to explain the localization-
ist conceptions developed by Wernicke con-
cerning aphasias, the so-called Lichtheim’s
house (see Figure 1). Verbal comprehension in
the House model is explained through connec-
tions with a center B (Begriff), in which the
meaning of words would be represented. Both
Wernicke and Lichtheim, however, held that
this explanation, based only on a conceptual
center, was not appropriate and replaced it with
Lichtheim’s crown in the 1885 paper. The con-
cept’s representations in the crown model are
clearly distributed in the cerebral cortex (see
Figure 1).
With the growing influence of antilocaliza-
tion authors such as Marie (Lecours, Chain,
Poncet, Nespoulous, & Joanette, 1992), Head
(Geschwind, 1964, 1965), and Lashley (1950),
Wernicke’s localization doctrine was largely
neglected in the first half of the 20th century,
until it was rediscovered and appreciated once
again by Geschwind (1965). Based on the work
of Geschwind’s students, such as Damásio
(1989) and Mesulam (1998), the influence of
Wernicke persists until the present day.
After the findings of Broca and Wernicke,
research was focused on the localization of
other superior cognitive functions (Zilmer et al.,
2008). Brain areas related to reading (Dejerine,
1892) and writing (Exner, 1881) were found, as
well as functions related to the right hemisphere
(Jackson, 1876), such as emotion (Luys, 1881)
and “images or mental representations of local-
izations/sites” (Dunn, 1895). Localization theo-
ries regarding cerebral functions were devel-
oped to establish the neural substrate of
cognitive, sensory and motor functions, empha-
sizing the functional selectivity of cerebral lo-
calizations (Catani et al., 2012; Sullivan, 2010).
 ANATOMO-CLINICAL METHOD IN NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
Figure 1. Wernicke-Lichtheim’s models for aphasias
anatomo-clinical correlations. The figure at left shows the
house model, while the figure at right shows the crown
model. The house model explains the diverse aphasic syn-
dromes in terms of injuries and disconnections among the
three types of centers. Disruption of auditory afferents (a) in
the acoustic image of words (A) causes pure verbal deaf-
ness. The injury of A causes sensory aphasia (fluent aphasia
with a deficit in understanding and jargon); the interruption
of connections between A and B (Begriff or conceptual
center) causes transcortical sensory aphasia (fluent aphasia
with deficit in understanding and repetition preserved). In-
terruption of connections between A and M (speech motor
center) constitutes the basis of conduction aphasia (selective
deficit in repetition with understanding and expression pre-
served), while motor aphasia (nonfluent aphasia, agramma-
tism and articulation difficulties with relative preservation
of comprehension) caused by an injury in M and dysarthria
by injury in the efferents of M. A disconnection between B
and M causes motor transcortical aphasia (difficulty with
intentional expression with repetition preserved). Global
aphasia is caused by simultaneous injury of A and M; mixed
transcortical aphasia (repetition preserved with deficit in
comprehension and expression) is caused by simultaneous
disconnections between A and M of the center B. The house
model with only one conceptual center B was considered
inadequate by Lichtheim (1885), and was replaced by the
crown model. The crown model postulated the existence of
diverse conceptual centers, that is, a more distributed se-
mantic representation.
Fields of research such as electrophysiology
(Fritsch & Hitzig, 1870/1960; Ferrier, 1875a,
1875b) and studies of injuries in animals (Fer-
rier, 1875a, 1875b) grounded the development
of cerebral localization maps and the descrip-
tion of clinical symptoms a brain injury pro-
duces (Mograbi, Mograbi, & Landeira-Fernan-
dez, 2013). Inferences accruing from the
localization view were so accurate that, in some
cases, it was possible to successfully operate on
epileptic patients using localization information
based only on the seizures’ semiology (Taylor,
1987).
Still in the 19th century, the Phineas Gage
case provided the first scientific evidence that an
201
injury in the frontal lobes could alter one’s
personality, emotions and social interaction and
was a strong argument used against phrenology
(Barker, 1995). Nonetheless, from 1848 to
1868, American physicians still believed that
Gage’s cognition was intact. John Harlow’s
(Gage’s physician) first report from 1849, sug-
gested the patient was experiencing cognitive
difficulties, though medical professionals con-
sidered that to be impossible (Harlow, 1849). A
second report produced by Henry J. Bigelow
(1850) emphasized Gage’s complete mental re-
covery and was widely accepted as a proof that
harm caused on the brain hemispheres did not
affect cognition. Almost 20 years later, the sec-
ond report produced by Harlow (1868), how-
ever, rapidly changed the medical community’s
perception of the case because, in this report,
Gage’s mental condition after the accident was
described in detail. Even though Bigelow’s
(1850) paradigm was more influential at first,
the second version of Harlow’s report in 1868
finally came to prominence when quoted by
David Ferrier, as part of the first modern theory
proposed in the 1970s regarding frontal lobe
function (Barker, 1995). Several studies try to
follow the iron bar trajectory through Gage’s
brain and they were very important to under-
stand the frontal lobe functions (Macmillan,
2008). Later on, the frontal lobe functions were
extensively studied and the term executive
functions were broadly used to nominate the
cognitive abilities related to this brain area (Ju-
rado & Rosselli, 2007). Nowadays, the Phineas
Gage case is still studied by scientific commu-
nity, specially by authors like Damasio and col-
leagues (Bechara, Damasio, Tranel, & Ander-
son, 1998; Damasio, 1989) to understand the
brain functioning.
Initial critiques of localization theory were
made by Freud (1856 –1938), who was against
the doctrine of aphasia as dependent on Broca’s
and Wernicke’s areas, considering there to be
no explanation for an inability to speak sponta-
neously, repeat and read words, even though it
was possible to read letters (Freud, 1891). John
Hughlings Jackson (Jackson, 1881, 1894) also
challenged the anatomo-clinical method in rela-
tion to the functional/clinical meaning of a brain
injury, defending the view that specific symp-
toms did not necessarily mean localization of
function unless the injury was very severe.
Some symptoms could be explained by a sec-
 202 SBICIGO ET AL.
ondary effect of an injury in other regions, such
as in cases of brain tumors involving diffuse and
undefined damage (Jackson, 1881).
Karl Lashley (1929, 1938, 1950) conducted
systematic studies addressing the effect of cor-
tical ablations on the learning abilities and
memory of mice. These studies seemed to cor-
roborate the so-called globalist view, which in-
cludes concepts of equipotentiality (any area of
the brain has the same potential to perform a
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
cortical function) and massive action (efficiency
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
of a given function depends on the quantity of
the cortical area recruited to execute it), in
which loss of a cortical function could be com-
pensated for by another preserved cortical area.
In globalist models, all regions (and cognitive
functions) are mutually interconnected through
a network of association fibers that are evenly
distributed. It would not be possible to locate
one function through the anatomo-clinical cor-
relation method because the symptoms would
result in a loss of a “quantity” of cerebral cortex
instead of a localized area (Catani & ffytche,
2010). The globalist view sought to infer what
the damage area could do while being part of an
unaltered brain and how nonaffected areas
could contribute without functioning in the
damaged area(s) (Catani et al., 2012). This view
was insufficient to understand complex cogni-
tive functions in the second half of the 20th
century. There was difficulty in obtaining per-
mission to perform post mortem studies and
anatomical analyses were thereby delayed. Ad-
ditionally, the increased use of standardized
tests and group statistics (Catani & ffytche,
2010) and the development of neuropsycholog-
ical models of cognitive functions (Mettler,
1949; Sperry, 1974) indicated that the anatom-
ical understanding acquired up to that time was
limited in its ability to capture the complexity of
cognitive functions (Catani & ffytche, 2010).
In the 1960s, limited anatomical knowledge
became less important given the emergence of
neuropsychological models of function and dys-
function, which were made possible by dissoci-
ation studies based on the anatomo-clinical
method. Dissociation between neuropsycholog-
ical functions occurs when two seemingly re-
lated functions can be functionally and structur-
ally dissociated. For instance, a patient can
perform Task A well but performs Task B
poorly, while it is possible to hypothesize that
there is dissociation between both tasks, which
is called simple dissociation. One can, however,
consider that it occurred due to different levels
of difficulty between tasks so that it is necessary
for another individual to present an opposite
profile (perform Task A poorly but Task B well)
to affirm that the functions assessed in each task
may be relatively independent, characterizing
double dissociation (Shallice, 1988).
Up to the 1970s, dissociations were mainly
centered on language and sensory and motor
functions (Squire & Wixted, 2011). Memory
began to be studied at this time with the H. M.
case, which was considered a landmark of the
neuroscience of memory (Milner, Corkin, &
Teuber, 1968). H. M. was a patient who had the
medial temporal lobe bilaterally removed to
treat epilepsy that would not respond to medi-
cation. After surgery, this patient presented se-
vere anterograde amnesia, though his intelli-
gence, perceptual functions and personality
remained unaltered. In the 55 years in which he
provided clinical information to approximately
100 scientists, H. M. performed a series of
memory tests that produced the following con-
clusions: (a) the medial temporal lobe is respon-
sible for long-term memory, consciously pro-
cessed (episodic and semantic memory); (b)
working memory is dissociated from long-term
memory because H. M. was able to retain in-
formation to a considerable degree for a period
of time; (c) the medial temporal lobe is not the
last place long-term memory is stored, because
H. M. was able to recall facts and events prior to
the surgery, suggesting remote memory must be
stored somewhere else, possibly in the neocor-
tex; and (d) memory is not a unitary system
because H. M. was capable of learning motor
skills (procedural memory). Afterward, it was
observed that amnesic individuals not only pre-
served motor skills, but priming was also pre-
served; both are types of learning take place in
implicit memory. These conclusions were the
starting point for the study of memory in sub-
sequent decades (Corkin, 2002; Squire &
Wixted, 2011).
Dissociations studied with the anatomo-
clinical method were essential for the develop-
ment of information-processing models, which
resulted in the integration of neuropsychology
and cognitive psychology, leading to the emer-
gence of cognitive neuropsychology. Wernicke
and his disciple Lichtheim (1885) had already
reached some conclusions regarding the cere-
 ANATOMO-CLINICAL METHOD IN NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
bral architecture of the intact language process-
ing system, based on compromised oral and
written language patterns of injured brains (in-
cluding diagrams with boxes and arrows). It
was only with the “cognitive revolution” (a
scientific movement initiated in the 1950s),
however, that neuropsychologists became
aware of the validity of Wernicke’s language
(Marshall & Newcombe, 1966) and memory
models (Shallice & Warrington, 1970).
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Dissociations of performances on neuropsy-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
chological tests became the basis for inferences
on how different components of the human in-
formation processing system are organized
(Shallice, 1988). Hence, it was possible to es-
tablish the existence of distinct processing lev-
els implicated in abilities such as reading, writ-
ing, and recognition of objects (McCarthy &
Warrington, 1990).
The works of Luria (1981) exerted great in-
fluence on the functional interpretation of the
structure–function relationship. Luria (1992) re-
jected both localizationism and globalism, de-
fending a system of functions interconnected
with cerebral structures working together and
serving as a substrate for complex cognitive
abilities. Luria developed his approach based on
the works of Vygotsky (1965) and Jackson
(1881, 1894) and proposed that human mental
processes are complex function systems that
cannot be localized in specific areas of the
brain, suggesting a focus on the dynamic local-
ization of cognitive functions.
Luria (1966) postulated the existence of three
large functional blocks in the brain, which en-
abled the diagnosis of localization in neuropsy-
chology with a three-axis Cartesian coordinate
system (Haase et al., 2008, see Figure 2). Even
though these three axes constitute idealizations,
clinical practice shows that the system is ex-
tremely useful in guiding topographic diagno-
ses. According to the three-dimension system,
impairment in the left hemisphere is differenti-
ated in the lateral axis, subserving an analytical
style of language processing related to phonol-
ogy and syntax (Goldberg & Costa, 1981), caus-
ing aphasias (Chilosi et al., 2008) and alexias
(Daigneault & Baun, 2002). The right hemi-
sphere, in turn, processes information holisti-
cally (Goldberg & Costa, 1981) and impairment
is associated with deficits in emotionality
(Cummings, 1997), prosody (Ross & Monnot,
203
Figure 2. Three axes system for the topographic diagnosis
in neuropsychology. The vertical axis differentiates: cortical
injuries, manifested through classical neuropsychological
syndromes such as aphasia, apraxia, agnosia, amnesia, and
so forth; subcortical, characterized by psychomotor slow-
ness, deficit in executive functioning and more difficulties
with anterior impairments associated with deficits in self-
regulation and motility; and posterior impairments of per-
ceptual and representational nature. Finally, in the latero-
lateral axis, dysfunctions in the left hemisphere are
associated with phonological and syntactic deficits, while
deficits in the right hemisphere cause emotional deregula-
tion, aprosodia, and difficulties with discursive processing.
2008) and discursive processing (Joanette et al.,
2008).
The anterior pole of the anteroposterior axis
implements motor and regulation functions and
its neuropsychological impairment is illustrated
by changes in personality and cognition accru-
ing from prefrontal injuries (Macmillan, 2000),
as well as psychiatric disorders in general (Gi-
accio, 2006). The posterior pole of brain hemi-
spheres implements perceptual and representa-
tional functions so that visual agnosia (Farah,
2004) and semantic memory disorders
(Gainotti, 2006) illustrate deficits caused by
damage in this region. Finally, the vertical axis
has traditionally been used to differentiate be-
tween cortical and subcortical dementias
(Neary, 1999; Salmon & Filoteo, 2007), as well
as pathologies in the ascendant projection sys-
tems, such as are observed in Parkinson’s dis-
ease (Halliday, Leverenz, Schneider, & Adler,
2014) and the impairment of the subcortical
white matter, as observed in multiple sclerosis
(Calabrese, 2003) and after closed head injuries
(Felmingham, Baguley, & Green, 2004).
Developments in recent decades, especially
with the introduction of functional neuroimag-
ing methods, clearly lead to the three-axis
 204 SBICIGO ET AL.
method being insufficient. The model needs to
be complemented by two additional dimensions
(see Figure 3). A fourth dimension to be added
to the coordinated system consists of differen-
tiation between ventral and dorsal coordinates.
In the posterior pole, damage in the dorsal areas
is associated with deficits in the spatial alloca-
tion of attention and visual motor control, such
as what is observed in hemispatial neglect
(Ferro, Martins, & Távora, 1984; Vallar, 2007)
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
and in Bálint’s syndrome (Gillen & Dutton,
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
2003). Posterior ventral damage causes alexia
(Daigneault & Braun, 2002; Henderson, 2010)
and agnosia (Farah, 2004; Lê et al., 2002).
The dichotomy between ventral and dorsal
areas is also relevant for the anterior poles of the
brain hemispheres. Anterior ventral impairment
is associated with classical changes in person-
ality, such as impulsiveness and lack of inhibi-
tion, observed in Phineas Gage and other pa-
tients (Bechara et al., 1998; Macmillan, 2000).
Dorsolateral prefrontal damage, in turn, is pre-
dominantly characterized by deficits in working
memory and general intelligence (Bechara et
al., 1998; Jung & Haier, 2007).
Figure 3. Five-dimension system for topographic diagno-
sis in neuropsychology. The traditional localization diagno-
sis comprises three axes: vertical, anterior-posterior, and
latero-lateral (see Figure 2). Two dimensions are added: a
ventral-dorsal and a medial-lateral. Dorsal impairments are
characterized by deficits in the behavior’s spatial-temporal
reference and by disconnected cognitive process dysfunc-
tions, such as working memory and general intelligence.
Deficits accruing from ventral injuries compromise recog-
nition of identifying stimuli and emotional valuation and
self-regulation. Lateral surface dysfunctions of the brain
hemispheres affect engagement of attention in the outward
world, while medial dysfunctions compromise personal and
social cognition.
The 50 topographic dimensions relevant for
neuropsychological diagnosis emerged from
neurological-functional studies showing a dis-
tinction between the functions of medial and
lateral hemispheric surfaces (Lieberman, 2007).
Impairment in the lateral surface is illustrated
by hemispatial neglect (Ferro et al., 1984; Val-
lar, 2007) and Bálint’s syndrome (Gillen & Dut-
ton, 2003). Dysfunctions of the medial default
mode network, in turn, are exemplified by alex-
ithymia symptoms and the theory of mind def-
icits (Lane, Weihs, Herring, Hishaw, & Smith,
2015).
While Luria studied the functions of several
brain areas, Roger Sperry (Sperry, 1951, 1974)
investigated patients who had the corpus callo-
sum removed. He demonstrated important con-
sequences for each hemisphere after separation:
The left hemisphere seemed to have verbal,
rational and analytical characteristics, while the
right hemisphere showed space and emotional
contributions. The work that reported the func-
tional specificity of neural centers earned him
the Nobel Prize in 1981 and consolidated the
role of neuropsychology in the behavioral sci-
ences (Holtz, 2011).
Despite the importance of concepts and the-
ories based on the anatomo-clinical method,
conclusions arising from this method are cur-
rently limited to explaining a series of impaired
neuropsychological functioning patterns. Brain
damage is seldom located in specific cortical
areas, thus undermining any satisfactory expla-
nation of the relationship between brain and
cognition (Mograbi et al., 2013). There may
exist fibers linking one region to another, con-
necting cerebral lobes and anterior to posterior
functions. Hence, connections from Region A
may support the continued metabolic function
of Region B, but Region A may not be involved
in certain processes performed by Region B.
Also, damage to the brain deprives other intact
regions of normal afferent inputs, possibly caus-
ing dysfunction in a remote area because of
its strong connection with the other area
(D’Esposito, 2010).
Another aspect that limits conclusions de-
rived from the anatomo-clinical method is neu-
ronal plasticity, that is, the fact that the brain
reorganizes its cells after an injury (D’Esposito,
2010). The recovery of cognitive functions de-
pends both on neural plasticity, which is the
brain’s ability to recover a function through
 ANATOMO-CLINICAL METHOD IN NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
neural proliferation, migration and synaptic in-
teractions, and functional plasticity, which re-
fers to the level of function recovery made
possible through changed behavioral strategies
(McCoy, Gelder, Vanhorn, & Dean, 1997).
Factors involved in brain plasticity include
site of injury, extension and severity of neuro-
psychological impairment, age when damage
was caused, duration of injury, and environ-
mental and psychosocial conditions (Haase &
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Lacerda, 2004). Cases in which damage was
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
inflicted on the same site but individuals present
differences in age, educational level, and other
sociodemographic conditions, may show differ-
ent performances on neuropsychological tests
because of the way the brain is organized during
development (Parente, Carthery-Goulart, Zim-
mermann, & Fonseca, 2012). Therefore, once
the brain is able to reorganize and compensate
for deficient neuropsychological functions, any
inference regarding brain regions being associ-
ated with certain cognitive functions is limited
because other parts of the brain may also be
involved.
The Anatomo-Clinical Method in
Current Neuropsychology
Shallice and Cooper (2011) present a very
balanced discussion regarding the status of
structure–function correlation models in current
neuropsychology. They argue that without lo-
calizationism there is no neuropsychology, let
alone functional neuroimaging. Unlike simplis-
tic designs of functional centers criticized by
Freud (1891), the current conception of local-
ization is more distributed (Mesulam, 1998).
Moreover, if localizationism were not impor-
tant, it would make no sense to conduct studies
on brain imaging. These studies contribute to
differentiating distinct patterns of cerebral acti-
vation, each associated with a different cogni-
tive process. These current conceptions are rem-
iniscent of postulates from Luria (1966) on
functional systems. Luria held that each process
would be implemented by a set of neurons be-
longing to different functional blocks. The same
groups of neurons can associate with each other
in varied ways in different spatial-temporal ac-
tivation configurations, but these configurations
are distinct to each cognitive process.
Connectionist networks have their founda-
tions in Norman Geschwind’s neo-association-
205
ist school (Catani et al., 2012), which postulated
that cognitive functions emerge from a flow of
information through large-scale networks that
connect distant cortical regions instead of re-
sulting from activity in isolated cortical areas
(Mesulam, 2000). In other words, the brain is
considered to consist of parallel-distributed net-
works instead of epicenters. Sensory and motor
functions are located in specific spots (Hatso-
poulos, 2010; Plow, Haas, Zhang, Loftus, &
Smith, 2000), but superior cognitive functions
are distributed in larger networks. A cortical
injury may cause functional loss in the damaged
area and partial dysfunction in other intercon-
nected regions (Catani et al., 2012).
Hence, cognitive deficits are not only related
to the local effects of the affected regions but
also to dysfunctions in anatomically intact re-
gions that are connected to damaged areas (Dor-
icchi, Thiebaut de Schotten, Tomaiuolo, & Bar-
tolomeo, 2008; Mesulam, 2005). Large-scale
networks are dedicated to specific functions
such as language, face and object recognition,
executive functions, spatial attention, emotion
and memory (Mesulam, 2000). Damage in con-
nections leads to an inability to transfer infor-
mation from one node to another, which is what
happens in classical disconnection syndromes,
such as conduction aphasia. In the last 10 years
these predictions have been supported by mod-
ern imaging techniques such as magnetic reso-
nance tractography (Catani & fytche, 2005; Ca-
tani et al., 2012).
Evidence regarding the distinct localization
of an activity’s spatial-temporal configuration
comes from neuroimaging studies, which ana-
lyze at-rest intercorrelation patterns between
different brain areas (He et al., 2009). He et al.
(2009) report evidence through studies verify-
ing correlation of at-rest cerebral activity in five
modules or networks, the correspondence of
which with the classical findings of neuropsy-
chology is remarkable (Catani et al., 2012,
2013).
Tractography is a method of diagnosis by
MRI that enables the exploration of the brain’s
white matter. The fiber dissection technique was
used by renowned anatomists of the 17th cen-
tury to demonstrate the tracts and fascicles of
the brain’s white matter (Türe, Yasargil, Fried-
man, & Al-Mefty, 2000). Layers of brain white
matter are dissected to show, step-by-step, the
parenchyma’s internal anatomical organization.
 206 SBICIGO ET AL.
The complexity of brain preparation and fiber
dissection caused this method to be neglected
for decades. With the contemporary and unprec-
edented ability to visualize bundles of brain
white matter in vivo using MRI technology,
ancient anatomical foundations obtained with
the classic fiber dissection technique paradoxi-
cally become even more current and relevant
(Dini et al., 2009).
Catani et al. (2012) detailed an atlas of the
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
human brain based on the tractography method
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
(http://www.natbrainlab.com). The atlas helps,
in both research and clinical practice, to identify
positions of white matter tracts in computed
tomography and for MRIs in patients with ex-
tensive pathologies such as stroke, head trauma,
multiple sclerosis, tumors, vascular malforma-
tions, and infectious diseases.
While functional neuroimaging and tractog-
raphy have been important in the context of
discovering structure–function correlations,
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)—a
noninvasive, painless technique capable of
stimulating the brain— has been essential to
verifying the functional integrity of crucial ar-
eas for a given task (Haase, 2014). Alterna-
tively, it has been used to investigate mecha-
nisms of synaptic plasticity in the cerebral
cortex (Edwards, Talelli, & Rothwell, 2008). As
it is easy to apply in research and presents low
risk to human beings, it has been used to map
and study both normal and pathological human
cortex (Fregni & Pascual-Leone, 2001). Despite
its low spatial resolution, the technique has the
advantage of high temporal resolution (Con-
forto, Marie, Cohen, & Scaff, 2003). Neverthe-
less, the variability in its effects between indi-
viduals hinders the clinical applicability use of
this technique (Edwards et al., 2008).
TMS, introduced in clinical and basic re-
search by Baker, Jalinous, and Freeston, 1985
(Hallett, 2000), is based on a variable magnetic
field. A small coil that receives an extremely
powerful AC is placed on the human skull. The
constant change in the orientation of electrical
current inside the coil is able to generate a
magnetic field that crosses through some insu-
lating material, such as skin and bone, generat-
ing an electrical current inside the skull, where
it can be focused on and restricted to small areas
depending on the coil’s geometry and form
(Hallett, 2000). When this current reaches the
motor cortex, for instance, it can produce a
muscle response in the contralateral member.
When TMS is applied in other regions of the
cerebral cortex, results depend on the function
of the chosen area. Hence, cognitive and emo-
tional effects can be observed (Fregni & Pas-
cual-Leone, 2001).
TMS effects may transitorily interrupt or ease
the functioning of a neuronal network, depend-
ing on the pattern of neuronal connections
among the various cerebral areas that one in-
tends to stimulate (Pascual-Leone, Bartres-Faz,
& Keenan, 1999). Repetitive transcranial mag-
netic stimulation (rTMS) has been tested as an
alternative treatment for many disabilities, in-
cluding chronic pain (Boyer et al., 2014; Kni-
jnik et al., 2016; Lee, Kim, Chun, & Kim, 2012)
and psychiatric disorders, as depression (Ber-
man et al., 2000; García-Toro et al., 2001; Han-
sen et al., 2004), showing mostly small effects
size (Basil, Mahmud, Mathews, Rodriguez, &
Adetunji, 2005; Berlim, Van den Eynde, & Jeff
Daskalakis, 2013). The duration of its effects is
variable, depending on the quantity of sections,
the regions stimulated, the experimental condi-
tions, task, stimulation parameters, and charac-
teristics of the subjects (Young, Camprodon,
Hauser, PascualLeone, & Saxe, 2010) and the
benefits of the treatment may vary from patient
to patient. There is evidence suggesting that
patients who are less treatment-resistant re-
spond better to rTMS than those who are highly
treatment-resistant (Abraham et al., 2007).
However, particular variables that may impact
response to rTMS are still largely unknown.
Presently, researchers are conducting clinical
studies to evaluate who will benefit most from
rTMS therapy.
Nonetheless, caution is necessary to interpret
evidence accruing from current techniques.
With regard to functional neuroimaging, for in-
stance, one should not readily conclude that
distributed activity patterns are evidence of dis-
tributed cerebral representations (Shallice &
Cooper, 2011). The functional neuroimaging
methods are limited, given their inertia and in-
sufficient temporal resolution, in their ability to
capture the dynamics of mental processes.
Sahin, Pinker, Cash, Schomer, and Halgren
(2009) recorded intracranial electrophysiology
directly on Broca’s area, while nonanesthetized
patients performed lexical processing tasks. The
authors managed to distinguish a series of com-
ponents in three-phase electrical currents orga-
 ANATOMO-CLINICAL METHOD IN NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
nized in a sequence of semantic, morphological-
syntactic and phonological activations. The
time frames involved are in the order of hun-
dreds of milliseconds, thus, much lower than the
temporal resolution of several seconds that still
characterizes the magnetic resonance technol-
ogy currently available. Therefore, it is possible
that distributed activity patterns observed in
neuroimaging studies do not reflect only the
activity distributed nature, but also artifacts of
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
distinct strategies used by the participants, of a
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
deficient ability to compare between tasks,
and/or technological limitations (Shallice &
Cooper, 2011).
Additionally, it is worth noting that interpre-
tations arising from functional MRIs (fMRIs)
are based on “reverse inference,” a hypothesis
regarding the presence of mental processes
based on cerebral activation patterns (Poldrack,
2007). The limitation of this type of inference is
that the fMRI is based on a correlational meth-
od; that is, it cannot infer whether the activated
regions are “necessary” or “sufficient” for en-
gaging in mental processes of interest. For in-
stance, the hippocampus is activated during
classical conditioning (Knight, Knight, Mitch-
ell, & Zepp, 2004), while an injury in the hip-
pocampus does not harm this process (Gabrieli,
Fleischman, Keane, Reminger, & Morrell,
1995). The activation patterns distributed in fM-
RIs indicate the cerebral areas potentially in-
volved in a task but cannot identify crucial areas
for a given cognitive performance (Price, 2000).
Hence, this technique can be more useful in the
context of discovery, that is, in identifying po-
tential structure–function correlations (Haase,
2014).
Localizationism is presently under challenge
based on simulation studies with connectionist
neural networks. Many of these studies show it
is possible to obtain double dissociation in ho-
mogeneous networks without significant ana-
tomical differentiation (Kello, 2003). These re-
sults raise doubts regarding the traditional
interpretation in neuropsychology of functional
double dissociations among patients with evi-
dence of a brain-mind modular organization.
This issue was specifically analyzed in a study
conducted by Bullinaria and Chater (1995).
Double dissociations in networks not modularly
structured occur only when the system consists
of a small number of units. Mass effects after
injuries of increasing magnitude predominate in
207
massively larger nonmodular networks (Bulli-
naria & Chater, 1995). Consequently, double
dissociation effects cannot be expected after
injuries to a system that is as complex as the
human brain if it is not modularly and hierar-
chically organized (Haase, 2014).
Advancements brought by imaging tech-
niques have promoted the idea of dynamic and
distributed localization in cognitive neuropsy-
chology and in cognitive neuroscience (Catani
et al., 2012; Haase, 2014). The importance of
characterizing premorbid functioning in neuro-
psychological assessments including, for in-
stance, level of education, reading and writing
habits, the presence of a psychiatric diagnosis,
and consumption of psychoactive substances,
among others, have been increasingly empha-
sized. Together, these factors are considered
“sources of variation” in terms of neuropsycho-
logical performance in a group of patients with
the same underlying pathology (Lambon Ralph,
Patterson, & Plaut, 2011). For instance, it is
known that there is considerable variability in
the degree of cognitive damage in patients with
epilepsy in the left temporal lobe, which is
explained by differences of age at the time of
onset, the severity, frequency and type of sei-
zures, surgery status (nonsurgery, pre- or post-
surgery), in addition to the effects of different
types of medication (Leritz, Grande, & Bauer,
2006). All these sources of variation hinder the
application of the anatomo-clinical method
strictly based on the localization theory.
Sometimes researchers argue, based on evi-
dence regarding the presence of a considerable
degree of neural plasticity and functional recov-
ery during typical development and brain inju-
ries, that the assumptions of subtractivity and
transparency of neuropsychology do not hold
(Thomas & Karmiloff-Smith, 2002). According
to the subtractivity assumption, the effects ob-
served after a brain injury correspond to the
typical behavior subtracted from functions per-
formed by the damaged region (Shallice & Coo-
per, 2011). That is, there cannot be a high level
of reformulation of the cognitive system struc-
ture, behavioral or neural plasticity for the neu-
ropsychological inferences to be valid. On the
other hand, the transparency assumption means
that even with a certain degree of system refor-
mulation, which functions as noise, it is not
sufficient to invalidate neuropsychological in-
ferences (Caramazza, 1984).
 208 SBICIGO ET AL.
The effects of neural plasticity have been
used to invalidate the use of the neuropsycho-
logical method as a source of inferences for the
architecture of the cognitive system, especially
in a developing brain (Thomas & Karmiloff-
Smith, 2002). This critique can be argued with
the fact that there are well-documented cases
describing various classical neuropsychological
syndromes acquired in early childhood. The ex-
istence of these cases suggests that, in fact,
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
functional recovery and remodeling of the sys-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
tem during childhood can be considerable, even
if limited (Dennis, 2010). Nonetheless, when
for some reason the neuroplasticity mechanisms
fail, the principles of anatomo-clinical correla-
tion that can be applied to adults also apply to
developing brains. Genetic impairment of the
very neurochemical machinery responsible for
regulating synaptic neuroplasticity may explain
some neurological conditions that persist
throughout life, in which the chances of func-
tional recovery are very restricted, such as in-
tellectual disability and autism (Johnston,
2004).
Final Considerations
Anatomo-clinical analysis should not be
based on cerebral localizational methods, seek-
ing one-to-one correlations between the site of
damage and cognitive functioning. In reality,
not even at the beginning of neuropsychology as
a science was this type of localization defended,
such as in Wernicke’s writings, who already
had a connectionist and distributed conception
of cerebral localization (Gage & Hickok, 2005),
very similar to what is currently defended
(Haase et al., 2008, 2010, 2012).
There is a series of factors one should con-
sider, such as sociodemographic factors, pre-
morbid characteristics and specific criteria of
the pathology under study (course, evolution,
etc.). In addition, the network approach, which
has gained expressive empirical support, should
be considered a potential view from which to
interpret neuropsychological performances in
diffuse pathologies and explain outliers in case
studies. The use of the network atlas based on
tractography emerges as a useful tool to diag-
nose and rehabilitate patients affected by both
localized and diffuse brain injuries (Catani et
al., 2012).
Therefore, the anatomo-clinical method has
been considered together with different meth-
odologies and information (convergence of
methods). The creation and use of imaging tech-
nologies can generate perceptions and lead to
new questions regarding well-known clinical
problems that, in turn, enable the emergence of
new paradigms.
References
Abraham, G., Milev, R., Lazowski, L., Jokic, R.,
du Toit, R., & Lowe, A. (2007). Repetitive trans-
cranial magnetic stimulation for treatment of
elderly patients with depression: An open label
trial. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment,
3, 919 –924. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi
.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2656335/pdf/
NDT-3-919.pdf
Agelarakis, A. P. (2006). Artful surgery: Greek Ar-
chaeologists discover evidence of a skilled surgeon
who practiced centuries before Hippocrates. Ar-
chaeology, 59, 26 –29. Retrieved from http://
archive.archaeology.org/0603/abstracts/surgery
.html
Baker, A. T., Jalinous, R., & Freeston, I. L. (1985).
Non-invasive magnetic simulation of human motor
cortex. Lancet I, 325, 1106 –1107.
Barker, F. G., II. (1995). Phineas among the phrenol-
ogists: The American crowbar case and nine-
teenth-century theories of cerebral localization.
Journal of Neurosurgery, 82, 672– 682. http://dx
.doi.org/10.3171/jns.1995.82.4.0672
Basil, B., Mahmud, J., Mathews, M., Rodriguez, C.,
& Adetunji, B. (2005). Is there evidence for effec-
tiveness of transcranial magnetic stimulation in the
treatment of psychiatric disorders? Psychiatry, 2,
64 – 69.
Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., & Anderson,
S. W. (1998). Dissociation of working memory
from decision making within the human prefrontal
cortex. The Journal of Neuroscience, 18, 428 –
437. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/9412519
Berlim, M. T., Van den Eynde, F., & Jeff Daskalakis,
Z. (2013). Clinically meaningful efficacy and ac-
ceptability of low-frequency repetitive transcranial
magnetic stimulation (rTMS) for treating primary
major depression: A meta-analysis of randomized,
double-blind and sham-controlled trials. Neuro-
psychopharmacology, 38, 543–551. http://dx.doi
.org/10.1038/npp.2012.237
Berman, R. M., Narasimhan, M., Sanacora, G.,
Miano, A. P., Hoffman, R. E., Hu, X. S., . . .
Boutros, N. N. (2000). A randomized clinical trial
of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in
the treatment of major depression. Biological Psy-
 ANATOMO-CLINICAL METHOD IN NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
chiatry, 47, 332–337. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
S0006-3223(99)00243-7
Bertolucci, P. H. F. (2004). Prefácio [Preface]. In
V. M. Andrade, F. H. Santos, O. F. A. Bueno
(Eds.), Neuropsicologia hoje (pp. 7–10). São
Paulo, Brazil: Artes Médicas.
Bigelow, H. (1850). Art. I: Dr. Harlow’s Case of
recovery from the passage of an iron bar through
the head. The American Journal of the Medical
Sciences, 16, 13–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/
00000441-185016390-00001
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Bouillaud, J. (1825). Recherches cliniques propres a
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
demontrer que la perte de la parole correspond a la
lesion des lobules anterieurs du cerveau, et a con-
firmer l’opinion de M. Gall, sur le siege de
I’organe du language article [Clinical research has
demonstrate that the loss of speech corresponds to
the lesion of the frontal lobes of the brain, and
confirm the opinion of Mr. Gall, on the seat of the
language of I’organe article]. Gender Medicine, 8,
25– 45.
Boyer, L., Dousset, A., Roussel, P., Dossetto, N.,
Cammilleri, S., Piano, V., . . . Guedj, E. (2014).
rTMS in fibromyalgia: A randomized trial evalu-
ating QoL and its brain metabolic substrate. Neu-
rology, 82, 1231–1238. http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/
WNL.0000000000000280
Broca, P. (1861). Perte de la parole, ramollissement
chronique et destruction partielle du lobe anterieur
gauche du cerveau [Loss of speech, chronic soft-
ening and partial destruction of the anterior left
lobe of the brain]. Bulletin de la Socie’te= Anthro-
pologique, 2, 235–238.
Brown, J. W., & Chobor, K. L. (1992). Phrenological
studies of aphasia before Broca: Broca’s aphasia or
Gall’s aphasia? Brain and Language, 43, 475– 486.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0093-934X(92)90113-S
Bullinaria, J., & Chater, N. (1995). Connectionist model-
ling: Implications for cognitive neuropsychology. Lan-
guage and Cognitive Processes, 10, 227–264. http://dx
.doi.org/10.1080/01690969508407095
Calabrese, P. (2003). Kognitivestörungenbeimulti-
plersklerose [Cognitive disorders in multiple scle-
rosis]. Psychoneuro, 29, 344 –348.
Caramazza, A. (1984). The logic of neuropsycholog-
ical research and the problem of patient classifica-
tion in aphasia. Brain and Language, 21, 9 –20.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0093-934X(84)90032-4
Catani, M., Dell’acqua, F., Bizzi, A., Forkel, S. J.,
Williams, S. C., Simmons, A., . . . Thiebaut de
Schotten, M. (2012). Beyond cortical localization
in clinico-anatomical correlation. Cortex, 48,
1262–1287. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex
.2012.07.001
Catani, M., Dell’acqua, F., & Thiebaut de Schotten,
M. (2013). A revised limbic system model for
memory, emotion and behaviour. Neuroscience
209
and Biobehavioral Reviews, 37, 1724 –1737.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.07.001
Catani, M., & ffytche, D. H. (2005). The rises and
falls of disconnection syndromes. Brain: A Jour-
nal of Neurology, 128, 2224 –2239. http://dx.doi
.org/10.1093/brain/awh622
Catani, M., & ffytche, D. H. (2010). On “The study
of the nervous system and behaviour.” Cortex, 46,
106 –109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2009
.03.012
Chilosi, A. M., Cipriani, P., Pecini, C., Brizzolara,
D., Biagi, L., Montanaro, D., . . . Cioni, G. (2008).
Acquired focal brain lesions in childhood: Effects
on development and reorganization of language.
Brain and Language, 106, 211–225. http://dx.doi
.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2007.12.010
Conforto, A. B., Marie, S. K., Cohen, L. G., & Scaff, M.
(2003). Transcranial magnetic stimulation. Arquivos de
Neuro-Psiquiatria, 61, 146–152. http://dx.doi.org/10
.1590/S0004-282X2003000100032
Corkin, S. (2002). “What’s new with the amnesic
patient H. M.?” Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 3,
153–160.
Cummings, J. L. (1997). Neuropsychiatric manifes-
tations of right hemisphere lesions. Brain and Lan-
guage, 57, 22–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/brln
.1997.1832
Daigneault, S., & Braun, C. M. (2002). Pure severe
dyslexia after a perinatal focal lesion: Evidence of
a specific module for acquisition of reading. Jour-
nal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics,
23, 256 –265.
Damásio, A. R. (1989). Time-locked multiregional
retroactivation: A systems-level proposal for the
neural substrates of recall and recognition. Cogni-
tion, 33, 25– 62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-
0277(89)90005-X
Dejerine, J. (1892). Contribution l’etude anatomo-
pathologique cLinique des differentes varietes de
cecite verbale [Contribution the study of patholog-
ical clinical different varieties of verbal blindness].
Compte Rendu des Seances de la Societe de Biolo-
gie, 4, 61–90.
Dennis, M. (2010). Margaret Kennard (1899 –1975):
Not a “principle” of brain plasticity but a founding
mother of developmental neuropsychology. Cor-
tex, 46, 1043–1059. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j
.cortex.2009.10.008
D’Esposito, W. (2010). Why methods matter in the study
of the biological basis of the mind: A behavioral neu-
rologist’s perspective. In P. A. Reuter-Lorenz, K.
Baynes, G. R. Mangun, & E. A. Phelps (Eds.), The
cognitive neuroscience of mind: A tribute to Mi-
chael S. Gazzaniga (pp. 203–224). Cambridge,
MA: Toppan Best-set Premedia Limited. http://dx
.doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9780262014014.003
.0142
 210 SBICIGO ET AL.
Dini, L. I. V. L., Aesse, F., Pinheiro, C. P., Luersen,
G. F., Wagner, F. V., Isolan, G. R., . . . da Costa, J. C.
(2009). Estudo anatômico da substância branca do
cérebro: Da técnica de Klingler à dissecção virtual
por ressonância magnética (tratografia) [Anatomic
study of the white matter of the brain: From Klingler
technique to virtual dissection magnetic resonance
imaging (tractography)]. Jornal Brasileiro de Neuro-
cirurgia, 20, 10 –21.
Doricchi, F., Thiebaut de Schotten, M., Tomaiuolo,
F., & Bartolomeo, P. (2008). White matter
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
(dis)connections and gray matter (dys)functions in
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
visual neglect: Gaining insights into the brain net-
works of spatial awareness. Cortex, 44, 983–995.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2008.03.006
Dunn, T. D. (1895). Double hemiplegia with double
hemianopsia and loss of geographical center.
Transactions of the College of Physicians of Phil-
adelphia, 17, 45–55.
Edwards, M. J., Talelli, P., & Rothwell, J. C. (2008).
Clinical applications of transcranial magnetic stim-
ulation in patients with movement disorder. The
Lancet Neurology, 7, 827– 840. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/S1474-4422(08)70190-X
Exner, S. (1881).Untersuchungen über die Lokalisa-
tion der Funktionen in der Grosshirnrinde des
Menschen [Studies on the localization of functions
in the cerebral cortex of man]. Wilheim Braumül-
ler: Vienna.
Farah, M. J. (2004).Visual agnosias (2nd ed.). Cam-
bridge, MA: MIT Press.
Felmingham, K. L., Baguley, I. J., & Green, A. M.
(2004). Effects of diffuse axonal injury on speed of
information processing following severe traumatic
brain injury. Neuropsychology, 18, 564 –571.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.18.3.564
Ferrier, D. (1875a). Experiments on the brain of
monkeys.-No. I. Proceedings of the Royal Society
of London, Series B, 23, 409 – 432.
Ferrier, D. (1875b). The Croonian Lecture: Experi-
ments on the brain of monkeys (second series).
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society,
165, 433– 488.
Ferro, J. M., Martins, I. P., & Távora, L. (1984).
Neglect in children. Annals of Neurology, 15, 281–
284. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.410150314
Finger, S. (1994). Origins of neuroscience: A history
of explorations into brain function. New York,
NY: Oxford University Press.
Fregni, F., & Pascual-Leone, A. (2001). Estimulação
magnética transcraniana: Uma nova ferramenta
para o tratamento da depressão? [Transcranial
magnetic stimulation: A new tool for the treatment
of depression?]. Revista de Psiquiatria Clínica, 28,
253–265.
Freud, S. (1891). Zur Auffassung der Aphasien [To
view the aphasia]. Leipzig und Wien: Franz
Deuticke.
Fritsch, G. T., & Hitzig, E. (1960). On the electrical
excitability of the cerebrum. In G. Von Bonin
(Trans.), Some papers on the cerebral cortex.
Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. (Original
work published 1870)
Gabrieli, J. D. E., Fleischman, D. A., Keane, M. M.,
Reminger, S. L., & Morrell, F. (1995). Double
dissociation between memory systems underlying
explicit and implict memory in the human brain.
Psychological Science, 6, 76 – 82.
Gage, N., & Hickok, G. (2005). Multiregional cell
assemblies, temporal binding and the representa-
tion of conceptual knowledge in cortex: A modern
theory by a “classical” neurologist, Carl Wernicke.
Cortex, 41, 823– 832. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
S0010-9452(08)70301-0
Gainotti, G. (2006). Anatomical functional and cog-
nitive determinants of semantic memory disorders.
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 30,
577–594. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev
.2005.11.001
Gall, F. (1825). Sur les fonctions du cerveau et sur
celles de chacune de ses parties [On the functions
of the brain and of each of its parts]. Paris, France:
Boucher.
García-Toro, M., Pascual-Leone, A., Romera, M.,
González, A., Micó, J., Ibarra, O., . . . Tormos,
J. M. (2001). Prefrontal repetitive transcranial
magnetic stimulation as add on treatment in de-
pression. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery,
and Psychiatry, 71, 546 –548. http://dx.doi.org/10
.1136/jnnp.71.4.546
Gardner, H. (1994). Estruturas da mente: A teoria
das inteligências múltiplas [Structures mind: The
theory of multiple intelligences]. Porto Alegre,
Brazil: Artmed.
Geschwind, N. (1964). The paradoxical position of
Kurt Golstein in the history of aphasia. Cortex,
1, 214 –225. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-
9452(64)80023-X
Geschwind, N. (1965). Disconnexion syndromes in
animals and man. I. Brain: A Journal of Neurol-
ogy, 88, 237–294, 585– 644. http://dx.doi.org/10
.1093/brain/88.2.237
Giaccio, R. G. (2006). The dual origin hypothesis:
An evolutionary brain-behavior framework for an-
alyzing psychiatric disorders. Neuroscience &
Biobehavioral Reviews, 30, 526 –550.
Gillen, J. A., & Dutton, G. N. (2003). Balint’s syn-
drome in a 10-year-old male. Developmental Med-
icine and Child Neurology, 45, 349 –352. http://dx
.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.2003.tb00407.x
Goldberg, E., & Costa, L. D. (1981). Hemisphere
differences in the acquisition and use of descrip-
tive systems. Brain and Language, 14, 144 –173.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0093-934X(81)90072-9
 ANATOMO-CLINICAL METHOD IN NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
Goldenberg, G. (2003). Apraxia and beyond: Life and
work of Hugo Liepmann. Cortex, 39, 509–524. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70261-2
Haase, V. G. (2014). Trinta anos de redes neurais e
neuroimagem funcional: O que sobrou da neurop-
sicologia? Boletim da Sociedade Brasileira de
Neuropsicologia, disponível em [Thirty years of
neural networks and functional neuroimaging:
What’s left of neuropsychology?]. Retrieved from
http://sbnpbrasil.com.br/sms/files/set2014.pdf
Haase, V. G., & Lacerda, S. S. (2004). Neuroplasti-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
cidade, variação interindividual e recuperação fun-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
cional em neuropsicologia [Neuroplasticity, inter-
individual variation and functional recovery in
neuropsychology]. Temas de psicologia, 12, 28 –
42.
Haase, V. G., Medeiros, D. G., Pinheiro-Chagas, P.,
& Lana-Peixoto, M. A. (2010). A “conceptual ner-
vous system” for multiple sclerosis. Psychology &
Neuroscience, 3, 167–181. http://dx.doi.org/10
.3922/j.psns.2010.2.006
Haase, V. G., Pinheiro-Chagas, P., da Mata, F. G.,
Gonzaga, D. M., Silva, J. B. L., Géo, L. A., &
Ferreira, F. O. (2008). Um sistema nervoso con-
ceitual para o diagnóstico neuropsicológico [A
conceptual nervous system for neuropsychological
diagnosis]. Contextos Clínicos, 1, 125–138. http://
dx.doi.org/10.4013/ctc.20082.08
Haase, V. G., Salles, J. F., Miranda, M. C., Malloy-
Diniz, L., Abreu, N., Argollo, N., . . . Bueno,
O. F. A. (2012). Neuropsicologia como ciência
interdisciplinar: Consenso da comunidade brasil-
eira de pesquisadores/clínicosemneuropsicologia
[Neuropsychology as an interdisciplinary science:
the Brazilian community consensus of researchers
/clinicians in neuropsychology]. Neuropsicologia
Latinoamericana, 4, 1–8. Retrieved from http://www
.neuropsicolatina.org/index.php/Neuropsicologia_
Latinoamericana/article/view/125/95
Hallett, M. (2000). Transcranial magnetic stimulation
and the human brain. Nature, 406, 147–150. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1038/35018000
Halliday, G. M., Leverenz, J. B., Schneider, J. S., &
Adler, C. H. (2014). The neurobiological basis of
cognitive impairment in Parkinson’s disease.
Movement Disorders, 29, 634 – 650. http://dx.doi
.org/10.1002/mds.25857
Hansen, P. E., Videbech, P., Clemmensen, K., Stur-
lason, R., Jensen, H. M., & Vestergaard, P. (2004).
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation as
add-on antidepressant treatment. The applicability
of the method in a clinical setting. Nordic Journal
of Psychiatry, 58, 455– 457. http://dx.doi.org/10
.1080/08039480410011678
Hatsopoulos, N. G. (2010). Columnar organization in
the motor cortex. Cortex, 46, 242–255.
211
Harlow, J. M. (1849). Letter in “medical miscellany.”
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 39, 506 –
507.
Harlow, J. M. (1868). Recovery from the passage of
an iron bar through the head. Massachusetts Med-
ical Society Publications, 2, 327–346.
He, Y., Wang, J., Wang, L., Chen, Z. J., Yan, C.,
Yang, H., . . . Evans, A. C. (2009). Uncovering
intrinsic modular organization of spontaneous
brain activity in humans. PLoS ONE, 4, e5226.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005226
Henderson, V. W. (2010). Alexia and agraphia. In S.
Finger, F. Boller, & K. L. Tyler (eds.), Handbook
of clinical neurology (3rd series): History of neu-
rology (Vol. 95, pp. 583– 601). Amsterdam, the
Netherlands: Elsevier.
Holtz, J. L. (2011). Applied clinical neuropsychol-
ogy: An introduction. New York, NY: Springer.
Jackson, H. J. (1876). Case of large cerebral tumour
without optic neuritis and with left hemiplegia and
imperception. In J. Taylor (Ed.), Selected writings
of John Hughlings Jackson. London, UK: Hodden
and Stoughton.
Jackson, J. H. (1881). Remarks on dissolution of the
nervous system as exemplified by certain post-
epileptic conditions. Medical Press and Circular,
35, 399 – 402.
Jackson, J. H. (1894). The factors of insanities. Med-
ical Press and Circular, 108, 615– 619.
Joanette, Y., Ansaldo, A. I., Kahlaoui, K., Côté, H.,
Abusamra, V., Ferreres, A., & Roch-Lecours, A.
(2008). Impacto de las lesiones del hemisferio
derecho sobre las habilidades lingüísticas: Per-
spectivas teórica y clínica [The impact of lesions
of the right hemisphere on linguistic skills: theo-
retical and clinical perspectives]. Revista de Neu-
rologia, 46, 481– 488.
Johnston, M. V. (2004). Clinical disorders of brain
plasticity. Brain & Development, 26, 73– 80. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0387-7604(03)00102-5
Jung, R. E., & Haier, R. J. (2007). The parieto-frontal
integration theory (P-FIT) of intelligence: Con-
verging neuroimaging evidence. Behavioral and
Brain Sciences, 30, 135–154. http://dx.doi.org/10
.1017/S0140525X07001185
Jurado, M. B., & Rosselli, M. (2007). The elusive
nature of executive functions: A review of our
current understanding. Neuropsychology Review,
17, 213–233. http://10.1007/s11065-007-9040-z
Kello, C. T. (2003). The emergence of a double
dissociation in the modulation of a single control
parameter in a nonlinear dynamical system. Cor-
tex, 39, 132–134. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-
9452(08)70083-2
Knight, C. A., Knight, I., Mitchell, D. C., & Zepp,
J. E. (2004). Beverage caffeine intake in U.S.
consumers and subpopulations of interest: Esti-
mates from the Share of Intake Panel survey. Food
 212 SBICIGO ET AL.
and Chemical Toxicology, 42, 1923–1930. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2004.05.002
Knijnik, L. M., Dussán-Sarria, J. A., Rozisky, J. R.,
Torres, I. L. S., Brunoni, A. R., Fregni, F., &
Caumo, W. (2016). Repetitive transcranial mag-
netic stimulation for fibromyalgia: Systematic re-
view and meta-analysis. Pain Practice, 16, 294 –
304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/papr.12276
Kristensen, C. H., Almeida, R. M. M., & Gomes,
W. B. (2001). Desenvolvimentohistórico e funda-
mentosmetodológicos da neuropsicologia cogni-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
tiva [Historical development and methodological
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
foundations of cognitive neuropsychology]. Psico-
logia: Reflexão e Crítica, 14, 259 –274.
Lambon Ralph, M. A., Patterson, K., & Plaut, D. C.
(2011). Finite case series or infinite single-case
studies? Comments on “Case series investigations
in cognitive neuropsychology” by Schwartz and
Dell (2010). Cognitive Neuropsychology, 28, 466 –
474. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02643294.2012
.671765
Lane, R. D., Weihs, K. L., Herring, A., Hishaw, A.,
& Smith, R. (2015). Affective agnosia: Expansion
of the alexithymia construct and a new opportunity
to integrate and extend Freud’s legacy. Neurosci-
ence and Biobehavioral Reviews, 55, 594 – 611.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.06.007
Lashley, K. S. (1929). Brain mechanisms and intel-
ligence. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Lashley, K. S. (1938). Experimental analysis of in-
stinctive behavior. Psychological Review, 4, 445–
471. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0060183
Lashley, K. S. (1950). In search of the engram. In
J. F. Danielli & R. Brown (Eds.), Society of Ex-
perimental Biology Symposium (No. 4): Physio-
logical mechanisms in animal behaviour (pp. 454 –
482). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Press.
Lê, S., Cardebat, D., Boulanouar, K., Hénaff, M. A.,
Michel, F., Milner, D., . . . Démonet, J. F. (2002).
Seeing, since childhood, without ventral stream: A
behavioural study. Brain: A Journal of Neurology,
125, 58 –74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/
awf004
Lecours, A. R., Chain, F., Poncet, M., Nespoulous,
J. L., & Joanette, Y. (1992). Paris 1908: The hot
summer of aphasiology or a season in the life of a
chair. Brain and Language, 42, 105–152. http://dx
.doi.org/10.1016/0093-934X(92)90121-T
Lee, S. J., Kim, D. Y., Chun, M. H., & Kim, Y. G.
(2012). The effect of repetitive transcranial mag-
netic stimulation on fibromyalgia: A randomized
sham-controlled trial with 1-mo follow-up. Amer-
ican Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilita-
tion, 91, 1077–1085. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/
PHM.0b013e3182745a04
Leritz, E. C., Grande, L. J., & Bauer, R. M. (2006).
Temporal lobe epilepsy as a model to understand
human memory: The distinction between explicit
and implicit memory. Epilepsy & Behavior, 9,
1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2006.04
.012
Lezak, M. D., Howieson, D. B., & Loring, D. W.
(2004). Neuropsychological assessment (4th ed.).
New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Lichtheim, L. (1885). On aphasia. Brain: A Journal
of Neurology, 7, 433– 484. http://dx.doi.org/10
.1093/brain/7.4.433
Lieberman, M. D. (2007). Social cognitive neurosci-
ence: A review of core processes. Annual Review
of Psychology, 58, 259 –289. http://dx.doi.org/10
.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085654
Lissauer, H., & Jackson, M. (1988). A case of visual
agnosia with a contribution to theory. Cognitive
Neuropsychology, 5, 157–192. http://dx.doi.org/10
.1080/02643298808252932
Lorch, M. (2011). Re-examining Paul Broca’s initial
presentation of M. Leborgne: Understanding the
impetus for brain and language research. Cortex,
47, 1228 –1235.
Luria, A. R. (1966). Higher cortical functions in man
(2nd ed.). New York, NY: Basic Books.
Luria, A. R. (1981). Language and cognition (J. V.
Wertsch, Ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.
Luria, A. R. (1992). A construção da mente [The
construction of Mind]. São Paulo: Ícone.
Luys, J. B. (Ed.). (1881). Traité clinique et pratique
des maladies mentales [Clinical processes and
practice of mental illness]. Paris, France: LIBRAI-
RIE Bernard MAILLE.
Macmillan, M. (2000). Restoring Phineas Gage: A
150th retrospective. Journal of the History of the
Neurosciences, 9, 46 – 66. http://dx.doi.org/10
.1076/0964-704X(200004)9:1;1-2;FT046
Macmillan, M. (2008). Phineas Gage: Unravelling
the myth. The Psychologist, 21, 828 – 831.
Marshall, J. C., & Newcombe, F. (1966). Syntactic
and semantic errors in paralexia. Neuropsycholo-
gia, 4, 169 –176.
McCarthy, R. A., & Warrington, E. K. (1990). Cog-
nitive neuropsychology. San Diego: Academic
Press.
McCoy, K. D., Gelder, B. C., Vanhorn, R. E., &
Dean, R. S. (1997). Approaches to the cognitive
rehabilitation of children with neuropsychological
impairment. In T. E. Feinberg & M. J. Farah
(Eds.), Behavioural neurology and neuropsychol-
ogy. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. http://dx.doi
.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-5351-6_22
Mesulam, M. M. (1998). From sensation to cogni-
tion. Brain: A Journal of Neurology, 121, 1013–
1052. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/121.6.1013
Mesulam, M. (2000). Behavioural neuroanatomy:
Large-scale networks, association cortex, frontal
syndromes, the limbic system, and the hemispheric
 ANATOMO-CLINICAL METHOD IN NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
specializations. In M. Mesulam (Ed.), Principles of
behavioral and cognitive neurology. Oxford, UK:
Oxford University Press.
Mesulam, M. (2005). Imaging connectivity in the
human cerebral cortex: The next frontier? Annals
of Neurology, 57, 5–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/
ana.20368
Mettler, F. (1949). Selective Partial Ablation of the
Frontal Cortex. New York: Paul B Hoeber.
Milner, B., Corkin, S., & Teuber, H. L. (1968).
Further analysis of the hippocampal amnesic syn-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
drome: 14-year follow up study of H. M. Neuro-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
psychologia, 6, 215–234. http://dx.doi.org/10
.1016/0028-3932(68)90021-3
Mograbi, D. C., Mograbi, G. J., & Landeira-Fernandez,
J. (2013). Aspectos históricos da neuropsicologia e o
problema mente-cérebro [Historical aspects of neu-
ropsychology and the mind-brain problem]. In D.
Fuentes, L. F. Malloy-Diniz, C. H. P. Camargo, &
R. M. Cosenza (Eds.), Neuropsicologia: Teoria e
prática (2nd ed., pp. 19 –27). Porto Alegre, Brazil:
Artmed.
Neary, D. (1999). Classification of the dementias.
Reviews in Clinical Gerontology, 9, 55– 64. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0959259899009156
Neumärker, K. J., & Bartsch, A. J. (2003). Karl
Kleist (1879 –1960): A pioneer of neuropsychiatry.
History of Psychiatry, 14, 411– 458. http://dx.doi
.org/10.1177/0957154X03144001
Noppeney, U., & Wallesch, C. W. (2000). Language
and cognition-Kurt Goldstein’s theory of seman-
tics. Brain and Cognition, 44, 367–386. http://dx
.doi.org/10.1006/brcg.1999.1199
Parente, M. A. M. P., Carthery-Goulart, T. C., Zim-
mermann, N., & Fonseca, R. P. (2012). Sociocul-
tural factors in Brazilian neuropsycholinguistic
studies. Psychology & Neuroscience, 5, 125–133.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3922/j.psns.2012.2.02
Pascual-Leone, A., Bartres-Faz, D., & Keenan, J. P.
(1999). Transcranial magnetic stimulation: Study-
ing the brain-behaviour relationship by induction
of “virtual lesions.” Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London Series B, Biological
Sciences, 354, 1229 –1238. http://dx.doi.org/10
.1098/rstb.1999.0476
Pearce, J. M. (2009). Marie-Jean-Pierre Flourens
(1794 –1867) and cortical localization. European
Neurology, 61, 311–314. http://dx.doi.org/10
.1159/000206858
Pennington, B. F. (2009). How neuropsychology in-
forms our understanding of developmental disor-
ders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,
and Allied Disciplines, 50, 72–78. http://dx.doi
.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01977.x
Plow, E. F., Haas, T. A., Zhang, L., Loftus, J., &
Smith, J. W. (2000). Ligand binding to integrins.
The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 275, 21785–
21788. http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.R000003200
213
Poldrack, R. A. (2007). Region of interest analysis
for fMRI. SCAN: Social Cognitive & Affective
Neuroscience, 2, 67–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/
scan/nsm006
Price, C. J. (2000). The anatomy of language: Con-
tributions from functional neuroimaging. Journal
of Anatomy, 197, 335–359. http://dx.doi.org/10
.1046/j.1469-7580.2000.19730335.x
Ross, E. D., & Monnot, M. (2008). Neurology of
affective prosody and its functional-anatomic or-
ganization in right hemisphere. Brain and Lan-
guage, 104, 51–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j
.bandl.2007.04.007
Sahin, N. T., Pinker, S., Cash, S. S., Schomer, D., &
Halgren, E. (2009). Sequential processing of lexi-
cal, grammatical, and phonological information
within Broca’s area. Science, 326, 445– 449. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1174481
Salmon, D. P., & Filoteo, J. V. (2007). Neuropsy-
chology of cortical versus subcortical dementia
syndromes. Seminars in Neurology, 27, 7–21.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2006-956751
Shallice, T. (1988). From neuropsychology to mental
structure. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO978051
1526817
Shallice, T., & Cooper, R. P. (2011). The organisa-
tion of mind. Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:osobl/
9780199579242.001.0001
Shallice, T., & Warrington, E. K. (1970). Indepen-
dent functioning of verbal memory stores: A neu-
ropsychological study. The Quarterly Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 22, 261–273. http://dx
.doi.org/10.1080/00335557043000203
Sperry, R. W. (1951). Regulative factors in the
orderly growth of neural circuits. Growth, 10,
63– 87.
Sperry, R. W. (1974). Lateral specialization in the
surgically separated hemispheres. In F. Schmitt &
F. Worden (Eds.), Neurosciences third study pro-
gram (pp. 5–19). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Squire, L. R., & Wixted, J. T. (2011). The cognitive
neuroscience of human memory since H. M. An-
nual Review of Neuroscience, 34, 259 –288. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-neuro-061010-
113720
Sullivan, E. V. (2010). Neural connectivity and neu-
ropsychological function. Neuropsychology Re-
view, 20, 121–122. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/
s11065-010-9136-8
Taylor, D. C. (1987). One hundred years of epilepsy
surgery: Sir Victor Horsley’s contribution. In J.
Engel (Ed.), Surgical treatment of the epilepsies.
New York: Raven Press.
Thomas, M., & Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2002). Are
developmental disorders like cases of adult brain
damage? Implications from connectionist model-
 214 SBICIGO ET AL.
ling. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25, 727–750.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X02000134
Türe, U., Yaşargil, M. G., Friedman, A. H., &
Al-Mefty, O. (2000). Fiber dissection technique:
Lateral aspect of the brain. Neurosurgery, 47,
417– 426. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006123-
200008000-00028
Vallar, G. (2007). Spatial neglect, Balint-Homes’ and
Gerstmann’s syndrome, and other spatial disor-
ders. CNS Spectrums, 12, 527–536.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1965). Psichologiya Iskustva [Psy-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
chology of Art]. Moscow: Izdatelstvo Iskustva.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
Wernicke, C. (1974). Der a phasische symptomen
komplex: Eine Psychologische Studie auf anato-
mischer basis [The aphasic symptoms Complex: A
Psychological Study on anatomical base]. Heidel-
berg, Germany: Springer.
Young, L., Camprodon, J. A., Hauser, M., Pascual-
Leone, A., & Saxe, R. (2010). Disruption of the
right temporoparietal junction with transcranial
magnetic stimulation reduces the role of beliefs in
moral judgments. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of Amer-
ica, 107, 6753– 6758. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/
pnas.0914826107
Zago, S., Lorusso, L., Porro, A., Franchini, A. F., &
Cubelli, R. (2015). Between Bouillaud and Broca:
An unknown Italian debate on cerebral localization
of language. Brain and Cognition, 99, 87–96.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2015.07.007
Zilmer, E. A., Spiers, M. V., & Cullberston, W. C.
(2008). Principles of neuropsychology (2nd ed.).
Belmont, CA: Thomson Higher Education.
Received January 12, 2016
Revision received April 20, 2016
Accepted April 21, 2016 䡲