Histology Compilation

COMPILATION OF ACTIVITIES
IN HISTOLOGY
Second Semester
BSMT
Ma. Irene Gabrielle Abuyen
Angelica R. Blancada
Ma. Veronica M. Del Rosario
Marl Loiz B. Gonzales
Alleah Grace S. Jusay
Ma. Carmela N. Mangao
Mary Rose Ellaine R. Ortiz
Prof. Cecilio Ichon
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents …………………………………………….….…. 2
Ma. Irene Gabrielle Abuyen .………………………..…..….… 3
Angelica R. Blancada .......................................…....... 30
Ma. Veronica M. Del Rosario …………………..….…………. 68
Marl Loiz B. Gonzales ……………………………..………………
Alleah Grace S. Jusay ……………………………………………..
Ma. Carmela N. Mangao ………………………………………..
Mary Rose Ellaine R. Ortiz ………………………………………
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Compilation
Abuyen, Ma. Irene Gabrielle

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ACTIVITY #1
MICROSCOPE
Overview: A microscope is an optical instrument used for viewing very small objects,
such as mineral samples or animal or plant cells, typically magnified several hundred
times.
Objectives:
1. Identify the parts & functions of a microscope

2. Types of microscope
3. Importance of the microscope in the laboratory
Drawing:
I. PARTS AND FUNCTIONS
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Eyepiece: The lens the viewer looks through to see the specimen. The eyepiece usually
contains a 10X or 15X power lens.
Diopter Adjustment: Useful as a means to change focus on one eyepiece so as to

correct for any difference in vision between your two eyes.
Body tube (Head): The body tube connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses.
Arm: The arm connects the body tube to the base of the microscope.
Coarse adjustment: Brings the specimen into general focus.
Fine adjustment: Fine tunes the focus and increases the detail of the specimen.
Nosepiece: A rotating turret that houses the objective lenses. The viewer spins the
nosepiece to select different objective lenses.
Objective lenses: One of the most important parts of a compound microscope, as they
are the lenses closest to the specimen. A standard microscope has three, four, or five
objective lenses that range in power from 4X to 100X. When focusing the microscope,
be careful that the objective lens doesn’t touch the slide, as it could break the slide and
destroy the specimen.
Slide: The specimen is the object being examined. Most specimens are mounted on
slides, flat rectangles of thin glass. The specimen is placed on the glass and a cover slip is
placed over the specimen. This allows the slide to be easily inserted or removed from
the microscope. It also allows the specimen to be labeled, transported, and stored
without damage.
Stage: The flat platform where the slide is placed.
Stage clips: Metal clips that hold the slide in place.
Stage height adjustment (Stage Control): These knobs move the stage left and right or
up and down.
Aperture: The hole in the middle of the stage that allows light from the illuminator to
reach the specimen.
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On/off switch: This switch on the base of the microscope turns the illuminator off and
on.
Illumination: The light source for a microscope. Older microscopes used mirrors to

reflect light from an external source up through the bottom of the stage; however, most
microscopes now use a low-voltage bulb.
Iris diaphragm: Adjusts the amount of light that reaches the specimen.
Condenser: Gathers and focuses light from the illuminator onto the specimen being
viewed.
Base: The base supports the microscope and it’s where illuminator is located.
II. TYPES OF MICROSCOPE
1.) Compound microscope: most common

2.) Electron microscope: uses beam of electrons, can magnify objects up to 60,000x
3.) Fluorescent: used to study antigen & antibody reactions
4.) Dark field: used to study unstainable microbes like spirochetes
5.) Phase contrast: for research purposes
6.) Ultraviolet: uses UV lamp
III. IMPORTANCE OF MICROSCOPE IN THE LABORATORY
 Used to study fine details of biological cells & tissues.

 Allows scientists to view tissue changes or signs of infection, even if the pathogen
is not present.
 Enables scientists to study the microorganisms, the cells, the crystalline
structures & the molecular structures.
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ACTIVITY #2
CELL PARTS AND FUNCTION
Overview: The cell (Latin cella, meaning “small room”) is the basic structural, functional,
and biological unit of all known organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life. Cells are
often called the “building blocks of life”.
Objectives:
1. Identify the parts and functions of the cell.

2. Difference of eukaryotes to prokaryotes.
Drawing:
I. CELL PARTS AND FUNCTIONS
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II. DIFFERENCE OF EUKARYOTES FROM PROKARYOTES
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Nucleus/DNA: Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus surrounded by a nuclear envelope that
consists of two lipid membranes. The nucleus holds the eukaryotic cell’s DNA.
Prokaryotic cells do not have nucleus; rather, they have membrane-less nucleoid region
that holds free-floating DNA.
Organelles in Eukaryotic Cells: Eukaryotic cells have several other membrane-bound

organelles not found in prokaryotic cells. These include the mitochondria; rough &
smooth endoplasmic reticulum; golgi complex; and in case of plant cells, chloroplasts.
All of these organelles are located in the eukaryotic cell’s cytoplasm.
Ribosomes: In eukaryotic cells, the ribosomes are bigger, more complex and bound by a
membrane. They can be found in various places. Sometimes in the cytoplasm; on the
endoplasmic reticulum; or attached to the nuclear membrane. In prokaryotic cells, the
ribosomes are scattered and floating freely throughout the cytoplasm. The ribosomes in
prokaryotic cells also have smaller subunits. All ribosomes (in both eukaryotic and
prokaryotic cells) are made up of two subunits – one larger and one smaller.
Reproduction: Most eukaryotes reproduce sexually. Prokaryotes reproduce asexually,

resulting in the offspring being an exact clone of the parent. Some prokaryotic cells also
have pili, which are adhesive hair-like projections used to exchange genetic material
during a type of sexual process called conjugation. Conjugation can occur in bacteria,
protozoans and some algae and fungi.
Cell Walls: Most prokaryotic cells have a rigid cell wall that surround the plasma
membrane and gives shape to the organism. In eukaryotes, vertebrates don’t have a cell
wall but plants do. The cell walls of prokaryotes differ chemically from the eukaryotic
cell walls of plant cells, which are primarily made of cellulose. In bacteria, for example,
the cell walls are composed of peptidoglycans (sugars and amino acids)
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ACTIVITY #3
EPITHELIAL TISSUES
Overview: Epithelial tissues are widespread throughout the body. They form the
covering of all body surfaces, line body cavities and hollow organs, and are the major
tissue in glands.
Objectives:
1. Functions of epithelial tissues.

2. Identify the classification and idealized shapes of epithelial tissues.
3. Major types of epithelial tissues.
Drawing:
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I. FUNCTIONS OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES
 Protection for underlying structures.
 Acts as a barrier.
 Secreting substances.
 Absorbing substances.
II. CLASSIFICATION AND IDEALIZED SHAPES

Classification:
1.) Simple
2.) Stratified
3.) Pseudostratified
Idealized shapes:
1.) Squamous – have the appearance of thin, flat plates that can look polygonal
when viewed from above
2.) Cuboidal – cube-like shape and appear square in cross-section
3.) Columnar – elongated and column-shaped and have a height of atleast four times
their width
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III. MAJOR TYPES OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES
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ACTIVITY #4
CONNECTIVE TISSUES
Overview: Connective tissue fills the spaces between organs and tissues, and provides
structural and metabolic support for other tissues and organs. It is made up of cells and
extracellular matrix.
Objectives:
1. Functions of connective tissues.

2. Classification and types of connective tissues.
3. Type of cells found in connective tissue.
Drawing:
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I. FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES
 Binding and support
 Protecting
 Insulating
 Storing reserve fuel
 Transporting substances within the body
II. CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES

Classification:
 Loose irregular connective tissue

 Dense irregular connective tissue
Specialized connective tissues:
 Dense regular connective tissue – tendons & ligaments

 Cartilage – ears & epiglottis
 Adipose – fat cells
 Haemopoeitic tissue – bone marrow
 Blood
 Bone
Types:
 Collage fibers – most are type I collagen (most abundant protein in the body)
 Elastic fibers – contain elastin and fibrillin
 Reticular fibers – contain type III collagen
III. TYPE OF CELLS FOUND IN CONNECTIVE TISSUE

1.) Fibroblasts – Least specialized of all the cells. Mainly responsible for secreting the
non-rigid extracellular matrix including the fibres: collagen, elastin or fibronectin.
2.) Adipocytes – Fat storing cells, which are thought to derive from fibroblastic like
cells.
3.) Macrophages, Mast cells & Plasma cells – Types of immune cell.
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ACTIVITY #5
HISTOLOGY OF BONE
Overview: Bone is a modified form of connective tissue. It is hardened by the

extracellular matrix to accommodate a supporting function.
Objectives:
1. Significance of bone structure to the human body.

2. Process of ossification primarily from neonatal age up to adult age.
3. The bone cells and matrix.
Drawing:
I. SIGNIFICANCE OF BONE STRUCTURE IN THE BODY
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 They support the body structurally, protect our vital organs, and allow us to
move. Also, they provide an environment for bone marrow, where the blood cells
are created, and they act as a storage area for minerals, particularly calcium.
II. PROCESS OF OSSIFICATION PRIMARILY FROM NEONATAL AGE UP TO ADULT

Bone ossification, or osteogenesis, is the process of bone formation. This
process begins between the sixth and seventh weeks of embryonic
development and continues until about age twenty-five; although this varies
slightly based on the individual. There are two types of bone ossification,
intramembranous and endochondral.
Endochondral ossification:
 Mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes and form the cartilage model
for bone
 Chondrocytes near the center of the cartilage model undergo hypertrophy and
alter the contents of the matrix they secrete, enabling mineralization
 Chondrocytes undergo apoptosis due to decreased nutrient availability; blood
vessels invade and bring osteogenic cells
 Primary ossification center forms in the diaphyseal region of the periosteum
called the periosteal collar
 Secondary ossification centers develop in the epiphyseal region after birth
Intramembranous ossification:
 Mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts and group into ossification
centers
 Osteoblasts become entrapped by the osteoid they secrete, transforming them
to osteocytes
 Trabecular bone and periosteum form
 Cortical bone forms superficially to the trabecular bone
 Blood vessels form the red marrow
III. THE BONE CELLS AND MATRIX
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Bone is a tissue in which the extracellular matrix has been hardened to accommodate a
supporting function. The fundamental components of bone, like all connective tissues,
are cells and matrix. There are three key cells of bone tissue. They each have unique
functions and are derived from two different cell lines.
 Osteoblasts synthesize the bone matrix and are responsible for its mineralization.
They are derived from osteoprogenitor cells, a mesenchymal stem cell line.
 Osteocytes are inactive osteoblasts that have become trapped within the bone they
have formed.
 Osteoclasts break down bone matrix through phagocytosis. Predictably, they are
derived from the monocyte (macrophage) cell line. Think of osteoclasts as the "bone
version" of the macrophage. Their activity occurs along their ruffled border, and the
space between the osteoclast and the bone is known as Howship's lacuna.
The balance between osteoblast and osteoclast activity governs bone turnover and
ensures that bone is neither overproduced nor overdegraded. These cells build up and
break down bone matrix, which is composed of:
 Osteoid, which is the unmineralized matrix composed of type I collagen and

glycosaminoglycans (GAGs).
 Calcium hydroxyapatite, a calcium salt crystal that gives bone its strength and
rigidity.
Bone is divided into two types that are different structurally and functionally. Most
bones of the body consist of both types of bone tissue:
 Compact bone/cortical bone, mainly serves a mechanical function. This is the area
of bone to which ligaments and tendons attach. It is thick and dense.
 Trabecular bone/cancellous bone/spongy bone, mainly serves a metabolic
function. This type of bone is located between layers of compact bone and is thin
and porous. Located within the trabeculae is the bone marrow.
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ACTIVITY #6
HISTOLOGY OF THE HEART
Overview: The heart is composed of cardiac muscle, specialized conductive tissue,

valves, blood vessels and connective tissue. Cardiac muscle, the myocardium, consists of
cross-striated muscle cells, cardiomyocytes, with one centrally placed nucleus.
Objectives:
1.) Functions of the heart in histology.

2.) Composition of the heart.
3.) 3 layers of the heart.
Drawing:
I. FUNCTIONS OF HEART IN HISTOLOGY
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 The cellular features of the heart play a vital role in the normal function and
adaptations of the heart.
II. COMPOSITION OF THE HEART
The cardiovascular system is comprised of the following structures:
 Heart - pumps blood through the system

 Arteries - vessels that deliver blood to tissues
 Capillaries - networks of small vessels that perfuse tissues
 Veins - vessels that return blood to the heart
III. 3 LAYERS OF THE HEART
Tunica Adventitia (Epicardium)
This layer contains fibro-elastic connective tissue, blood vessels, lymphatics and adipose
tissue. The simple squamous epithelium of the tunica adventitia layer is called the
mesothelium.
Tunica Media (Myocardium)
In the heart:
The tunica media layer is called the myocardium. The myocardium is the largest of the
three layers, and contains cardiac muscle fibers, and loose endomysial connective tissue
that contains lots of capillaries.
Tunica Intima (Endocardium)
Lines the atria and ventricles and covers the heart valves. As well as the endothelium
and underlying basement membrane, there is a small layer of loose connective tissue
and some adipose tissue.
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ACTIVITY #7
TISSUES OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN
Overview: The female reproductive system is unique in that its histological appearance
cycles and undergoes structural changes that are not pathological.
Objectives:
1.) Function of female reproductive organs

2.) Organs comprised of female reproductive organs
Drawing:
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OVARY UTERUS PLACENTA
CERVIX VAGINA OVIDUCT
I. FUNCTION OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

 They work together for the production of female gametes (oocytes), fertilization,
support of the developing fetus, delivering it to the outside world, and nutrition
of the newborn.
II. ORGANS COMRPISED OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

Ovary
The ovaries are responsible for the production of an oocyte (oogenesis) and secretion of

female sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone). When it releases a mature ovum, it
travels down the oviduct to the uterus.
Oviduct
The oviducts (uterine tubes; fallopian tubes) are fibromuscular tubes that transport an

ovulated ovum from the ovary to the uterus. Fertilization usually takes place in the
oviduct.
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Uterus
The uterus is the muscular organ that nourishes and supports the growing embryo.
Cervix
The cervix is the lower end of the uterus that opens into the vagina. During
menstruation, it allows the passage of menstrual fluid from the uterus. In childbirth, it
widens (dilates) to allow passage of the baby from the uterus to the outside world.
Vagina
The vagina is a fibromuscular tube that connects the uterus to the opening of the
external genitalia.
Placenta
The placenta develops during pregnancy to support the developing fetus by producing

hormones, transferring nutrients and waste products between the mother and the
fetus.
Mammary Gland
Mammary glands are responsible for the production of milk (lactation) for nutrition of a
newborn.
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ACTIVITY #8
TISSUES OF KIDNEYS
Overview: The kidneys are paired retroperitoneal organs of the urinary system. Their

function is to filter blood & produce urine. Each kidney consists of a cortex, medulla and
calyces. Nephrons are the main functional units of the kidney, in charge of removing
metabolic waste and excess water from the blood.
Objectives:
1.) Function of kidneys

2.) What makes up the kidney
Drawing:
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I. FUNCTION OF KIDNEYS
 Regulation of extracellular fluid volume
 Regulation of osmolarity
 Regulation of ion concentrations
 Regulation of pH
 Excretion of wastes and toxins
 Production of hormones
II. WHAT MAKES UP THE KIDNEY

Renal cortex
Outer layer of the kidney tissue. It is darker than its underlying renal medulla because it
receives over 90% of the kidney blood supply. The cortex has a grainy appearance, as it
mostly contains ovoid and coiled parts of the nephrons
Renal medulla
Striped, as it contains vertical nephron structures (tubules, collecting ducts). It consists of

renal (medullary) pyramids separated by projections of the renal cortex (renal columns).
The apices of the pyramids project towards the renal pelvis and open into the minor
calyces via perforated plates on their surfaces (area cribrosa). Each renal pyramid, with its
surrounding cortical tissue, forms a renal lobe. Renal lobes are further divided into renal
lobules. Each lobule consists of a group of nephrons emptying into one collecting duct.
Nephron
Functional unit of the kidney. It produces concentrated urine by creating an ultrafiltrate

from blood. A nephron consists of two main parts: a renal corpuscle and its associated
renal tubule system.
Renal corpuscle
Filtration apparatus of the nephron. Each corpuscle consists of two main elements; the
glomerulus and glomerular (Bowman's) capsule.
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ACTIVITY #9
TISSUES OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN
Overview: The male reproductive system consists of the testes, conducting tubules and

ducts (epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory ducts), accessory sex glands (seminal
vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands), and the penis.
Objectives:
1.) Function of male reproductive system

2.) What male reproductive organ consists of
Drawing:
Testis Ductus Deferens Seminal Vesicle
Penis Prostate Epididymis
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I. FUNCTION OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 Organs work to together to produce male gametes (sperm) and the other
components of semen.
II. WHAT MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN CONSISTS OF

Testis
Testes are responsible for the production of sperm (spermatogenesis) and secretion of

male sex hormones (testosterone). The production of sperm occurs within the
seminiferous tubules that make up most of the testis.
Epididymis
Sperm leave the testes and enter the epididymis. Each epididymis is a long, tightly
coiled duct in which sperm undergo maturation as they move through it. Mature sperm
are stored in the tail of the epididymis.
Ductus Deferens
Ductus deferens (vas deferens) is a thick walled, fibromuscular tube that is continuous

with the epipdidmis. Peristaltic movements propel sperm through the duct.
Seminal Vesicles
The seminal vesicles are unbranched, highly-coiled tubular glands. Their secretions

make up 60 percent of the volume of the semen. This fluid is high in fructose that acts as
the main energy source for sperm outside the body.
Prostate
The prostate is composed of compound tubuloalveolar glands that contributes a slightly

alkaline fluid to semen. These secretions help neutralize the acidity of the vagina,
prolonging the lifespan of sperm.
Penis
The penis is composed of three cylindrical bodies of erectile tissue.
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ACTIVITY #10
TISSUES OF THE BRAIN
Overview: Brain is part of the nervous system. The nervous system is a complex
collection of nerves and specialized for the rapid communication of information from
one region of the body to another.
Objectives:
1.) Divisions of nervous system

2.) Composition of the CNS
Drawing:
Brain Spinal cord Dorsal root ganglion
Sympathetic ganglion Peripheral nerve
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I. DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
Nervous system is divided anatomically into two major components:
 Central nervous system (CNS) – consists of the brain and spinal cord

 Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – peripheral nerves and ganglia
Nervous system is divided functionally into two major components:
 Somatic nervous system – conscious voluntary movements

 Autonomic nervous system – regulates the functions of internal
organs - further divided into two subdivisions:
 Sympathetic nervous system – involved in functions requiring
quick responses (i.e., stress, impending danger, and fight or flight
response)
 Parasympathetic nervous system – regulates functions that do
not require a quick response
II. COMPOSITION OF CNS & PNS
CNS:
Brain
Neurons have considerable variation in their size and shape
Spinal cord
The spinal cord functions primarily in the transmission of nerve signals between the

brain and the body.
PNS:
Dorsal root
Dorsal root ganglia are clusters of nerve bodies of sensory neurons located alongside
the spinal cord.
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Sympathetic ganglion
Sympathetic ganglia form long chains on either side of the spinal cord. They deliver
information about stress, impending danger, and the fight-or-flight response.
Parasympathetic ganglion
Parasympathetic nerves have their nerve cell bodies in small ganglia located within the
organ they innervate.
Peripheral nerve
Peripheral nerves contain the axons of both motor neurons and sensory neurons that
connect with the spinal cord. They are surrounded by multiple layers of connective
tissue.
Sensory nerve endings
The nervous system has a variety of specialized receptors. Meissner's and Pacinian

corpuscles are two that can be readily seen by H&E.
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Angelica R. Blancada
Compilation
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Activity 1
The Microscope and Its Importance In Medical Laboratory Science
Importance:
1) To discover microorganism
2) Study cell structure and parts
3) See smallest parts of plants, animals, virus and fungi.
Questions:
What is a microscope?
A microscope is a high precision optical instrument that uses a lens or a combination of lenses to
produce highly magnified images of small specimens or objects especially when they are too small to be
seen by the naked (unaided) eye. A light source is used (either by mirrors or lamps) to make it easier to
see the subject matter.
Who invented microscope?
There is no one person who invented the microscope as several different inventors
experimented with theories and ideas and developed different parts of the concept as they evolved to
what is today’s microscopes.
About 1590 two Dutch spectacle makers, Zaccharias Janssen and his son Hans, experimented
with a crude concept of a microscope that enlarged objects 10x to 30x or so. In 1609, Galileo (an Italian)
improved on the principle of lenses and added a focusing device to improve somewhat upon what the
Janssen’s had done.
These rudimentary instruments didn’t change much until the early 1670s. A Dutchman, Anton
van Leeuwenhoek, is considered the father of microscopes because of the advances he made in
microscope design and use. He worked as an apprentice in a dry goods store where magnifying lenses
were used to count the threads in cloth. Anton was inspired by these glasses and he taught himself new
methods for grinding and polishing small lenses which magnified up to 270x. This led to the first
practical microscopes. In 1674, Anton was the first to see and describe bacteria, yeast, plants, and life in
a drop of water.
Not many improvements were made until the 1850’s when several inventors in Europe and
America made vast improvements. From this time frame, modern compound and stereo microscopes
have changed very little.
In the early 1930’s the first electron beam microscopes were developed which were a
breakthrough in technology as they increased the magnification from about 1000x or so up to 250,000x
or more. These microscopes use electrons rather than light to examine objects.
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Normal will become extraordinary when looking through a microscope. You will find that almost
everything (alive or that was alive) consists of components called cells and they take on a fabulous view
at the cellular structure – like your own blood, molds, yeast, and bacteria. You can observe prepared
slides or prepare your own. You can spend hours examining a drop of pond water and observing the
enormous amount of life within it. You can study ordinary things like salt, cotton, foods, plants, or
flowers. Using stereo (dissecting) microscopes, you can examine details of the specific parts of insects,
animals, gems, textiles, paper, fingerprints, sand, milk, bread, etc.
Microscopes are essential tools in creating new medicines and finding cures for diseases.
The same basic microscopes are used for all these various activities. Everyone should own a
decent microscope and it will last a lifetime with reasonable care. Many people think that microscopes
are very complex and difficult to use and that they are only used in research facilities and universities
and that they are expensive --- but they are less expensive than one might think and are really easy to
use.
What specific categories are microscopes used for or by?
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 Hobbyists – gems, coins, stamps, collectibles, learning and discovery, etc.
 Education – chemistry, biology, botany, zoology
 Medical – microbiology, hematology, pathology, entomology, dermatology, dental usage, veterinary
use, everyday analysis to advanced research. From medical schools to labs to hospitals
 Industry – inspection of electronic assembly components and many different materials such as metals,
textiles, plastics, etc. Used in agriculture, wineries, breweries, and for fine engravings and mining
inspection. Used by jewelers and geologists
 Teachers and students – in the educational process starting in elementary school through graduate
school
 Science – for the study of archeology, oceanography, geology, metallurgy, and numerous other fields
 Government – many areas for public health and safety such as water quality, pharmaceuticals,
forensics, asbestos, lab work, military applications, etc.
Enumerate the kinds of microscope and describe each.
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
Compound refers to the fact that in order to enlarge an image, a

single light path passes through a series of lenses in a line where each lens
magnifies the image over the previous one. In other words, one light path
with multiple lenses equals a compound microscope. The image is seen by
the observer as if it were only 10” (250mm) from your eye.
In the standard form the lenses consist of an objective lens (closest

to the object or specimen) and an eyepiece lens (closest to the observers’
eye) and a means of adjusting the focus and position of the specimen or
object. In addition, a compound microscope uses light (reflected from a
mirror, from indirect sunlight, from desk lamps or other interior light sources,
or from built-in lamps) to illuminate the specimen or object so that you can
see it with your eye.
The objective lens usually consists of three or four lenses (sometimes even five) on a rotating
nosepiece (turret) so that the power can be changed. The image produced at the eye is two dimensional
(2-D) and usually reversed and upside down. The most used light method is trans-illumination (light
projected from below to pass through the specimen).
At 400x much detail can be seen at the cellular level of biological

specimens. Learning about cells and microorganisms is both educational and
important for medical and science applications.
STEREO MICROSCOPE
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There are two separate light paths (as opposed to a single light path in a compound microscope)
which produce a true stereo, three dimensional (3-D) image of the specimen or object. Within the
objective lens you will find two lenses (one for each path of light) side-by-side. The optical design
parameters of a stereo microscope limit its 3-D effects to low powers only.
Also in the category of low power microscopes is the single light path (like a compound
microscope) type usually referred to as a dissecting microscope. This type is more economical than the
stereo type but is very useful for examining large sized specimens and objects.
In the standard form the lenses consist of objective lenses (closest to the object or specimen)
and eyepiece lenses (closest to the observers’ eyes) and a means of adjusting the focus (rack and pinion
style) and position of the object or specimen. In addition, a stereo microscope uses light (from desk or
table lamps, indirect sunlight, other interior light sources, or from built-in or attached lamps) to
illuminate the specimen or object so that you can see it with your eyes.
The images you see are correct (upright and normal which is the opposite of compound
microscopes). Most stereo microscopes have both top and bottom built-in or attached illumination to
handle various objects and specimens of all varieties, shapes, and colors.
OTHER TYPES OF MICROSCOPES
These are usually advanced and expensive type microscopes made for specific usages mainly in
advanced medical and research. There are many, many types but some of the more popular types are
listed below:
Phase Contrast -- This is a microscope that uses the differences in the phase of light transmitted or
reflected by a specimen to form distinct, contrasting images of different parts of the specimen.
Polarizing – A microscope in which the object viewed is illuminated by polarized light for typically
analyzing the content and make-up of organic or inorganic material like crystals, chemical microscopy,
and optical mineralogy.
Fluorescence – These microscopes use an illumination method that is used to locate fluorescently
tagged material (protein, enzyme, genes) by exciting the specimen with one wavelength of light in hopes
that the fluorescence will appear by emitting a light at a different wavelength.
Metallurgical – A microscope that is used for identification, inspection, and analysis of different metals
and alloys.
Electron Beam – These microscopes typically cost more than $ 100,000 and sometimes much more and
use a beam of highly energetic electrons instead of light to examine objects on a very fine scale. This
allows the microscope to surpass the resolution limits of optical microscopes and can magnify
specimens up to 250,000x or more. Users can examine the topography of a specimen, its morphology,
composition, etc.
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Digital – These are a combination of a microscope and a digital camera. The more common types are the
digital cameras which can use a CCD or CMOS chip. The camera can be integrated (built-in) with the
microscope or specialized cameras (imagers) can be purchased separately and adapted to virtually any
microscope (like one pictured below) at economical prices. With basic software provided (with the
camera (or using your own photo editing software) the user can display, save, and edit images. Some
more expensive software packages allows for a variety of image analysis useful for medical, educational,
and sophisticated research usage.
Handheld Digital Microscopes - use new technology for a miniature camera and illuminator in one unit.
You use a PC or laptop computer to view and image.
What is magnification? How do you get an object magnification?
Magnification in physical terms is defined as “a measure of the ability of a lens or oter optical
instruments to magnify, expressed as the ratio of the size of the image to that of the object.” This
means, that an object of any size is magnified to form an enlarged image.
The magnification required to produce the visible image can be calculated using the formula:
Magnification = Image + Object
It is important that the all the units are in unison so that the final answer obtained is correct.
What is parfocal?
"Parfocal" refers to objectives that can be changed with minimal or no refocusing.
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Parfocalling compound microscope objectives is a procedure which allows you to adjust each
objective lens so that it will remain in relative focus with the other objective lenses on the microscope
when switching from one magnifcation to the next. If microscope objectives are not parfocalled it means
that you would need to refocus the microscope each time the objective turret is changed to a different
magnification.
When microscope objectives are not parfocalled it is inconvenient and can increase eye strain as
well as wear and tear on the microscope. Each microscope manufacturer generally has a slightly
different method for parfocalling objectives. The images below demonstrate how to parfocal the
objectives on a Meiji laboratory microscope.
How to Parfocal Objectives
1) Remove the objectives that you wish to parfocal. You

will need to remove each objective and the outer
covers will need to be opened.
If you have a 4x or a 10x objective in your microscope, leave

those in place. These will not have adjustable settings.
The higher power objectives will be parfocalled using the 10x

objective as a base line. The other objectives will be adjusted in
order moving up from the 10x microscope objective.
2) Start by removing the outer cover of the objective lens.

On the Meiji microscope objectives the objective cover
will unscrew by turning it counter clockwise, like most
threaded devices. The cover should unscrew easily and
shouldn't have to be forced.
If you are removing the covers of multiple objectives at

one time make sure that you do not mix them up!
3) The arrow in this image is pointing to the ring that

allows you to adjust the parfocallity of the objective
lens.
Begin by trying to turn the ring. If the ring moves then you
may skip the next image and set of instructions. If the ring
does not move it is most likely because there is a dab or drop
of optical cement that is keeping it from rotating.
You may have to look closely in order to locate the drop of optical cement holding the ring in place.
36
4) You can remove the optical cement on the objective
adjustment ring. If it can't be removed with your finger
nail you may want to lightly moisten a Q-tip with
acetone and carefully remove the dab of cement. You
may need to work the ring back and forth to make the
ring spin freely.
After the ring is free re-install the objective (this time without
the cover on it) on the microscope. Make sure you put the next
highest objective after the 10x so the objectives ascend in order. (For example, place the 10x, then 40x,
100x, etc.)
5) Rotate the 10x objective into postion and focus on an

object. A stage micrometer is a good item to focus on,
but you can use anything with lines on it. Now move up
to the next objective. While you are looking through the
next microscope objective rather than using the
focusing knobs to focus, rotate the adjustment ring on
the objective.
The adjustment is somewhat sensitive, so you might have to

move it slowly.
You will then repeat this process for the rest of your objectives. When you are done with all the
objectives you should be able to quickly cycle through each one without having to re-focus your
microscope.
6) Finally, you may want to apply a drop of optical cement

to secure the objective ring that you just adjusted. This is
not required, but is sometimes helpful in keeping your
objectives parfocalled.
If you don't have any optical cement just substitute clear nail
polish. You can add the cement while the objectives are still in
the microscope nosepiece. The photo at left shows where to
apply the cement.
Once the cement has dried replace the objective covers and screw the objectives back into the
nosepiece of the microscope. Parfocalling of microscope objectives should only need to be performed
once, so you should be done with this task.
37
1) Draw and Label fully a Compound Microscope
38
OBJECTIVE LENSES
The objective lenses are the most important components of microscopes and thus will be
discussed in greater detail here. Their basic function is to gather the light passing through the specimen
and then to project the image up into the body of the microscope. Then, the eyepiece lens system further
magnifies the image for your eye to see. Most quality microscopes use glass for the objectives and even
for beginner microscopes, stay away from plastic objectives lenses as the quality level is quite inferior. The
objectives are the lens system closest to the specimen.
There is one objective for each eyepiece in a compound microscope. For stereo microscopes,
there are objective pairs (one objective lens for each eyepiece lens) which give the 3-D effect.
On compound microscope objectives, there is printed the following information on each one – power, DIN
tube length, N.A., cover slip thickness, universal color ring. Tube length of the objectives usually have a
DIN (interchangeable) of 185mm or 195mm.
Objectives vary in power from 1x to 160x in compound microscopes but the most common
power range is from 4x to 100x. Most compound microscopes have three or four (occasionally five)
objectives usually of 4x, 10x, 40x, and 100x (oil immersion) which revolve on a nosepiece (turret) to give
different magnifying powers. The 4x, 10x, and 40x are called “dry” objectives which means they operate
with air between the objective and the specimen. The 100x is called a “wet” objective which means it
operates with immersion oil between the lens and the specimen.
For stereo microscopes, they usually have one or two objectives lenses which normally are 1x,
2x, 3x, or 4x. In addition, there are zoom models which operate from about 0.5x up to 5x.
The extent of corrections for lens errors (aberrations) and flatness of the image field determines
the usefulness and cost of the objectives for compound microscopes. The least expensive objectives are
achromatic types and these are fine for all microscopes costing under about $ 750.00. The cost of
objectives increases if using fluorites or semi-apochromatic types and the most expensive are the
apochromats.
Flatness of field (field curvature) refers to how well the specimen is focused across the entire field of view.
In achromatic objectives the flatness of field is usually about 50% to &70% of the field where they are in
sharp focus in the center and the outside of field becomes out of focus but you can refocus in the outer
39
portions to see that area sharply. Flatter field objectives (micro plan or semi-Plan) are the semi-
apochromats which are flat for about 70% to 85% of the field and apochromats (Plan types) are flat for
about 90% to 100% of the field. Plan objectives are the ultimate for quality and a microscope typically will
cost more than $ 750.00 to have these type objectives in them.
N.A. (numerical aperture) is a number that expresses the ability of a lens to resolve fine details in an
object being observed especially those close together. As the N.A. number increases, the resolution
becomes better. The N.A. may vary from 0.04 (low power) to 1.4 (high power Plan wet objective). The N.A.
will be marked on the objective and the typical N.A. for the following are; 4x=0.10, 10x=0.25, 40x=0.65,
and 100x=1.25.
Resolution (actual not theoretical) is the separation distance of two details (points or lines) lying close
together still seen as separate. The higher the resolution, the closer the two points may be to one another
and still be distinguished as two points. Resolution comes from the objective and not the eyepieces as the
eyepieces only magnify the resolution.
Sometimes objectives have a color ring (universally used) to aid in identifying the magnification:
black (1x), brown (2x), red (4x), yellow (10x), green (20x), turquoise (25x), light blue (40x), dark blue (60x),
white (100x).
Another number on the objective (like 0.17) refers to the thickness in millimeters of the cover
glass that was assumed by the lens designer in computing best performance for the objective lens. 12 DIN
(Deutsche Institut Fuer Normung) standard objectives are the most popular in international standards
which dictates the design capability of the objectives.
DIN standard objectives from one manufacturer can be used in another manufacturer’s compatible
microscope. The standard refers to the 45mm parfocal (explained below) distance and RMS standard
33mm thread for the objective. The 45mm distance is the measurement from the mounting hole in the
objective nosepiece to the point of focus on the specimen.
JIS (Japanese Industrial Standard) is a less used international standard for objectives. They use 36mm
objective distance. RMS (Royal Microscopical Society) uses a 33mm parfocal distance for the objective.
RMS screw threads are 20.32mm diameter with a pitch of 0.706.
Parfocal refers to the ability to change objective lenses with differing powers and have the focus remain
sharp or with very little refocusing. Parcentered refers to when changing objective lens power, the
specimen should stay centered in the field of view.
Oil Immersion concentrates the light path and increases the resolution. A special oil is used with
the 100x objective lens and usually at 1000x up to 1500x. This is a technique used to close the air gap
between the tip of the objective and the top of the specimen with the oil. Once the objective contacts the
drop of oil of matching refractivity, it becomes one unit. Immersion oil is the only suitable oil for this
purpose and will allow high magnifications and avoid damage to the objectives. There are two basic types
of oil immersion – Type A is for low viscosity and Type B is for high viscosity.
40
EYEPIECE / OCULAR
The eyepiece consists of a series of lenses mounted in a tube (barrel) at the upper end of the
microscope. Its basic function is to look at the focused, magnified image projected by the objective lens
and magnify that image a second time before your eye looks at the image of the specimen. As with
objective lenses, stay away from eyepieces where the optics are made of plastic as they will ensure very
poor quality. Eyepieces come in several different designs such as Huygens, Ramsden, Kellner,
Orthoscopic, Plossl, etc. and all can be good in microscopes and the differences are minor as compared
to various optical designs used with astronomical telescopes.
The eyepieces are usually 10x but also come in 5x, 12.5x, 15x, and 20x. The “x” refers to the
amount of magnification (power) that this lens adds as a multiplier to the magnification of the objective.
They are inscribed with the magnification and its field number (which is the diameter in millimeters of
the diaphragm opening (aperture) of the eyepiece. The aperture limits the field of view to the useful
coverage of the eyepiece. For special applications, eyepieces can have scales, pointers, crosshairs,
markers, etc. on them.
Eyepieces also come in wide field styles. They have a large diameter and show a wider field of
view than standard eyepieces. Most are 10x although 15x and sometimes 20x are common. Eye Relief is
the distance (in millimeters) between the observer’s eye (cornea) and the nearest surface of the
eyepiece lens – longer eye relief being better for eyeglass wearers.
The eyepoint is the location (or position) of the eye from the eyepiece which allows for the best possible
viewing of the image. Some eyepieces use a pointer to point at a section of the specimen. You can rotate
the pointer by turning the eyepiece. An eyepiece reticle (micrometer) is a piece of glass with a pattern
printed or etched which is put inside an eyepiece to make measurements of the size of objects seen
through the microscope.
The diopter adjustment is a focusing characteristic to match the user’s eyes on microscopes with
binocular heads. Most all people have a different vision in each eye. This allows the user to adjust the
focus of each eyepiece separately. For eyeglass wears, it allows them to adjust for their prescription and
they can use the microscope without using their glasses. Typically, the diopter is on the left eyepiece and
to make the adjustment --- close your left eye and look through the right eyepiece with your right eye
and focus the specimen sharply, then close your right eye and look through the left eyepiece with your
left eye and focus the specimen sharply. Then you will be able to focus and examine specimens with
comfort and ease.
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Rubber eyecups (eye shields) are typically used with stereo microscopes. They reduce ambient light and
provide comfort but should not be used if you are wearing eyeglasses.
CONDENSER (Sub-stage Condenser)
A glass lens or lens system located within or below the stage on compound microscopes. Its
basic function is to gather the light coming in from the light source and to concentrate that light into a
light cone onto the specimen. High power 13 objective lenses have very tiny diameters and require
concentrated light to work properly. A basic condenser is fixed in place.
A moveable and more precise and more expensive condenser is the Abbe condenser. It usually
can be moved up and down vertically, regulating the amount of light from the illuminator. It mounts
under the stage and usually has an adjustable iris type aperture to control the diameter of the beam of
light entering the lens system. By changing the size of the iris and moving the lens up or down from the
stage, the diameter and focal point of the cone of light that goes through the specimen can be
controlled. It is most useful at 400x and higher powers.
A condenser should have a N.A. equal to or greater than the N.A. of the objective lens being
used. A basic condenser has a N.A. of 0.65 which is fine at 400x and below. But, at higher magnifications,
a N.A. of 1.20 or 1.25 is common and you will need an Abbe type condenser. For condensers of a higher
quality than the Abbe type, they are usually called aplanatic achromatic types and they have a very flat
field and they are very expensive. Some condensers can be designed to have special accessories for
phase contrast, polarized light, differential interference, and dark field microscopy.
DIAPHRAGM
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The diaphragm is also called the sub-stage diaphragm or aperture diaphragm. The diaphragm is
normally located under the stage of a microscope and it adjusts the amount of light passing into the
slide or specimen. It is most useful at high powers. Most compound microscopes have one of two types
of diaphragm:
1. Disc Diaphragm – is the simplest and least expensive of the two types. It is located between the light
source and the slide or specimen. It contains a rotating disk (usually fixed) with five to ten openings of
differing diameters which limit the amount of light passing through to the specimen.
2. Iris Diaphragm – is the better and more expensive of the two types. It has a continuously variable
diameter (like the iris of an eye or a camera shutter) which has a function to limit the size of the opening
through which light passes from the light source to optimize resolution, contrast, and sharpness. It is
usually controlled by a lever.
ILLUMINATION SYSTEMS (LIGHT SOURCE)
Since specimens rarely generate their own light, illumination is necessary. Illumination is the
application of light onto an object or specimen in a microscope. The illuminator is the source of light
which illuminates the object or specimen to be observed. Illumination of the object or specimen should
be bright, free of glare, and evenly dispersed in the field of view.
The simplest means of illumination can be provided by overhead lights, desk or table lamps, or
indirect sunlight. Many compound microscopes are provided with adjustable plano/concave mirrors
which reflect an external light source into the microscope. The flat slide (plano) of the mirror usually
provides the sharper image but if stronger and brighter illumination 14 is needed then use the concave
side. These methods are the least expensive illumination methods but it can be difficult to direct the
light source for proper illumination.
The more expensive and common illumination is by using built-in or attached light sources using
bulbs or lamps that provide direct and intense illumination. These light sources can be from above the
specimen or object which is used mainly with low power stereo microscopes and is called incident
(reflected) light or from below a specimen (typically a slide specimen) which is light passing up through
the specimen from inside the base and called transillumination (transmitted light). Lighting from both
top and bottom at the same time can provide enough light for the most thick and irregular specimens.
These illuminators may be of a fixed intensity, or of a variable intensity, which use a control knob
(rheostat) to control the intensity of the light produced.
Illumination lamps or bulbs come in various types:
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Tungsten – is an incandescent bulb filament which is the most common and least expensive. They give
off a yellowish hue and give off moderate heat. They are typically 15-watt or 20-watt.
Halogen – is a lamp which generally is the hottest light source for a microscope. The light is very bright,
very white, and concentrated. The halogen type is more expensive than the tungsten. They are typically
15-watt or 20-watt.
Fluorescent – is a lamp that is cool in temperature. The light is bright and white and very sharp while
being comfortable to the eye. The fluorescent is great for observing live specimens. They are typically 5-
watt to 10-watt and generate the same brightness as the tungsten or halogens do. They can be built in
the base of a microscope or they can be attached (called a ring light) to observe from above.
LED – these are light emitting diodes which provide a bright light source with virtually no heat. The white
beam is brighter and cooler than the other illumination systems. They are typically battery operated and
thus are cordless and great for outdoor use also.
There are various forms of illumination produced by varying the amount of light or the quality of the
light allowed to impinge on the specimen:
Bright Field – this is the most fundamental and common form of lighting for microscopes. It is a highly
directional and intense light source. Light aimed from beneath the stage through a condenser lens,
through the specimen, through an objective lens, and through the eyepiece to the eye.
Diffuse – this is where you place a ground glass, some translucent plastic, some opalescent material, or
other similar material in front of the condenser (between the illuminator source and the condenser lens)
and will cause the light of a bright field source to be scattered. Often this broadens the field illumination
and brings subtle changes in the image.
Phase Contrast – this form is used mainly because a large spectrum of living biological specimens
(blood, tissue, and cultured cells), are virtually transparent or have poor contrast when observed with a
bright field microscope. By utilizing a phase annulous (ring) mounted in the condensers front focal plane
partially modulates the light ray bundles that pass through and around the specimen, where they are
slowed ¼ wave, then are retarded another ¼ wave when they pass through the phase plate in the rear
focal plane of the objective. This system also diminishes background light about 85% providing a
darkened background to contrast with the illuminated structure of the phase object. While the affect
diminishes the resolution of the image, it makes detail visible that one could not see without it.
Dark Field – this form is a method to examine transparent or semi-transparent specimens which cannot
be distinguished from the background. It shuts out background light and allows only scattered light to
reach the specimen in order to heighten textural detail.
Koehler – this form is a technique to optimize light quality and sharpness by aligning and adjusting each
component of the optical system starting with a focusing illuminator. The light quality will be even and
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bright. The Koehler is the best form of illumination possible with a microscope and is offered on only the
most expensive microscopes.
FOCUS SYSTEMS
A focus control allows you to adjust the focus of the microscope. Every microscope includes a
focusing control (knob) for quick (coarse) focusing of the image. More expensive compound microscope
models include a coarse (quick) and fine focusing control. The fine focus is particularly advantageous in
high power applications and required for 400x and higher but is not available on stereo microscopes
since they are only low power.
Coaxial controls (focus) are where both the course and fine focus knobs are on one large control (on top
of each other). The larger knob is typically for the coarse focusing and the smaller knob for the fine
focusing. The smaller knob is usually centered on the inside of the larger one.
Focusing mechanisms used in microscopes are rack and pinion type. This is a design involving
the intermeshing of a geared wheel and matching grooved rack. The rack is a track with teeth and the
pinion is a gear that rides on the teeth. By turning a knob, the pinion gear moves along the track.
A safety rack stop (rack stop or stop screw) is an adjustable screw located at or near the base of a focus
mechanism. When adjusted properly, it prevents the body tube from lowering too far and potentially
causing damage to both the high power objective and/or the specimen. Most microscopes have a slip
clutch which allows for continuous turning of a focus knob when it is all the way up or down without
damaging the gear system.
Focusing can take place in one of two ways. The stage moves vertically to bring it nearer or
further from the objective which remains fixed in place. The other method is the drawtube moves
vertically with the objective and nosepiece while the stage stays in place.
45
The head is the upper part of the microscope that connects the eyepiece to the nosepiece or
turret. Some heads are fixed in place and allow you to tilt them from angles of 0° up to 60°. More
expensive microscopes usually have heads that can be rotated 360° allowing two or more users to see
the specimen without the microscope itself having to be picked up and rotated.
There are several types of heads:

Monocular – this is a microscope with a single eyepiece. These types are the more economical models
and are very satisfactory for their usage. A monocular head with a second vertical viewing port is called
a teaching head (dual view head) which can be used by a second person (or teacher) to observe the
same image as the first person. Or, the second port can be used with various cameras.
Binocular – this is a microscope with two eyepieces, one for each eye. They are generally used on high
power compound microscopes and all low power stereo microscopes and are generally more
comfortable to use than a monocular type. There are different types of heads for adjusting the
interpupillary distance (IPD) – see description below -- and the more common types are (
1) seidentoff – IPD is adjusted by twisting the eyepieces in an up and down arc motion similar to most
binoculars and
(2) slider – IPD is adjustable side-to-side by sliding the eyepieces toward and away from each other.
Trinocular – this is a microscope with a binocular head for viewing and an additional port that can be
used for a third eyepiece for a second person (or teacher) to use or it would be used for various photo
applications. On many microscopes, the amount of light can be adjusted (from 30% to 70% or so) for the
third port.
Binocular heads contain prisms carrying light rays from the objectives to the eyepieces. The two
eyepieces must be lined up with the user’s pupils for comfortable viewing and this process is called
adjusting the interpupillary distance (IPD). The eyepieces will get further apart or closer together to fit
each individual as different people have varying distances between their eyes.
NOSEPIECE (TURRET OR REVOLVING NOSEPIECE)
The nosepiece is a rotating turret located above the stage on compound microscopes that can
hold multiple objective lenses of various magnifications. By rotating the objectives into the light path
and over the specimen you can observe various magnifications of the specimen during your
examination. As any of the objectives are rotated they will click when the precise location is reached.
There are normally three or four objectives (4x, 10x, 40x, and 100x) and in rare cases there are five. The
objective can be of different powers but the ones just mentioned are used in the vast majority of all
compound microscopes.
Sometimes the 40x and 100x objectives are spring loaded at the end which allows the objective
to be retracted slightly when nearing the slide/cover slip that may be too thick and this then prevents
46
damage to the objective. Some nosepieces may be called “reverse nosepieces” and this is when the
objectives are in a tucked position under the head and nosepiece allowing ease of placing slide
specimens onto the stage from the front of the microscope.
In a stereo microscope, a nosepiece can be referred to as a single objective housing or a turret

that may have two objectives. If a turret type, the turret is rotated all the way in either direction to use
the particular objective.
ARM
The arm (also called the stand or limb) is the component of a microscope which contains the
focus mechanism and supports the stage, as well as the body or head which contains the eyepieces. It
provides the rigidity of a microscope as it rises from the base. When moving a microscope, this is the
part you should grab with one hand while putting your other hand under the base which will give you
good protection.
A few types of arms are:

Fixed – a type of arm where the arm and the body are integral parts of the microscope and connected
solidly to the base.
Pillar (Post) – a type of arm which consists of a single post rising vertically from the base. The
microscope body can rotate about the post and also be moved up and down on it.
Boom (Universal) – a long boom type stand used to support a microscope body. It has many
adjustments allowing the microscope to be aligned in a wide variety of configurations. This is the least
common type of arm.
BASE
The base is the bottom support part of the microscope. It provides balance and rigidity. It
houses electrical components for illumination.
EYEPIECE TUBES
The eyepiece tubes are also called observation tubes or drawtubes. They are attached to the
arm above the nosepiece. They are usually set at angles of 45° or 30° for comfortable viewing. The
bottom of the eyepiece tubes hold a special lens called 17 the eyepiece (tube) lens. The tube length is a
fixed measurement in millimeters of the distance from the objective shoulder to the seat of the
eyepiece which is typically DIN 160mm or 170mm (except on introductory microscopes) where the
focused image forms. This distance governs the interchangeability of optical components.
TUBE LENS
At the bottom of the eyepiece tubes is a tube lens. Its function is to gather the parallel rays of
light projected by the objective lens and bring those rays to focus at the plane of the fixed diaphragm of
the eyepiece. On some microscopes, the tube lens is built into the body of the microscope itself.
47
STAGE
The platform beneath the objectives on which the slide or object to be observed is placed is
called a stage. It has a smooth, flat surface and can be rectangular or circular. On most compound
microscopes, the stage moves up and down and the nosepiece is stationary but on some microscopes
just the reverse takes place. The stage has an opening for passing light. The simple type of stage is called
a plain stage and the more sophisticated stage is called a mechanical stage.
The more sophisticated and expensive mechanical stage makes it much easier to center
specimen slides (standard slide size is 1”x 3”) with precise movements in two axes with knobs which is
critical at high powers (400x or more) where slight movements of the slide by hand moves the slide too
much or out of the field of view. A vernier type scale on the stage allows for making measurements of
the specimen. The “X” axis moves a slide forward and back (north/south) and the “Y” axis moves the
slide side-to-side (east/west or left/right).
A stage plate is used with stereo microscopes and this plate fits in over the lower illumination in
a circular hole. It normally is a frosted glass plate or a dual sided (white and black) plastic plate which
can be used for improving contrast on various specimens to be viewed with top illumination.
The working distance of a stage is the vertical area that is available to place specimens for
examination.
48
Activity 2
Epithelial Tissues
Objectives:
1) Describe histology of skin and its appendages
2) Illustrate and label the keratinized stratified squamous epithelium (epidermis)
3) Differentiate the different types of Epithelium
4) Identify the dermis and its parts
Overview:
Epithelium is one of the four basic types of animals tissue along sith connective tissue, muscle
tissue and nervous tissue. Epithelial tissues line the cavities and surface of structure in the body and also
form many glands.
Functions:
Secretion, absorption of nutrients, protection, cellular transport, detection of sensation.
Materials:
Microscope and glass slide with histological specimens
Drawing:
Simple Squamous Epithelium

is a single layer of flat cells in contact with the basal lamina
(one of the two layers of the basement membrane) of the
epithelium. This type of epithelium is often permeable and
occurs where small molecules need to pass quickly through
membranes via filtration or diffusion.
Simple squamous epithelia are found in a variety of
locations, starting from capillaries to the alveoli of lungs, and
nephrons of kidneys. Most of these cells arise from the
ectoderm, or outermost layer of cells in the embryo.
Stratified Squamous Epithelium

consists of squamous (flattened) epithelial cells arranged in layers upon a basal membrane. Only
one layer is in contact with the basement membrane; the other layers adhere to one another to
maintain structural integrity.
Types:
Squamous
- nonkeratinized (covers the mucosa)
- keratinized (skin)
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Cuboidal (lines excretory ducts of glands)
Columnar (conjunctiva of the eyelids)
Transitional (urinary tract)
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

is a type of tissue that is found lining parts of organs and ducts in the body. Its structure allows
for absorption and diffusion in those areas.
Simple cuboidal epithelia are found on the surface of ovaries, the lining of nephrons, the walls of the
renal tubules, and parts of the eye and thyroid. On these surfaces, the cells perform secretion and
absorption.
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

is a type of epithelial tissue composed of multiple layers of cube-shaped cells. Only the most
superficial layer is made up of cuboidal cells, and the other layers can be cells of other types.
50
Simple Columnar Epithelium
is a columnar epithelium that is uni-layered. In
humans, a simple columnar epithelium lines most
organs of the digestive tract including the stomach,
small intestine, and large intestine. Simple columnar
epithelia line the uterus.
Stratified Columnar Epithelium

is a rare type of epithelial tissue composed of column
shaped cells arranged in multiple layers. Stratified
columnar epithelia are found in the conjunctiva of the eye,
in parts of the pharynx, anus, the uterus, and the male
urethra and vas deferens.
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

are tissues formed by a single layer of cells that give the
appearance of being made from multiple layers, especially when
seen in cross section. The nuclei of these epithelial cells are at
different levels leading to the illusion of being stratified.
Ciliated Columnar Epithelium

moves mucus and other substances via cilia and is found
in the upper respiratory tract, the fallopian tubes, the uterus,
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and the central part of the spinal cord. They are the primary target of infection for "common cold
viruses" such as coronaviruses, influenza virus and rhinoviruses.
Questions:
1.What is the function of epithelial cells?
Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and lines organs, vessels (blood and lymph), and
cavities. Epithelial cells form the thin layer of cells known as the endothelium, which is contiguous with
the inner tissue lining of organs such as the brain, lungs, skin, and heart. The free surface of epithelial
tissue is usually exposed to fluid or the air, while the bottom surface is attached to a basement
membrane.
Epithelial tissue also helps to protect against microorganisms. The skin is the body's first line of
defense against bacteria, viruses, and other microbes.
Epithelial tissue functions to absorb, secrete, and excrete substances. In the intestines, this tissue
absorbs nutrients during digestion. Epithelial tissue in glands secrete hormones, enzymes, and other
substances. Epithelial tissue in the kidneys excrete wastes, and in the sweat glands excrete perspiration.
2.What does the ciliated epithelial do?
A region of epithelium consisting of columnar or cuboidal cells bearing hairlike appendages (see
cilium) that are capable of beating rapidly. Ciliated epithelium performs the function of moving particles
or fluid over the epithelial surface in such structures as the trachea, bronchial tubes, and nasal cavities.
It often occurs in the vicinity of mucus-secreting goblet cells.
3.Name the parts of epithelial cell and functions.
Epithelial cells are a specialized component of many organs. They are characterized by common
structural features, especially their arrangement into cohesive sheets, but have diverse functions made
possible by many specialized adaptations. Many of the physical properties of epithelial cells rely on their
attachment to each other, which is mediated by several types of cell junctions. The specialized functions
of epithelial cells are mediated both through structural modifications of their surface and by internal
modifications, which adapt cells to manufacture and secrete a product.
4.How do epithelial cells work?
Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and lines organs, vessels (blood and lymph), and
cavities. Epithelial cells form the thin layer of cells known as the endothelium, which is contiguous with
the inner tissue lining of organs such as the brain, lungs, skin, and heart. The free surface of epithelial
tissue is usually exposed to fluid or the air, while the bottom surface is attached to a basement
membrane.
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5.What are squamous epithelial cells, cuboidal, columnar, ciliated and pseudostratified columnar cells?
Where are their point of origin or where can we find these cells in our body?
Cell Form Examples of Distribution Main Function

Mouth, esophagus, larynx, Protection, secretion; prevents
Squamous non keratinized vagina, anal canal. water loss.
(moist)
Sweat glands, developing
Cuboidal ovarian follicles. Protection, secretion
Transitional Bladder, ureters, renal calyces. Protection, distensibility.
Columnar Conjunctiva Protection
6.What are renal epithelial cells?

- are the single layer of cells lining the nephron. These include cells lining the glomerulus, the proximal
and distal convoluted tubules, and the collecting ducts.
Activity 4
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Connective Tissues
Objectives:
5) To identify connective tissues
6) To enumerate specific functions of connective tissues in our body.
7) To draw and illustrate the different types of connective tissues in our body.
8) To appreciate the knowledge about their importance in our body.
Questions:
1. Define Connective Tissues. Give their specific activities in our body.
- is to connect tissues and organs. Unlike epithelial tissue, which is composed of cells closely
packed with little or no extracellular space in between, connective tissue cells are dispersed in
a matrix. The matrix usually includes a large amount of extracellular material produced by the
connective tissue cells that are embedded within it. The matrix plays a major role in the
functioning of this tissue. The major component of the matrix is a ground substance often
crisscrossed by protein fibers. This ground substance is usually a fluid, but it can also be
mineralized and solid, as in bones.
- Connective tissues perform many functions in the body, but most importantly, they support and
connect other tissues; from the connective tissue sheath that surrounds muscle cells, to the
tendons that attach muscles to bones, and to the skeleton that supports the positions of the
body. Protection is another major function of connective tissue, in the form of fibrous capsules
and bones that protect delicate organs and, of course, the skeletal system. Specialized cells in
connective tissue defend the body from microorganisms that enter the body. Transport of fluid,
nutrients, waste, and chemical messengers is ensured by specialized fluid connective tissues,
such as blood and lymph. Adipose cells store surplus energy in the form of fat and contribute to
the thermal insulation of the body.
2. Enumerate types of Connective Tissue and give their specific functions
 Connective Tissue Proper

- Fibroblasts are present in all connective tissue proper. Fibrocytes, adipocytes, and mesenchymal
cells are fixed cells, which means they remain within the connective tissue. Other cells move in
and out of the connective tissue in response to chemical signals. Macrophages, mast cells,
lymphocytes, plasma cells, and phagocytic cells are found in connective tissue proper but are
actually part of the immune system protecting the body.
- Connective Tissue Fibers and Ground Substance
Three main types of fibers are secreted by fibroblasts: collagen fibers, elastic fibers, and
reticular fibers. Collagen fiber is made from fibrous protein subunits linked together to form a
long and straight fiber. Collagen fibers, while flexible, have great tensile strength, resist
stretching, and give ligaments and tendons their characteristic resilience and strength. These
fibers hold connective tissues together, even during the movement of the body.
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Elastic fiber contains the protein elastin along with lesser amounts of other proteins and
glycoproteins. The main property of elastin is that after being stretched or compressed, it will
return to its original shape. Elastic fibers are prominent in elastic tissues found in skin and the
elastic ligaments of the vertebral column.
Reticular fiber is also formed from the same protein subunits as collagen fibers;
however, these fibers remain narrow and are arrayed in a branching network. They are found
throughout the body, but are most abundant in the reticular tissue of soft organs, such as liver
and spleen, where they anchor and provide structural support to the parenchyma (the
functional cells, blood vessels, and nerves of the organ).
All of these fiber types are embedded in ground substance. Secreted by fibroblasts,
ground substance is made of polysaccharides, specifically hyaluronic acid, and proteins. These
combine to form a proteoglycan with a protein core and polysaccharide branches. The
proteoglycan attracts and traps available moisture forming the clear, viscous, colorless matrix
you now know as ground substance.
- Loose Connective Tissue

Loose connective tissue is found between many organs where it acts both to absorb
shock and bind tissues together. It allows water, salts, and various nutrients to diffuse through
to adjacent or imbedded cells and tissues.
Adipose tissue consists mostly of fat storage cells, with little extracellular matrix . A
large number of capillaries allow rapid storage and mobilization of lipid molecules. White
adipose tissue is most abundant. It can appear yellow and owes its color to carotene and related
pigments from plant food. White fat contributes mostly to lipid storage and can serve as
insulation from cold temperatures and mechanical injuries. White adipose tissue can be found
protecting the kidneys and cushioning the back of the eye. Brown adipose tissue is more
common in infants, hence the term “baby fat.” In adults, there is a reduced amount of brown fat
and it is found mainly in the neck and clavicular regions of the body. The many mitochondria in
the cytoplasm of brown adipose tissue help explain its efficiency at metabolizing stored fat.
Brown adipose tissue is thermogenic, meaning that as it breaks down fats, it releases metabolic
heat, rather than producing adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a key molecule used in metabolism.
Areolar tissue shows little specialization. It contains all the cell types and fibers
previously described and is distributed in a random, web-like fashion. It fills the spaces between
muscle fibers, surrounds blood and lymph vessels, and supports organs in the abdominal cavity.
Areolar tissue underlies most epithelia and represents the connective tissue component of
epithelial membranes, which are described further in a later section.
Reticular tissue is a mesh-like, supportive framework for soft organs such as lymphatic
tissue, the spleen, and the liver. Reticular cells produce the reticular fibers that form the
network onto which other cells attach. It derives its name from the Latin reticulus, which means
“little net.”
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- Dense Connective Tissue
Dense connective tissue contains more collagen fibers than does loose connective
tissue. As a consequence, it displays greater resistance to stretching. There are two major
categories of dense connective tissue: regular and irregular. Dense regular connective tissue
fibers are parallel to each other, enhancing tensile strength and resistance to stretching in the
direction of the fiber orientations. Ligaments and tendons are made of dense regular connective
tissue, but in ligaments not all fibers are parallel. Dense regular elastic tissue contains elastin
fibers in addition to collagen fibers, which allows the ligament to return to its original length
after stretching. The ligaments in the vocal folds and between the vertebrae in the vertebral
column are elastic.
In dense irregular connective tissue, the direction of fibers is random. This arrangement
gives the tissue greater strength in all directions and less strength in one particular direction. In
some tissues, fibers crisscross and form a mesh. In other tissues, stretching in several directions
is achieved by alternating layers where fibers run in the same orientation in each layer, and it is
the layers themselves that are stacked at an angle. The dermis of the skin is an example of dense
irregular connective tissue rich in collagen fibers. Dense irregular elastic tissues give arterial
walls the strength and the ability to regain original shape after stretching.
 Supportive Connective Tissues

- Two major forms of supportive connective tissue, cartilage and bone, allow the body to maintain
its posture and protect internal organs.
Cartilage
The distinctive appearance of cartilage is due to polysaccharides called chondroitin
sulfates, which bind with ground substance proteins to form proteoglycans. Embedded within
the cartilage matrix are chondrocytes, or cartilage cells, and the space they occupy are
called lacunae (singular = lacuna). A layer of dense irregular connective tissue, the
perichondrium, encapsulates the cartilage. Cartilaginous tissue is avascular, thus all nutrients
need to diffuse through the matrix to reach the chondrocytes. This is a factor contributing to the
very slow healing of cartilaginous tissues.
The three main types of cartilage tissue are hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, and elastic
cartilage. Hyaline cartilage, the most common type of cartilage in the body, consists of short
and dispersed collagen fibers and contains large amounts of proteoglycans. Under the
microscope, tissue samples appear clear. The surface of hyaline cartilage is smooth. Both strong
and flexible, it is found in the rib cage and nose and covers bones where they meet to form
moveable joints. It makes up a template of the embryonic skeleton before bone formation. A
plate of hyaline cartilage at the ends of bone allows continued growth until
adulthood. Fibrocartilage is tough because it has thick bundles of collagen fibers dispersed
through its matrix. The knee and jaw joints and the the intervertebral discs are examples of
fibrocartilage. Elastic cartilage contains elastic fibers as well as collagen and proteoglycans. This
tissue gives rigid support as well as elasticity. Tug gently at your ear lobes, and notice that the
lobes return to their initial shape. The external ear contains elastic cartilage.
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3. How will you take good care of your Connective Tissue?
 Practice Letting Go of Emotional “Issues in the Tissues”
Emotional strain and stress can build up in the physical body, including the connective
tissue. As a result, fascia can become thick, tight, and irritated.
A good book on this subject is The Endless Web: Fascial Anatomy and Physical Reality, by R.
Louis Shultz and Rosemary Feitis. As the authors describe, “Emotions travel through the fascial
web... Fascia may become stiffer and less compliant when a client is depressed, anxious and fearful.”
Practice techniques that bring your mind and body into balance, and over time, you may experience
less physical tension. Fostering a stress management strategy that works for you promotes the health of
your connective tissue and your health overall. Skyterra’s recommendations:
Meditation and/or breathwork. Even just five minutes a day is enough to feel a difference.
Get a daily dose of nature. Nature is linked to mental and emotional wellbeing. Aim to spend at least
ten minutes outdoors per day.
Get plenty of sleep. A lack of sleep compounds the effects of stress. Get 7-9 consecutive hours per
night.
 Hydration & Therapy

Think of fascia as a sponge. When it’s well hydrated, you can twist it, wring it, ball it up – it’s
difficult to break, and it will return to its original shape. When it’s dried out, it becomes brittle,
inflexible, and more easily damaged.
You already know that staying hydrated is essential for overall health, and its effect on fascia
is just another reason why. Hydrated fascia can skate and slide, but when it’s dry, the connective
tissue can glue together, becoming stuck, brittle, and hard.
If your fascia is already in a dry, rigid state, you’ll need more than hydration alone to restore
it and minimize the risk of future injury. In addition to plenty of water, you’ll need to engage
in myofascial work – that is, mobility and soft tissue work performed specifically to loosen up
connective tissue.
Water & Myofascial Therapy
How much to drink? Half your body weight in ounces. Divide your body weight (in pounds) by two.
That’s the minimum number of ounces of water you should drink daily. For example, a 200-lb person
should drink at least 100 ounces of water per day.
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Myofascial work. We recommend ten minutes daily. This could mean self-message routines with yoga
tune-up balls, foam rollers, or similar apparatuses, or you could opt for professional treatments from a
yoga therapist, massage or bodywork therapist.
 Stretch & Relax

The type of myofascial techniques described above use targeted external pressure to loosen
tight areas. But it’s also important to also work on loosening the body from within, which helps train
your fascia to relax more naturally.
Remember, fascia is a resilient structure. Once it tightens up, it does not want to let go!
Research states that fascia can withstand 2,000 lbs of pressure per square inch. Therefore, it is
important to stretch slowly, gently, and with purpose.
Have you ever noticed yourself gripping or holding onto tension when stretching? That’s
exactly the feeling you want to avoid. Instead, take your time and honor the breath. The longer you
hold, and the more you relax, the more you can soften and deepen into that particular stretch. This
“slow stretch” paradigm is a boost to your fascia, flexibility, and overall stress response.
Restorative or Yin Yoga Practice

Take up a restorative or yin yoga practice to ensure gentle stretches with longer holds. Skyterra
recommends incorporating therapeutic yoga and/or restorative yoga into your active lifestyle regimen
at least 1-2 times per week.
Drawing:
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Activity 5
Bone
Objectives:
9) To identify the bone
10) To enumerate specific parts of the bone in our body.
11) To draw and illustrate the bone and its parts in our body.
12) To appreciate the tissues of the bone and their importance in our body.
Questions:
4. Define Ossification. Give their specific functions of the bone in our body.
Ossification is the gradual transition from a fibrous or cartilaginous template to bone. This
process takes place at different rates and is completed at different ages depending on the site of
ossification. There are two distinct types of ossification, intermembranous and endochondral.
Intermembranous Ossification: This is the less common form of bone formation, being

limited primarily to the flat bones of the skull such as the parietal, parts of the temporal, and parts
of the maxilla. In this form, bone is deposited between two fibrous membranes. The bone formed in
this way is normally quite porous and does not display the Haversian System of other bones.
Endochondral Ossification: In this type of bone formation a cartilage template, surrounded

by the perichondrium, is entered by blood vessels to begin the process. As the template grows,
ossification begins in the central portion of the template, which will become the diaphysis. This area
is termed the primary ossification center. Later, the extremities of the template each develop
ossification centers called secondary ossification centers, which are located in
the epiphyses (proximal and distal ends of the bone). Once the template has begun to grow the
perichondrium is referred to as the periosteum.
During endochondral ossification, the area between the primary and secondary ossification
centers that remains cartilage is called the epiphyseal plate and is an example of a synchondrosis.
The final ossification of these plates takes place gradually and is completed at different
chronological ages.
5. Enumerate types of Bones and give their specific functions.
 Compact (cortical) bone: A hard outer layer that is dense, strong, and durable. It makes up
around 80 percent of adult bone mass.
 Cancellous (trabecular or spongy) bone: This consists of a network of trabeculae or rod-like

structures. It is lighter, less dense, and more flexible than compact bone.
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Bone cells
Bones are not a static tissue but need to be constantly maintained and remodeled. There are
three main cell types involved in this process.
Osteoblasts: These are responsible for making new bone and repairing older bone. Osteoblasts produce
a protein mixture called osteoid, which is mineralized and becomes bone. They also manufacture
hormones, including prostaglandins.
Osteocytes: These are inactive osteoblasts that have become trapped in the bone that they have
created. They maintain connections to other osteocytes and osteoblasts. They are important for
communication within bone tissue.
Osteoclasts: These are large cells with more than one nucleus. Their job is to break down bone. They
release enzymes and acids to dissolve minerals in bone and digest them. This process is called
resorption. Osteoclasts help remodel injured bones and create pathways for nerves and blood vessels to
travel through.
Osteocytes: These are inactive osteoblasts that have become trapped in the bone that they have
created. They maintain connections to other osteocytes and osteoblasts. They are important for
communication within bone tissue.
release enzymes and acids to dissolve minerals in bone and digest them. This process is called
resorption. Osteoclasts help remodel injured bones and create pathways for nerves and blood vessels to
travel through.
6. How will you take good care of your Skeletal System.
Include plenty of calcium in your diet.
For adults ages 19 to 50 and men ages 51 to 70, the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is
1,000 milligrams (mg) of calcium a day. The recommendation increases to 1,200 mg a day for women
after age 50 and for men after age 70.
Good sources of calcium include dairy products, almonds, broccoli, kale, canned salmon with
bones, sardines and soy products, such as tofu. If you find it difficult to get enough calcium from your
diet, ask your doctor about supplements.
Pay attention to vitamin D.
Your body needs vitamin D to absorb calcium. For adults ages 19 to 70, the RDA of vitamin D is
600 international units (IUs) a day. The recommendation increases to 800 IUs a day for adults age 71 and
older.
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Good sources of vitamin D include oily fish, such as salmon, trout, whitefish and tuna.
Additionally, mushrooms, eggs and fortified foods, such as milk and cereals, are good sources of vitamin
D. Sunlight also contributes to the body's production of vitamin D. If you're worried about getting
enough vitamin D, ask your doctor about supplements.
Include physical activity in your daily routine. Weight-bearing exercises, such as walking, jogging, and
climbing stairs, can help you build strong bones and slow bone loss.
Avoid substance abuse. Don't smoke. If you are a woman, avoid drinking more than one alcoholic drink
each day. If you are a man, avoid drinking more than two alcoholic drinks a day.
Drawing:
Activity 6
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Research on what Epithelial Tissues found in following:
1. Lungs
Squamous epithelium – make up the alveoli (tiny

holow sacs in the lungs).
 Thin, flattened cells. Epithelium – a lining

tissue.
 Advantages – short distance between air in the
alveoli and the blood in the capillary.
 This means gas exchange is very efficient.
Goblet Cells
 Shaped like a goblet (hence their name.
 Produce large amounts of mucus (a
glycoprotein)
 Dirt and bacteria in the air that is breathed in
gets trapped in the mucus. When mucus
reaches the throat it is swallowed. The dirt and
bacteria is then destroyed by the acid and
enzymes in the stomach.
Ciliated Epithelium
 Have tiny hairs called cilia.
 Beat together in a rhythm moving mucus back
up the trachea into the throat.
 Cigarette smoke damages cilia – why do
smokers have a persistent chesty cough and
are prone to lung infections?
2. Adrena Gland
Zona glomerulosa
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 The outermost zone of the adrenal cortex is the zona glomerulosa. It lies immediately
under the fibrous capsule of the gland. Cells in this layer form oval groups, separated
by thin strands of connective tissue from the fibrous capsule of the gland and carry
wide capillaries.
 This layer is the main site for production of aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid, by the
action of the enzyme aldosterone synthase. Aldosterone plays an important role in the
long-term regulation of blood pressure.
Zona fasciculata
 The zona fasciculata is situated between the zona glomerulosa and zona reticularis. Cells
in this layer are responsible for producing glucocorticoids such as cortisol.
 It is the largest of the three layers, accounting for nearly 80% of the volume of the
cortex. In the zona fasciculata, cells are arranged in columns radially oriented towards
the medulla.
 Cells contain numerous lipid droplets, abundant mitochondria and a complex smooth
endoplasmic reticulum.
Zona reticularis
 The innermost cortical layer, the zona reticularis, lies directly adjacent to the medulla.
 It produces androgens, mainly dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), DHEA sulfate (DHEA-S),
and androstenedione (the precursor to testosterone) in humans.
 Its small cells form irregular cords and clusters, separated by capillaries and connective
tissue. The cells contain relatively small quantities of cytoplasm and lipid droplets, and
sometimes display brown lipofuscin pigment.
3. Testis
Tunica - tough, fibrous layers of tissue.
Tunica vaginalis (Outer Layer)
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 pouch of serous membrane that covers the testes. It is derived from the vaginal
process of the peritoneum, which in the fetus precedes the descent of the
testes from the abdomen into the scrotum.
Tunica albuginea (Inner Layer)
 The whitish membrane within the penis that surrounds the spongy chambers
(corpora cavernosa). The tunica albuginea helps to trap the blood in the corpora
cavernosa, thereby sustaining erection of the penis.
4. Ovary
Germinal Epithelium
 derived from the mesoderm during
embryonic development and are closely
related to the mesothelium of
the peritoneum.
 The germinal epithelium gives the ovary a

dull gray color as compared with the shining
smoothness of the peritoneum; and the
transition between the mesothelium of the
peritoneum and the cuboidal cells which
cover the ovary is usually marked by a line
around the anterior border of the ovary.
5. Kidney
Simple cuboidal epithelium
 consists of a single layer cells that are as tall as they are
wide.
 The important functions of the simple
cuboidal epithelium are secretion and absorption.
 This epithelial type is found in the small collecting ducts of
the kidneys, pancreas, and salivary glands.
6. Appendix
Glandular Epithelium
 The inner lining, facing the lumen of the appendix, is covered by a glandular epithelium with
intestinal glands that extend into the deeper layers of the mucosa.
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 The glands are lined with simple columnar epithelium and a high number
of mucin producing goblet cells that are characterized by a large globule of mucus located in the
apical portion of the cell. The lamina propria typically contains lymphocytes that partly obscure
the underlying muscularis mucosae, which separates the mucosa from the submucosa.
Similar to the colon, an inner circular muscle layer and a thin external longitudinal muscle layer
comprise the muscularis externa that encircles the appendix. Outside of the muscular layers there is
a subserosa containing loose connective tissue, vasculature and nerves. The outermost
located peritoneum consists of a thin lining of mesothelial cells.
7. Pancreas
Cuboidal
 The smaller forms have a cuboidal epithelium,
while a columnar epithelium lines the larger
ducts. Intralobular ducts transmit secretions
from intralobular ducts to the major
pancreatic duct. The main pancreatic duct
received secretion from interlobular ducts and
penetrates through the wall of the duodenum.
8. Small Intestine
Simple Columnar Epithelium

 The mucosa of the small intestine is lined by
a simple columnar epithelium which consists
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primarily of absorptive cells (enterocytes), with scattered goblet cells and occasional
enteroendocrine cells. In crypts, the epithelium also includes Paneth cells and stem cells
9. Liver
Hepatocytes
 is a cell of the main parenchymal tissue of
the liver. Hepatocytes make up 55-65% of
the liver's mass. These cells are involved in:
Protein synthesis. Protein storage.
Cholangiocytes
 are cuboidal epithelium in the small
interlobular bile ducts, but become
columnar and mucus secreting in larger bile
ducts approaching the porta hepatis and the
extrahepatic ducts.
10. Fallopian Tube
Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium

 Inside the Fallopian tubes there are hair-
like Fallopian cilia which carry the fertilized egg
from the ovaries of female mammals to the
uterus, via the uterotubal junction. This
tubal tissue is ciliated simple
columnar epithelium.
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Ma. Veronica M. Del Rosario
Compilation
Del Rosario, Ma. Veronica M.

BSMT II
Activity 1
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The Microscope and Its Importance in Medical Lab. Science
Importance:
4) To discover microorganism
5) Study cell structure and parts
6) See smallest parts of plants, animals, virus and fungi.
Questions:
2) Enumerate the kinds of microscope and describe each.

 Simple Microscope
is a magnifying glass that has a double convex lens with a short focal length.
A microscope having one lens or lens system, such as a magnifying glass or hand lens.
 Compound Microscope
is an instrument that is used to view magnified images of small objects on a glass slide.
The objective lens or objectives located on the nosepiece have a short focal length and
are close to the target object where it collects light and focuses the image of the object
into the microscope.
 Stereo Microscope
stereoscopic or dissecting microscope is an optical microscope variant designed for low
magnification observation of a sample, typically using light reflected from the surface of
an object rather than transmitted through it.
 Confocal Microscope
most frequently confocal laser scanning microscopy or laser confocal scanning
microscopy, is an optical imaging technique for increasing optical resolution and
contrast of a micrograph by means of using a spatial pinhole to block out-of-focus light
in image formation
 Scanning Electron Microscope
is a type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample by scanning the
surface with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with atoms in the
sample, producing various signals that contain information about the surface
topography and composition of the sample.
 Transmission Electron Microscope
is a microscopy technique in which a beam of electrons is transmitted through a
specimen to form an image. The specimen is most often an ultrathin section less than
100 nm thick or a suspension on a grid.
3) What is magnification? How do you get an object magnification?
Magnification is a measure of the ability of a lens or other optical instruments to

magnify, expressed as the ratio of the size of the image to that of the object. To figure
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the total magnification of an image that you are viewing through the microscope is
really quite simple. To get the total magnification take the power of the objective (4X,
10X, 40x) and multiply by the power of the eyepiece, usually 10X.
4) What is parfocal?
Parfocal microscope objectives stay in focus when magnification is changed; i.e., if

the microscope is switched from a lower power objective (e.g., 10×) to a higher power
objective (e.g., 40×), the object stays in focus.
Draw and Label fully a Compound Microscope

BSMT II
Activity 2:
Epithelial Tissues
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Objectives:
13) Describe histology of skin and its appendages
14) Illustrate and label the keratinized stratified squamous epithelium (epidermis)
15) Differentiate the different types of Epithelium
16) Identify the dermis and its parts
Overview:
Epithelium is one of the four basic types of animal’s tissue along with connective tissue, muscle
tissue and nervous tissue. Epithelial tissues line the cavities and surface of structure in the body
and also form many glands.
Functions:
Materials:
Drawing:
1) Simple squamous epithelium
2) Stratified squamous epithelium
3) Simple cuboidal epithelium
4) Stratified cuboidal epithelium
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5) Simple columnar epithelium
6) Stratified columnar epithelium
7) Pseudostartified columnar
8) Columnar ciliated epithelium
Questions:
1) What is the function of epithelial cells?
Functions of epithelial cells include secretion, selective absorption, protection, transcellular

transport, and sensing. Epithelial layers contain no blood vessels, so they must receive
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nourishment via diffusion of substances from the underlying connective tissue, through the
basement membrane.
2) What does the ciliated epithelial do?
Ciliated epithelium is a thin tissue that has hair-like structures on it. These hairs, called cilia,
move back and forth to help move particles out of our body. We find ciliated epithelial tissue in
our respiratory tract and in the fallopian tubes of women.
3) Name the parts of epithelial cell and functions
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4) How do epithelial cells work?
Functions of epithelial cells include secretion, selective absorption, protection, transcellular

transport, and sensing. Epithelial layers contain no blood vessels, so they must receive
nourishment via diffusion of substances from the underlying connective tissue, through the
basement membrane.
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5) What are squamous epithelial cells, cuboidal, columnar, ciliated and pseudostratified
columnar cells? Where are their point of origin or where can we find these cells in our
body?
6) What are renal epithelial cells?
Renal epithelial cells are the single layer of cells lining the nephron. These
include cells lining the glomerulus, the proximal and distal convoluted tubules, and the
collecting ducts.
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Del Rosario, Ma. Veronica M. Histology Lab.
BSMT II
Activity 4: Connective Tissues

Objective:
 To identify connective tissues.

 To enumerate specific functions of connective tissues in our body.
 To draw and illustrate the different types of connective tissues in our body.
 To appreciate the knowledge about their importance in our body.
Questions and Answers:
1) Define Connective Tissues. Give their specific activities in our body.
Connective tissues are specialized tissues, which provide support and hold the body’s tissues
together. Connective tissue is made up of a small fraction of cells and a majority of extracellular
substance which keeps the cells separated.
A material made up of fibers forming a framework and support structure for body tissues and
organs. Connective tissue surrounds many organs. Cartilage and bone are specialized forms of
connective tissue. All connective tissue is derived from mesoderm, the middle germ cell layer in
the embryo. Connective tissues perform many functions in the body, but most importantly, they
support and connect other tissues; from the connective tissue sheath that surrounds muscle
cells, to the tendons that attach muscles to bones, and to the skeleton that supports the
positions of the body.
Protection is another major function of connective tissue, in the form of fibrous capsules and
bones that protect delicate organs and, of course, the skeletal system. Specialized cells in
connective tissue defend the body from microorganisms that enter the body. Transport of fluid,
nutrients, waste, and chemical messengers is ensured by specialized fluid connective tissues,
such as blood and lymph. Adipose cells store surplus energy in the form of fat and contribute to
the thermal insulation of the body.
2) Enumerate types of connective tissues and give their specific functions.
Cartilage
Cartilage is a type of supporting connective tissue. Cartilage is a dense connective tissue,
consisting of the chondrocyte cells. Cartilage connective tissue includes hyaline cartilage,
fibrocartilage and elastic cartilage. The fibers in the cartilage connective tissue include collagen
and elastic fibers. Cartilage connective tissue has limited ground substance and can range from
semisolid to a flexible matrix.
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Bone
Bone is another type of supporting connective tissue. Bone, also referred to as osseous tissue,
can either be compact (dense) or spongy (cancellous), and contains the osteoblasts or
osteocytes cells. Bone connective tissue is made up of collagen fibers and has rigid, calcified
ground substance.
Adipose
Adipose is another type of supporting connective tissue that provides cushions and stores excess
energy and fat. It contains reticular cells and is made up of reticular fibers. The extracellular
substance of adipose connective tissue is made up of a tight pack of cells with a small amount of
gelatinous ground substance.
Blood
Blood, also referred to as vascular tissue, is a type of fluid connective tissue. Blood connective
tissue contains three types of cells including erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes. The
fibers found in blood connective tissue are soluble proteins that form during clotting and the
extracellular substance making up blood connective tissue is the liquid blood plasma.
Hemapoetic/Lymphatic
Hemapoetic or lymphatic connective tissue is another type of fluid connective tissue. Lymphatic
connective tissues are responsible for the manufacture of all the blood cells and immunological
capability. It contains leukocytes cells and is made of fibers which are soluble liquid proteins that
form during clotting. The extracellular substance of hemapoetic tissue is blood plasma.
Elastic
Elastic connective tissue helps maintain blood pressure and promotes normal exhalation. Elastic
connective tissues consist of chondrocytes cells and are made up of elastic fibers. The
extracellular substance of elastic connective tissue is composed of limited ground substance and
is structured in a flexible, but firm matrix.
Fibrous
The fibrous connective tissue functions to provide strength to the inner layer of skin and
strength, allowing it to handle forces of joint movements. Fibrous connective tissue contains
fibroblast cells and is made up of fibrous fibers. It is a dense connective tissue, with its
extracellular substance consisting of parallel or irregularly arranged bundles of fibers with few
cells and little ground substance.
Ordinary and Special

The composition of ordinary connective tissue is as described in the most typical case: cells
suspended in a matrix of fibers and ground substance. Skin is one such example of ordinary
connective tissue. Special connective tissue shares many common traits with ordinary
connective tissue but with highly differentiated cell lines suspended within its matrices.
Examples of special connective tissue include bone, cartilage, lymphoid tissue and blood.
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Dense and Loose
The density of connective tissue depends on the concentration of its fibrous component. Dense
connective tissue can be either higher in collagen or high in elastin and contains a high
proportion of fibers compared to cells and ground substance. Examples of collagenous
connective tissue include skin, tendons and ligaments. The aorta of the heart is an example of an
elastin-containing dense connective tissue. Loose connective tissue, as you may expect, contains
a higher proportion of cells and ground substance compared to fibers. Adipose tissue, otherwise
known as body fat, is an example of a loose connective tissue.
Regular and Irregular

Connective tissue may be described as regular or irregular depending on the direction of
orientation of the fibers. Irregular tissue has fibers extending in multiple directions while regular
tissue has fibers running in the same direction. The tendons that attach muscle to other body
parts are an example of regular dense connective tissue, because the fibrous portion is oriented
the same way. Skin is an example of irregular dense connective tissue because its fibers lie in all
directions.
3) How will you take good care of your connective tissues?
 Practice Letting Go of Emotional “Issues in the Tissues”

Practice techniques that bring your mind and body into balance, and over time, you may
experience less physical tension. Fostering a stress management strategy that works for you
promotes the health of your connective tissue and your health overall. Skyterra’s
recommendations:
Meditation and/or breathwork. Even just five minutes a day is enough to feel a
difference.
Get a daily dose of nature. Nature is linked to mental and emotional wellbeing. Aim to
spend at least ten minutes outdoors per day.
Get plenty of sleep. A lack of sleep compounds the effects of stress. Get 7-9 consecutive
hours per night.
 Hydration & Therapy

 Stretch & Relax
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Drawing:
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Del Rosario, Ma. Veronica M. Histology Lab.
BSMT II
Activity 5: Bones
Objective:
 To identify bone.
 To enumerate specific parts of bone in our body.
 To draw and illustrate the bone and its parts in our body.
 To appreciate the tissues of the bone and their importance in our body.

1) Define Ossification. Give their specific functions of the bone in our body.
The process of creating bone, that is of transforming cartilage (or fibrous tissue) into bone. The
verb corresponding to "ossification" is "ossify." Cartilage becomes ossified as it is converted into
bone. Bone is osseous tissue. "Os" is a synonym for "bone." The Latin word "os" means "bone"
as does the related Greek word "osteon." Ossification (or osteogenesis) in bone remodeling is
the process of laying down new bone material by cells called osteoblasts. It is synonymous with
bone tissue formation. There are two processes resulting in the formation of normal, healthy
bone tissue: Intramembranous ossification is the direct laying down of bone into the primitive
connective tissue (mesenchyme), while endochondral ossification involves cartilage as a
precursor.
Bone is often stereotyped as simply a protective and supportive framework for the body.
Though it does perform these functions, bone is actually a very dynamic organ that is constantly
remodeling and changing shape to adapt to the daily forces placed upon it. Moreover, bone
stores crucial nutrients, minerals, and lipids and produces blood cells that nourish the body and
play a vital role in protecting the body against infection. All these functions make the
approximately 206 bones of the human body an organ that is essential to our daily existence.
Bones have many functions, including the following:
 Support: Bones provide a framework for the attachment of muscles and other tissues.
 Protection: Bones such as the skull and rib cage protect internal organs from injury.
 Movement: Bones enable body movements by acting as levers and points of attachment
for muscles.
 Mineral storage: Bones serve as a reservoir for calcium and phosphorus, essential
minerals for various cellular activities throughout the body.
 Blood cell production: The production of blood cells, or hematopoiesis, occurs in the
red marrow found within the cavities of certain bones.
 Energy storage: Lipids, such as fats, stored in adipose cells of the yellow marrow serve
as an energy reservoir.
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2) Enumerate types of bone tissues and give their specific functions.
Structure of Bone Tissue

There are two types of bone tissue: compact and spongy. The names imply that the two types
differ in density, or how tightly the tissue is packed together. There are three types of cells that
contribute to bone homeostasis. Osteoblasts are bone-forming cell, osteoclasts resorb or break
down bone, and osteocytes are mature bone cells. An equilibrium between osteoblasts and
osteoclasts maintains bone tissue.
Compact Bone
Compact bone consists of closely packed osteons or haversian systems. The osteon consists of a
central canal called the osteonic (haversian) canal, which is surrounded by concentric rings
(lamellae) of matrix. Between the rings of matrix, the bone cells (osteocytes) are located in
spaces called lacunae. Small channels (canaliculi) radiate from the lacunae to the osteonic
(haversian) canal to provide passageways through the hard matrix. In compact bone, the
haversian systems are packed tightly together to form what appears to be a solid mass. The
osteonic canals contain blood vessels that are parallel to the long axis of the bone. These blood
vessels interconnect, by way of perforating canals, with vessels on the surface of the bone.
Spongy (Cancellous) Bone

Spongy (cancellous) bone is lighter and less dense than compact bone. Spongy bone consists of
plates (trabeculae) and bars of bone adjacent to small, irregular cavities that contain red bone
marrow. The canaliculi connect to the adjacent cavities, instead of a central haversian canal, to
receive their blood supply. It may appear that the trabeculae are arranged in a haphazard
manner, but they are organized to provide maximum strength similar to braces that are used to
support a building. The trabeculae of spongy bone follow the lines of stress and can realign if the
direction of stress changes.
3) How will you take good care of your skeletal system?
1. Eat lots of vegetables.

Vegetables are the best source of Vitamin C, which stimulates production of bone-forming cells.
Greens and yellows have been shown in studies to help with bone mineralization.
2. Perform strength training.

Strength training exercise is especially important for those who suffer from lower extremity joint
deficiencies such as knee or hip arthritis, which are conditions that may limit your ability to
perform weight bearing exercise.
3. Start weight-bearing exercises.
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Weight-bearing exercise is defined as an activity that forces you to move against gravity, or gives
you resistance as you move. High-impact weight-bearing exercises are best for building bones.
These should be limited if you have been diagnosed with osteopenia or osteoporosis.
4. Don’t smoke and don’t drink excessively.

Bad news for bad habits: Loss of bone mineral density is associated with tobacco use and
excessive alcohol consumption. If you smoke, look into a program to help you quit. If you drink,
the recommendation is to stick to no more than one libation a day.
5. Get your bone mineral density tested.

Doctors can get a quick and painless “snapshot” of bone health using a simple X-ray test called
DXA. This test measures bone mineral density and helps determine risks of osteoporosis and
fracture. It is recommended that women are tested within two years of menopause. Earlier tests
are recommended for men and women with certain diseases and for those taking medications
that increase risk, such as long-term steroid therapy.
6. Consider medication.
Perimenopausal women may consider hormone therapy, especially if they have symptoms of
menopause (hot flashes and more), to increase waning estrogen levels, which are linked to bone
loss. And women and men diagnosed with osteopenia or osteoporosis can take various
medications to prevent dangerous hip and spine fractures.
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Drawing
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BSMT II
Activity 6
Research on what epithelial tissues found in following:
1. Lungs
 Most of the respiratory passageways, from the nasal cavity through the bronchi, are
lined by ciliated, pseudostratified columnar epithelium with goblet cells.
 Bronchioles are lined by simple cuboidal epithelium.
 Lung alveoli, in contrast, are lined by very thin simple squamous epithelium.
2. Adrenal Glands
The adrenal cortex is made up of layers of epithelial cells and associated capillary networks.
These layers form three distinct regions: an outer zona glomerulosa that produces
mineralocorticoids, a middle zona fasciculata that produces glucocorticoids, and an inner zona
reticularis that produces androgens. Grandular epithelium, columnar epithelium with goblet
cell.
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3. Testis
Spermatozoa pass via the tubuli recti (low columnar epithelium) and the rete testis (flattened or
cuboidal epithelium) into numerous ductuli efferentes, which are lined by a columnar
epithelium, which consists of both absorptive and ciliated cells. ... These cells regenerate the
epithelium.
4. Ovary
The ovarian surface epithelium, also called the germinal epithelium of Waldeyer, is a layer of
simple squamous-to-cuboidal epithelial cells covering the ovary. The term germinal epithelium is
a misnomer as it does not give rise to primary follicles.
5. Kidney
 Simple cuboidal epithelium is found in glandular tissue and in the kidney tubules.
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 Simple columnar epithelium lines the stomach and intestines.
 Pseudostratified columnar epithelium lines portions of the respiratory tract and some of
the tubes of the male reproductive tract.
6. Appendix
The mucosa of the appendix, colon, and rectum has a simple columnar epithelium shaped into
straight tubular crypts.
7. Pancreas
The smaller forms have a cuboidal epithelium, while a columnar epithelium lines the larger
ducts. Intralobular ducts transmit secretions from intralobular ducts to the major pancreatic
duct. The main pancreatic duct received secretion from interlobular ducts and penetrates
through the wall of the duodenum.
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8. Small Intestine
The mucosa of the small intestine is lined by a simple columnar epithelium which consists
primarily of absorptive cells (enterocytes), with scattered goblet cells and occasional
enteroendocrine cells.
9. Liver
The liver contains two types of epithelial cells, namely, hepatocytes and cholangiocytes. They
split from hepatoblasts (embryonic liver stem cells) in mid-gestation and differentiate into
structurally and functionally mature cells. It will be made of simple cuboidal epithelium (arrow).
Bile ducts (bd) collect bile from the liver lobules and take it out of the liver.
10. Fallopian Tube

The fallopian tube epithelium (FTE) is another accepted origin of ovarian cancer and is a layer of
pseudostratified epithelial cells derived from the Müllerian duct.
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Marl Loiz B. Gonzales
Compilation
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Activity 1
The Microscope and Its Importance in Medical Laboratory
Science
Importance:
1. To discover microorganism
2. Study cell structure and parts
3. See smallest parts of plants, animals, virus and fungi.
Questions:
1. Enumerate the kinds of microscope and describe each.
A. Simple Microscope
The simple microscope is generally considered to be the first microscope. It was created
in the 17th century by Antony van Leeuwenhoek, who combined a convex lens with a holder
for specimens. Magnifying between 200 and 300 times, it was essentially a magnifying glass.
While this microscope was simple, it was still powerful enough to provide van Leeuwenhoek
information about biological specimens, including the difference in shapes between red blood
cells
B. Compound Microscope
With two lenses, the compound microscope offers better magnification than a simple
microscope; the second lens magnifies the image of the first. Compound microscopes are
bright field microscopes, meaning that the specimen is lit from underneath, and they can be
binocular or monocular. These devices provide a magnification of 1,000 times, which is
considered to be high, although the resolution is low. This high magnification, however, allows
users to take a close look at objects too small to be seen with the naked eye, including
individual cells.
C. Stereo Microscope
The stereo microscope, also called a dissecting microscope, provides magnification of up to

300 times. These binocular microscopes are used to look at opaque objects or objects that are
too large to be viewed with a compound microscope, since they do not require a slide
preparation. Although their magnification is relatively low, they are still useful. They provide a
close-up, 3-D view of objects’ surface textures, and they allow the operator to manipulate the
object during viewing.
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D. Confocal Microscope
Unlike stereo and compound microscopes, which use regular light for image formation, the
confocal microscope uses a laser light to scan samples that have been dyed. These samples are
prepared on slides and inserted; then, with the aid of a dichromatic mirror, the device produces
a magnified image on a computer screen. Operators can create 3-D images, as well, by
assembling multiple scans. Like the compound microscope, these microscopes offer a high
degree of magnification, but their resolution is much better. They are commonly used in cell
biology and medical applications.
E. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
The scanning electron microscope, or SEM, uses electrons rather than light for image
formation. Samples are scanned in vacuum or near-vacuum conditions, so they must be
specially prepared by first undergoing dehydration and then being coated with a thin layer of a
conductive material, such as gold. After the item is prepared and placed in the chamber, the
SEM produces a 3-D, black-and-white image on a computer screen. Offering ample control
over the amount of magnification, SEMs are used by researchers in the physical, medical and
biological sciences to examine a range of specimens from insects to bones.
F. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
Like the scanning electron microscope, the transmission electron microscope (TEM)
uses electrons in creating a magnified image, and samples are scanned in a vacuum so they
must be specially prepared. Unlike the SEM, however, the TEM uses a slide preparation to
obtain a 2-D view of specimens, so it's more suited for viewing objects with some degree of
transparency. A TEM offers a high degree of both magnification and resolution, making it
useful in the physical and biological sciences, metallurgy, nanotechnology and forensic
analysis.
2. What is magnification? How do you get an object magnification?
Magnification on a microscope refers to the amount or degree of visual enlargement of an

observed object. Magnification is measured by multiples, such as 2x, 4x and 10x, indicating
that the object is enlarged to twice as big, four times as big or 10 times as big, respectively.
Magnification on a microscope refers to the amount or degree of visual enlargement of an
observed object. Magnification is measured by multiples, such as 2x, 4x and 10x, indicating
that the object is enlarged to twice as big, four times as big or 10 times as big, respectively.
3. What is parfocal?
"Parfocal" refers to objectives that can be changed with minimal or no refocusing.
Parfocalling compound microscope objective is a procedure which allows you to adjust
each objective lens so that it will remain in relative focus with the other objective lenses on the
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microscope when switching from one magnifcation to the next. If microscope objectives are not
parfocalled it means that you would need to refocus the microscope each time the objective turret
is changed to a different magnification.
Draw and Label fully a Compound Microscope
Activity 2: Epithelial Tissues
Objectives:
1. Describe histology of skin and its appendages
2. Illustrate and label the keratinized stratified squamous epithelium (epidermis)
3. Differentiate the different types of Epithelium
4. Identify the dermis and its parts
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Overview:
Epithelium is one of the four basic types of animals tissue along with connective tissue,
muscle tissue and nervous tissue. Epithelial tissues line the cavities and surface of structure in the
body and also form many glands.
Functions:
Materials:
Drawing:
1. Simple squamous epithelium- A simple squamous epithelium is a single layer of flat cells in
contact with the basal lamina (one of the two layers of the basement membrane) of
the epithelium. This type of epithelium is often permeable and occurs where small molecules
need to pass quickly through membranes via filtration or diffusion. Simple squamous epithelia
are found in capillaries, alveoli, glomeruli, and other tissues where rapid diffusion is required
2. Stratified squamous epithelium- A stratified squamous epithelium consists of squamous

(flattened) epithelial cells arranged in layers upon a basal membrane. Only one layer is in contact
with the basement membrane; the other layers adhere to one another to maintain structural
integrity. Although this epithelium is referred to as squamous, many cells within the layers may
not be flattened; this is due to the convention of naming epithelia according to the cell type at the
surface. In the deeper layers, the cells may be columnar or cuboidal.
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3. Simple cuboidal epithelium- Simple cuboidal epithelium is a type of epithelium that consists
of a single layer of cuboidal (cube-like) cells. These cuboidal cells have large, spherical and
central nuclei.
Simple cuboidal epithelia are found on the surface of ovaries, the lining of nephrons, the walls of
the renal tubules, and parts of the eye and thyroid.
4.Stratified cuboidal epithelium- Stratified cuboidal epithelium is a type of epithelial

tissue composed of multiple layers of cube-shaped cells.
Only the most superficial layer is made up of cuboidal cells, and the other layers can be cells of
other types.
5. Simple columnar epithelium- A simple columnar epithelium is a columnar epithelium that is

uni-layered. In humans, a simple columnar epithelium lines most organs of the digestive
tract including the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Simple columnar epithelia line
the uterus.
6. Stratified columnar epithelium- Stratified columnar epithelium is a rare type of epithelial

tissue composed of column shaped cells arranged in multiple layers.
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Stratified columnar epithelia are found in the conjunctiva of the eye, in parts of
the pharynx, anus, the uterus, and the male urethra and vas deferens. It is also found in the lobar
ducts in salivary glands.
The cells function in secretion and protection.
7. Pseudostartified columnar- Pseudostratified columnar epithelia are tissues formed by a single

layer of cells that give the appearance of being made from multiple layers, especially when seen
in cross section. The nuclei of these epithelial cells are at different levels leading to the illusion
of being stratified. However, this tissue is made of a single layer of cells and while the cells do
not share a common apical surface, each cell is in contact with the basement membrane.
8. Columnar ciliated epithelium- Ciliated columnar epithelium moves mucus and other

substances via cilia and is found in the upper respiratory tract, the fallopian tubes, the uterus, and
the central part of the spinal cord. They are the primary target of infection for "common cold
viruses" such as coronaviruses, influenza virus and rhinoviruses.
Questions:
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1. What is the function of epithelial cells?
- Functions of epithelial cells include secretion, selective absorption, protection,
transcellular transport, and sensing. Epithelial layers contain no blood vessels, so they must
receive nourishment via diffusion of substances from the underlying connective tissue, through
the basement membrane.
2. What does the ciliated epithelial do?

- Ciliated epithelium is a thin tissue that has hair-like structures on it. These hairs, called cilia,
move back and forth to help move particles out of our body. We find ciliated epithelial tissue in our
respiratory tract and in the fallopian tubes of women.
3. Name the parts of epithelial cell and functions

-Epithelial cells derive from all three major embryonic layers. The epithelia lining the
skin, parts of the mouth and nose, and the anus develop from the ectoderm. Cells lining the
airways and most of the digestive system originate in the endoderm. The epithelium that lines
vessels in the lymphatic and cardiovascular system derives from the mesoderm and is called an
endothelium.
4. How do epithelial cells work?
-All epithelia share some important structural and functional features. This tissue is
highly cellular, with little or no extracellular material present between cells. Adjoining cells form
a specialized intercellular connection between their cell membranes called a cell junction. The
epithelial cells exhibit polarity with differences in structure and function between the exposed
or apical facing surface of the cell and the basal surface close to the underlying body structures.
The basal lamina, a mixture of glycoproteins and collagen, provides an attachment site for the
epithelium, separating it from underlying connective tissue. The basal lamina attaches to
a reticular lamina, which is secreted by the underlying connective tissue, forming a basement
membrane that helps hold it all together.
5. What are squamous epithelial cells, cuboidal, columnar, ciliated and pseudostratified
columnar cells? Where are their point of origin or where can we find these cells in our
body?
-Epithelial tissues line the outer surfaces of organs and blood vessels throughout the
body, as well as the inner surfaces of cavities in many internal organs. An example is
the epidermis, the outermost layer of the skin.
There are three principal shapes of epithelial cell: squamous, columnar, and cuboidal. These can
be arranged in a single layer of cells as simple epithelium, either squamous, columnar, or
cuboidal, or in layers of two or more cells deep as stratified (layered), either squamous, columnar
or cuboidal. In some tissues, a layer of columnar cells may appear to be stratified due to the
placement of the nuclei. This sort of tissue is called pseudostratified. All glands are made up of
epithelial cells. Functions of epithelial cells include secretion, selective absorption,
protection, transcellular transport, and sensing.
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Epithelial layers contain no blood vessels, so they must receive nourishment via diffusion of
substances from the underlying connective tissue, through the basement membrane.[2][3] Cell
junctions are well employed in epithelial tissues.
6. What are renal epithelial cells?

-Renal epithelial cells are the single layer of cells lining the nephron. These
include cells lining the glomerulus, the proximal and distal convoluted tubules, and the collecting
ducts.
Activity 3: Connective Tissues

Objective:
 To identify connective tissues.
 To enumerate specific functions of connective tissues in our body.
 To draw and illustrate the different types of connective tissues in our body.
 To appreciate the knowledge about their importance in our body.
1. Define Connective Tissues. Give their specific activities in our body.

As the name implies, connective tissue serves a connecting function: It supports and binds other tissues
in the body. Unlike epithelial tissue, which has cells that are closely packed together, connective tissue
typically has cells scattered throughout an extracellular matrix of fibrous proteins and glycoproteins
attached to a basement membrane. The primary elements of connective tissue include a ground substance,
fibers, and cells.
2. Enumerate types of connective tissues and give their specific functions.

There are three main groups of connective tissues:
 Loose connective tissue holds organs in place and attaches epithelial tissue to other underlying tissues.
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 Dense connective tissue helps attach muscles to bones and link bones together at joints.
 Specialized connective tissue encompasses a number of different tissues with specialized cells and
unique ground substances. Some are solid and strong, while others are fluid and flexible. Examples
include adipose, cartilage, bone, blood, and lymph.
The ground substance acts as a fluid matrix that suspends the cells and fibers within the particular
connective tissue type. Connective tissue fibers and matrix are synthesized by specialized cells called
fibroblasts. There are three main groups of connective tissues: loose connective tissue, dense connective
tissue, and specialized connective tissue.
In vertebrates, the most common type of connective tissue is loose connective tissue. It holds organs in
place and attaches epithelial tissue to other underlying tissues. Loose connective tissue is named so
because of the "weave" and type of its constituent fibers. These fibers form an irregular network with
spaces between the fibers. The spaces are filled with ground substance. The three main types of loose
connective fibers include collagenous, elastic, and reticular fibers.
 Collagenous fibers are made of collagen and consist of bundles of fibrils that are coils of collagen
molecules. These fibers help to strengthen connective tissue.
 Elastic fibers are made of the protein elastin and are stretchable. They help to give connective tissue
elasticity.
 Reticular fibers join connective tissues to other tissues.
Loose connective tissues provide support, flexibility, and strength required to support internal organs and
structures such as blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves.
Another type of connective tissue is dense or fibrous connective tissue, which can be found in tendons
and ligaments. These structures help attach muscles to bones and link bones together at joints. Dense
connective tissue is composed of large amounts of closely packed collagenous fibers. In comparison to
loose connective tissue, dense tissue has a higher proportion of collagenous fibers to ground substance. It
is thicker and stronger than loose connective tissue and forms a protective capsule layer around organs
such as the liver and kidneys.
Dense connective tissue can be categorized into dense regular, dense irregular, and elastic connective
tissues.
 Dense regular: Tendons and ligaments are examples of dense regular connective tissue.
 Dense irregular: Much of the dermis layer of the skin is composed of dense irregular connective
tissue. The membrane capsule surrounding several organs is also dense irregular tissue.
 Elastic: These tissues enable stretching in structures such as arteries, vocal cords, the trachea, and
bronchial tubes in the lungs.
Specialized connective tissues include a number of different tissues with specialized cells and unique
ground substances. Some of these tissues are solid and strong, while others are fluid and flexible.
Examples include adipose, cartilage, bone, blood, and lymph.
Adipose Tissue
Adipose tissue is a form of loose connective tissue that stores fat. Adipose lines organs and body cavities
to protect organs and insulate the body against heat loss. Adipose tissue also produces endocrine
hormones that influence activities such as blood clotting, insulin sensitivity, and fat storage.
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The primary cells of adipose are adipocytes. These cells store fat in the form of triglycerides. Adipocytes
appear round and swollen when fat is being stored and shrink as fat is used. Most adipose tissue is
described as white adipose which functions in the storage of energy. Both brown and beige adipose burn
fat and produce heat.
Cartilage
Cartilage is a form of fibrous connective tissue that is composed of closely packed collagenous fibers in a
rubbery gelatinous substance called chondrin. The skeletons of sharks and human embryos are composed
of cartilage.1 Cartilage also provides flexible support for certain structures in adult humans including the
nose, trachea, and ears.
There are three different types of cartilage, each with different characteristics.
 Hyaline cartilage is the most common type and is found in areas such as the trachea, ribs, and nose.
Hyaline cartilage is flexible, elastic, and surrounded by a dense membrane called perichondrium.
 Fibrocartilage is the strongest type of cartilage and composed of hyaline and dense collagen fibers. It
is inflexible, tough, and located in areas such as between vertebrae, in some joints, and in heart valves.
Fibrocartilage does not have perichondrium.
 Elastic cartilage contains elastic fibers and is the most flexible type of cartilage. It is found in
locations such as the ear and larynx (voice box).
3. How will you take good care of your connective tissues?
1.) Practice Letting Go of Emotional “Issues in the Tissues”

Emotional strain and stress can build up in the physical body, including the connective tissue. As a result,
fascia can become thick, tight, and irritated.
2.) Hydration & Therapy
Think of fascia as a sponge. When it’s well hydrated, you can twist it, wring it, ball it up – it’s difficult to
break, and it will return to its original shape. When it’s dried out, it becomes brittle, inflexible, and more
easily damaged.
3.) Stretch & Relax
The type of myofascial techniques described above use targeted external pressure to loosen tight areas.
But it’s also important to also work on loosening the body from within, which helps train your fascia to
relax more naturally.
Drawing:
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Activity 4: Bones
Objective:
 To identify bone.
 To enumerate specific parts of bone in our body.
 To draw and illustrate the bone and its parts in our body.
 To appreciate the tissues of the bone and their importance in our body.
1. Define Ossification. Give their specific functions of the bone in our body.
Bone ossification, or osteogenesis, is the process of bone formation. This process begins between the
sixth and seventh weeks of embryonic development and continues until about age twenty-five; although
this varies slightly based on the individual. There are two types of bone ossification, intramembranous
and endochondral. Each of these processes begins with a mesenchymal tissue precursor, but how it
transforms into bone differs. Intramembranous ossification directly converts the mesenchymal tissue to
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bone and forms the flat bones of the skull, clavicle, and most of the cranial bones. Endochondral
ossification begins with mesenchymal tissue transforming into a cartilage intermediate, which is later
replaced by bone and forms the remainder of the axial skeleton and the long bones.
 Development of the skeleton can be traced back to three derivatives.

o Cranial neural crest cells: These form the flat bones of the skull, clavicle, and the cranial bones
(excluding a portion of the temporal and occipital bones)
o Somites: These form the remainder of the axial skeleton
o Lateral plate mesoderm: This forms the long bones
 Bone formation requires a template for development. This template is mostly cartilage, derived from
embryonic mesoderm, but also includes undifferentiated mesenchyme (fibrous membranes) in the case of
intramembranous ossification. This framework determines where the bones will develop. By the time of
birth, the majority of cartilage has undergone replacement by bone, but ossification will continue
throughout growth and into the mid-twenties.
 Intramembranous ossification
o This process involves the direct conversion of mesenchyme to the bone. It begins when neural crest-
derived mesenchymal cells differentiate into specialized, bone-forming cells called osteoblasts.
Osteoblasts group into clusters and form an ossification center. Osteoblasts begin secreting osteoid, an
unmineralized collagen-proteoglycan matrix that can bind calcium. The binding of calcium to osteoid
results in hardening of the matrix and entrapment of osteoblasts. This entrapment results in the
transformation of osteoblasts to osteocytes. As osteoid continues to be secreted by osteoblasts, it
surrounds blood vessels, forming trabecular/cancellous/spongy bone. These vessels will eventually form
the red bone marrow. Mesenchymal cells on the surface of the bone form a membrane called the
periosteum. Cells on the inner surface of the periosteum differentiate into osteoblasts and secrete osteoid
parallel to that of the existing matrix, thus forming layers. These layers are collectively called the
compact/cortical bone [2].
o Five steps can summarize intramembranous ossification:

 Mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts and group into ossification centers
 Osteoblasts become entrapped by the osteoid they secrete, transforming them to osteocytes
 Trabecular bone and periosteum form
 Cortical bone forms superficially to the trabecular bone
 Blood vessels form the red marrow
 Endochondral ossification
o This process involves the replacement of hyaline cartilage with bone. It begins when mesoderm-derived
mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes. Chondrocytes proliferate rapidly and secrete an
extracellular matrix to form the cartilage model for bone. The cartilage model includes hyaline cartilage
resembling the shape of the future bone as well as a surrounding membrane called the perichondrium.
2. Enumerate types of bone tissues and give their specific functions.

Bones are not a static tissue but need to be constantly maintained and remodeled. There are three main
cell types involved in this process.
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Osteoblasts: These are responsible for making new bone and repairing older bone. Osteoblasts produce a
protein mixture called osteoid, which is mineralized and becomes bone. They also manufacture
hormones, including prostaglandins.
Osteocytes: These are inactive osteoblasts that have become trapped in the bone that they have created.
They maintain connections to other osteocytes and osteoblasts. They are important for communication
within bone tissue.
release enzymes and acids to dissolve minerals in bone and digest them. This process is called resorption.
Osteoclasts help remodel injured bones and create pathways for nerves and blood vessels to travel
through.
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Bone marrow
Bone marrow is found in almost all bones where cancellous bone is present. The marrow is responsible
for making around 2 million red blood cells every second. It also produces lymphocytes or the white
blood cells involved in the immune response. Extracellular matrix Bones are essentially living cells
embedded in a mineral-based organic matrix. This extracellular matrix is made of:
Organic components, being mostly type 1 collagen.

Inorganic components, including hydroxyapatite and other salts, such as calcium and phosphate.
Collagen gives bone its tensile strength, namely the resistance to being pulled apart. Hydroxyapatite gives
the bones compressive strength or resistance to being compressed.
3. How will you take good care of your skeletal system?
1. Eat lots of vegetables. Vegetables are the best source of Vitamin C, which stimulates production
of bone-forming cells. ...
2. Perform strength training. ...
3. Add D to your day. ...
4. Start weight-bearing exercises. ...
5. Don't smoke and don't drink excessively. ...
6. Get your bone mineral density tested. ...
7. Consider medication.
Drawing:
Histology of Bones
104
Introduction
The skeletal system, which is made up of bone and cartilage, serves three primary functions:
• • Mechanical support for sites of muscle attachment
• • Protection of vital organs
• • Ion reserve of Ca and PO for metabolic functions
Bone Cells and Matrix

Bone is a tissue in which the extracellular matrix has been hardened to accommodate a supporting
function. The fundamental components of bone, like all connective tissues, are cells and matrix. There are
three key cells of bone tissue. They each have unique functions and are derived from two different cell
lines.
• • Osteoblasts synthesize the bone matrix and are responsible for its mineralization. They are
derived from osteoprogenitor cells, a mesenchymal stem cell line.
• • Osteocytes are inactive osteoblasts that have become trapped within the bone they have formed.
• Osteoclasts break down bone matrix through phagocytosis. Predictably, they are derived from the
monocyte (macrophage) cell line. Think of osteoclasts as the "bone version" of the macrophage. Their
activity occurs along their ruffled border, and the space between the osteoclast and the bone is known as
Howship's lacuna. The balance between osteoblast and osteoclast activity governs bone turnover and
ensures that bone is neither overproduced nor overdegraded. These cells build up and break down bone
matrix, which is composed of:
• • Osteoid, which is the unmineralized matrix composed of type I collagen and
glycosaminoglycans (GAGs).
• • Calcium hydroxyapatite, a calcium salt crystal that gives bone its strength and rigidity.
Bone is divided into two types that are different structurally and functionally. Most bones of the body
consist of both types of bone tissue:
• • Compact bone, or cortical bone, mainly serves a mechanical function. This is the area of bone to
which ligaments and tendons attach. It is thick and dense.
• • Trabecular bone, also known as cancellous bone or spongy bone, mainly serves a metabolic
function. This type of bone is located between layers of compact bone and is thin and porous. Located
within the trabeculae is the bone marrow.
Bone is a modified form of connective tissue which is made of extracellular matrix, cells and fibers.
The high concentration of calcium and phosphate based minerals throughout the connective tissue is
responsible for its hard calcified nature. The histological structure, mode of ossification, cross-sectional
appearance, and degree of maturity influences the classification of bony tissue.
Bone Structure
Bone tissue consists of two types within the same specific bone, e.g., a vertebra of the spinal column:
trabecular (cancellous) and cortical (compact). Trabecular tissue is the more metabolically active because
it has about eight to 10 times more total surface area than cortical tissue, and these surfaces are all largely
covered by bone cells that are responsible for new bone formation and old bone resorption (degradation).
In the body of a vertebra most of the bone tissue is trabecular, but near the surfaces of the entire vertebra,
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cortical bone predominates. Therefore, each specific bone or organ contains both types of bone tissue but
typically in different locations within the bone. For example, long bones, such as the femur, contain much
more trabecular tissue at either end near the hip joint or knee joint and a much greater proportion of
cortical bone in the shaft that connects the two ends. This distinction is important because most of the
fractures of the bones (organs) occur where more metabolically active trabecular bone tissue exists.
In summary, bone connective tissue is comprised of a few different cell types. Osteoblasts form bone,
and osteoclasts degrade bone. Osteocytes live within healthy bone tissue and assist osteoblasts and
osteoclasts in performing their respective jobs. The functional unit of bone is an osteon.
Histology of the Heart ❤
Introduction
The heart is a four-chambered organ responsible for pumping throughout the body. It receives
deoxygenated blood from the body, sends it to the lung, receives oxygenated blood from the lungs, and
then distributes the oxygenated blood throughout the body. At the histological level, the cellular features
of the heart play a vital role in the normal function and adaptations of the heart.
106
The wall of the heart separates into the following layers: epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium.
These three layers of the heart are embryologically equivalent to the three layers of blood vessels:
tunica adventitia, tunica media, and tunica intima, respectively. A double-layer, fluid-filled sac known as
the pericardium, surrounds the heart. The two layers of the pericardium are called the outer
fibrous/parietal pericardium and the inner serous/visceral pericardium. The epicardium constitutes the
visceral pericardium, underlying fibro-elastic connective tissue, and adipose tissue.
Coronary arteries and veins, lymphatic vessels and nerves run below the epicardium. The endocardium
is composed of the endothelium and the subendothelial connective tissue layer. The subendocardium is
found between the endocardium and myocardium and contains the impulse-conducting system.
Function
The heart's main function is to pump blood throughout the body. Cardiac function can be best
represented by cardiac output, the amount of blood pumped out of the heart per minute. Many factors
determine the cardiac output. The product of stroke volume and heart rate equals cardiac output.
Hence, cardiac output is directly alterable through variations in these two factors. Stroke volume is the
blood volume ejected after ventricular contraction, calculated by taking the difference between end-
diastolic volume and end-systolic volume. Contractility, afterload, and preload can change stroke
volume.
The heart is a muscular pump that propels blood at high pressure round the body through the blood
vessels. The heart contracts rhymically, and autonomously. Contractions begin at the apex of the heart
and spreads through to the postero-basal region.
As with the rest of the circulatory system, the heart has three layers, as shown in the diagram below and
the photo on the right:
epicardium (tunica adventitia) myocardium (tunica media) endocardium (tunica intima)
107
Cardiac Layers
Endocardium
• • Inner layer of the heart (lines the atria and ventricles and covers the heart valves) and contains
blood vessels.
• Has 3 sublayers: • Endothelium - innermost portion a simple squamous epithelium.
• Smooth Muscle and Connective Tissue - middle layer of the endocardium is mix of connective tissue
and smooth muscle.
• Subendocardial Layer - outer layer of the endocardium is loose connective tissue joining the
endocardium and myocardium.
• equivalent to tunica intima.
Myocardium
• Middle layer of the heart, thickest layer contains cardiomyocytes, blood vessels. • contains cardiac
muscle fibres and loose endomysial connective tissue containing many capillaries.
• Muscular layer.
• equivalent to tunica media.
Epicardium
• Outer layer of the heart, contains blood vessels and lymphatics. • fibroelastic connective tissue, blood
vessels, lymphatics and adipose tissue.
• Visceral layer of pericardium rather thin.

• equivalent to tunica adventitia.
The pericardium is a two-layered connective tissue sac that encloses the heart. The fibrous pericardium
is the outer layer, and the serous pericardium is the inner layer.The space between the two layers is the
pericardial cavity, that contains serous fluid. This facilitates the pumping action of the heart.
Sarcomere
The sarcomere is the visible functional contractile unit within cardiac (and skeletal) muscle. The
animation below shows the relative movement of the thick and thin filaments in the sarcomere (if
animation not playing reload page).
• A band - (anisotropic bands, light band) are composed of the thick myosin filaments.
• I band - (isotropic bands, light band) are composed of thin actin filaments.
• H band - (German, heller =brighter). are composed of the thick filaments that is not overlapped
(superimposed) by the thin filaments.
• Z line - (German, Zwischenscheibe = Intermediate plate) appears as a series of dark lines between the
I bands, indicate the end of one sarcomere and the beginning of the next.
Epithelial Tissues that are found in:

1. Lungs
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Simple squamous epithelium
Most of the respiratory passageways, from the nasal cavity through the bronchi, are lined by ciliated,
pseudostratified columnar epithelium with goblet cells. Bronchioles are lined by simple cuboidal
epithelium. (Lung alveoli, in contrast, are lined by very thin simple squamous epithelium).
2. Adrenal glands
The adrenal cortex is made up of layers of epithelial cells and associated capillary networks. These
layers form three distinct regions: an outer zona glomerulosa that produces mineralocorticoids, a middle
zona fasciculata that produces glucocorticoids, and an inner zona reticularis that produces androgens.
3. Testis
Spermatozoa pass via the tubuli recti (low columnar epithelium) and the rete testis (flattened or cuboidal
epithelium) into numerous ductuli efferentes, which are lined by a columnar epithelium, which consists
of both absorptive and ciliated cells. ... These cells regenerate the epithelium.
4. Ovary
109
The ovarian surface epithelium, also called the germinal epithelium of Waldeyer, is a layer of simple
squamous-to-cuboidal epithelial cells covering the ovary. The term germinal epithelium is a misnomer
as it does not give rise to primary follicles.
5. Appendix
The mucosa consists of columnar epithelium with enterocytes and goblet cells, a lamina propria and a
muscularis mucosae. ... Intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs) in the appendix consist mainly of small CD8+
regulatory T (Treg) cells 19, comparable with their presence in the epithelium of the colon.
6. Kidney
110
Simple cuboidal epithelium is found in glandular tissue and in the kidney tubules.
7. Small Intestine
Simple columnar epithelium
The mucosa of the small intestine is lined by a simple columnar epithelium which consists primarily of
absorptive cells (enterocytes), with scattered goblet cells and occasional enteroendocrine cells. In
crypts, the epithelium also includes Paneth cells and stem cells.
8. Liver
The liver contains two types of epithelial cells, namely, hepatocytes and cholangiocytes. They split from
hepatoblasts (embryonic liver stem cells) in mid-gestation and differentiate into structurally and
functionally mature cells.
9. Pancreas
111
The smaller forms have a cuboidal epithelium, while a columnar epithelium lines the larger ducts.
Intralobular ducts transmit secretions from intralobular ducts to the major pancreatic duct. The main
pancreatic duct received secretion from interlobular ducts and penetrates through the wall of the
duodenum.
10. Fallopian Tube

Ciliated Epithelium is a type of Epithelial Tissue. The ciliated epithelium is found in the inner lining
surface of the fallopian tubes, bronchioles etc. The ciliated epithelium cells are columnar epithelial cells
with cilia. Their main function is to help in the movement of material in one direction.
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Histology Compilation

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COMPILATION OF ACTIVITIES

Prof. Cecilio Ichon

Table of Contents …………………………………………….….…. 2

Ma. Irene Gabrielle Abuyen .………………………..…..….… 3

Angelica R. Blancada .......................................…....... 30

Ma. Veronica M. Del Rosario …………………..….…………. 68

Marl Loiz B. Gonzales ……………………………..………………

Alleah Grace S. Jusay ……………………………………………..

Ma. Carmela N. Mangao ………………………………………..

Mary Rose Ellaine R. Ortiz ………………………………………

Abuyen, Ma. Irene Gabrielle

1. Identify the parts & functions of a microscope

I. PARTS AND FUNCTIONS

Diopter Adjustment: Useful as a means to change focus on one eyepiece so as to

Coarse adjustment: Brings the specimen into general focus.

Stage: The flat platform where the slide is placed.

Stage clips: Metal clips that hold the slide in place.

Illumination: The light source for a microscope. Older microscopes used mirrors to

Iris diaphragm: Adjusts the amount of light that reaches the specimen.

II. TYPES OF MICROSCOPE

1.) Compound microscope: most common

III. IMPORTANCE OF MICROSCOPE IN THE LABORATORY

 Used to study fine details of biological cells & tissues.

Abuyen, Ma. Irene Gabrielle

CELL PARTS AND FUNCTION

1. Identify the parts and functions of the cell.

I. CELL PARTS AND FUNCTIONS

Organelles in Eukaryotic Cells: Eukaryotic cells have several other membrane-bound

Reproduction: Most eukaryotes reproduce sexually. Prokaryotes reproduce asexually,

1. Functions of epithelial tissues.

II. CLASSIFICATION AND IDEALIZED SHAPES

1. Functions of connective tissues.

II. CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES

 Loose irregular connective tissue

 Dense regular connective tissue – tendons & ligaments

III. TYPE OF CELLS FOUND IN CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Abuyen, Ma. Irene Gabrielle

Overview: Bone is a modified form of connective tissue. It is hardened by the

1. Significance of bone structure to the human body.

I. SIGNIFICANCE OF BONE STRUCTURE IN THE BODY

II. PROCESS OF OSSIFICATION PRIMARILY FROM NEONATAL AGE UP TO ADULT

III. THE BONE CELLS AND MATRIX

 Osteoid, which is the unmineralized matrix composed of type I collagen and

Abuyen, Ma. Irene Gabrielle

HISTOLOGY OF THE HEART

Overview: The heart is composed of cardiac muscle, specialized conductive tissue,

1.) Functions of the heart in histology.

I. FUNCTIONS OF HEART IN HISTOLOGY

II. COMPOSITION OF THE HEART

The cardiovascular system is comprised of the following structures:

 Heart - pumps blood through the system

III. 3 LAYERS OF THE HEART

Tunica Adventitia (Epicardium)

Tunica Media (Myocardium)

Tunica Intima (Endocardium)

TISSUES OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN

1.) Function of female reproductive organs

CERVIX VAGINA OVIDUCT

I. FUNCTION OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

II. ORGANS COMRPISED OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

The ovaries are responsible for the production of an oocyte (oogenesis) and secretion of

The oviducts (uterine tubes; fallopian tubes) are fibromuscular tubes that transport an

The placenta develops during pregnancy to support the developing fetus by producing

Overview: The kidneys are paired retroperitoneal organs of the urinary system. Their