DOPPLER EFFECT The siren of an ambulance or a police car appears to change its pitch as it passes you. As the source of the sound approaches you, the pitch is higher and as it moves away, the pitch is lower. ‘The apparent change in the pitch or frequency of a source of sound when there is relative motion between the source and the observer is known as the Doppler effect. The frequency of the sound received by the listener is greater when the source approaches him as he receives move waves per second than if the source is stationary. However, when the source is moving away from the listener, fewer waves are received per second and consequently the frequency is smaller. To understand the Doppler effect better, imagine a swimmer treading water in a fixed position in a large quiet pool. The ripples produced by the swimmer are concentric circles, as the speed of the water waves is the same in all directions (see Fig. 4.1). This means that the wave frequency is the same at A or at B or anywhere in the pool. Fig. 4.1 Circular water waves made by a swimmer treading water at the centre of the circles Suppose now, the swimmer swims towards A at a speed less than the wave speed. The wave pattern is no longer that of concentric circles. The centres of the circular ripples move in the direction of motion of the swimmer (see Fig. 4.2). Although the frequency at which the circular ripples are generated remains unchanged, an observer at A receives more waves per second or encounters higher frequency. This is because each successive ripple has a shorter distance to travel before arriving B A ata. On the other hand, an observer at B sees that the source is moving away from him, He encounters a lower frequency as each successive ripple has to travel further to reach B. Fig.4.2 The wave pattern made when the swimmer swims towards A 89,4.1 Moving Source (a) In one second, f wavefronts (b) In one second, f wavefronts ‘can be found in the distance v in the distance (v ~w,) approach A; f wavefronts in the distance (v + u,) approach B Fig. 43 Fig 4.3(a) shows a stationary source $ emitting waves of frequency f. If v is the speed of the waves, then the wavelength of the wave If the source moves with a velocity of u, towards A (see Fig. 4.3(b)), in one second the number of wavefronts originating from the source is f; and the source travels a distance of u, towards A. Therefore, f wavefronts can be found in a distance of v ~ u,. Hence the wavelength of the waves approaching A is vet ‘The apparent frequency encountered by A is “ 0 ( That is, when the source is approaching the observer, the frequency encountered by the observer is higher. On the other hand, for an observer at B, the source S is moving away from him with a velocity of u,. In one second, f wavefronts are emitted from the source and the source moves a distance 90of u, from B. Hence in the distance (v + u,), there are f wavefronts. The wavelength of the wave received by B is vtw ee" ‘The apparent frequency encountered by B is “(teres That is, when the source is moving away, the frequency encountered by the observer is lower. Example 4.1 The frequency of a police car siren is 400 Hz. Calculate the apparent frequency received by a stationary observer (a) when the car approaches him with a speed of 30 m s”', (b) when the car moves away from him with a speed of 30 m s”'. [Speed of sound = 330 m s~'] Solution. (a) When the car is approaching the observer, the apparent frequency tga = 330 = 350-39 * 400 = 440 Hz (b) When the car is moving away from the observer, the apparent frequency » r=Gi)! 0 330 + 30 367 Hz x 400 4.2 Observer Moving (a) Observer approaching a stationary source ° ily observer Fig. 4.4 The velocity of the waves relative to the observer is (v + Uo) o1When the observer approaches a stationary source with a velocity u,, the wavelength remains unchanged as a=3 (see Fig. 4.4). The velocity of the wave relative to the observer is [v= (-u)) = @ +4). ‘Therefore, the time interval between two wavefronts encountered by the observer is wavelength Telative velocity a vim Hence the apparent frequency is f= 1 © vt wo i vt m wh (AA)fer ‘Therefore, irrespective of whether the observer or the sound is moving towards the other, the apparent frequency is higher. (b) Observer moving away from the source C¥ 0 observer Mo Fig. 4.5 The velocity of the waves relative to the observer is (v ~u.) When the observer is moving away from the source with a velocity of u,, again the wavelength remains unchanged at A = } ‘The velocity of the waves relative to the observer is (v ~ u,). ‘Therefore, the time interval between two wavefronts encountered by the observer is Hence the apparent frequency is 92‘Thus, irrespective of whether the observer or the source is moving away from the other, the apparent frequency is smaller, Example 4.2 ‘A whistle emits sound of frequency 440 Hz. If the speed of sound is 340 m s~', what is the frequency of the sound detected by an observer inside a car which is moving with a speed of 20ms"! (a) towards the whistle, and (b) away from the whistle? Solution: (a) When the observer is moving towards the whistle, the apparent frequency, p-(2t®)s = 80420 x 440 = 466 Hz (b) When the observer is moving away from the whistle, the apparent frequency, pe(ee)r 4.3 Both Source and Observer Moving When the source is moving with a speed of u, and the observer is moving with a speed of u, along the same straight line, the apparent frequency is obtained by combining the results obtained in Sections 4.1 and 4.2. Apparent frequency, f” = ( vr) veu, where + is used in front of the u, if the observer is approaching the source, — is used in front of the u, if the observer is moving away from the source, is used in front of the u, if the source is approaching the observer, and + is used in front of the u, if the source is moving away from the observer. Always remember that if the source and observer approach each other, the apparent frequency is higher. Conversely, the apparent frequency is lower if they are moving away from each other. Example 4.3 A whistle producing sound of frequency 100 Hz moves with a velocity of 50 m s~'. An observer also moves in the same direction with a velocity of 25 m s~'. If the speed of sound in air is 350 m s~', what is the frequency of the sound as heard by the observer? Solution: Situation 1: The source is in front of the observer. source 93Using the sign convention discussed earlier: (Since the observer is approaching the source, the velocity of the observer is +n, (ii) Since the source is moving away from the observer, the velocity of the source is +u, From the general equation, f’ (e)s Apparent frequency,” source observer Ss o ee eo Sms! u, = 25ms* (i) The observer is moving away from the source, hence use (ii) The source is moving towards the observer, hence use — va Apparent frequency, f' = (——*) va, = (Fan=5) 10 = 1083 Hz Self Evaluation Exercise 4.1 1. A source of sound moves towards a stationary observer with a speed one-third that of sound. If the frequency of the sound from the source is 100 Hz, the apparent frequency of the sound heard by the observer is A 67 Hz. Cc 100Hz. E 150Hz. Bo 75Hz. D133 Hz. 2. A train moves away from an observer standing on the platform with a velocity of 10 m s~!. The siren emitted by the train has a frequency of 500 Hz. (a) What is the frequency of the sound heard by the observer? (b) What is the frequency of the sound heard by an observer in the train? [Speed of sound = 330 m s~'] 3. A whistle which emits sound of frequency 1 000 Hz moves away from an observer towards a cliff with a speed of 10 ms", (a) What is the frequency of the sound that the observer hears directly from the whistle? (b) What is the frequency of the sound reflected from the cliff and heard by the observer? (©) What is the frequency of the beats produced by the incident and reflected sound? (d) Can the beats be heard? [Speed of sound = 330 m s“!]4. A whistle which emits sound of frequency 540 Hz is whirled in a horizontal circle of radius 1.0 m at the end of a string. The angular velocity of the whistle is 5.0 rad s~. What is (a) the minimum frequency, and (b) the maximum frequency of the sound heard by a stationary distant observer? [Speed of sound = 330 m s"'] 5. (a) Differentiate between an oscillation and a wave, Draw a clearly labelled diagram to illustrate your answer with reference to the propagation of sound waves in air. (b) A source of sound which is stationary emits a pure note of constant frequency. An ‘observer approaching the source with constant velocity hears a different frequency. Explain this phenomenon. Discuss qualitatively what the observer hears if he approaches the source with constant acceleration. (©) A whistle of frequency 512 Hz is fixed to the rim of a horizontal wheel of radius 0.50 m, The wheel rotates at a constant rate of 100 revolutions per minute. An observer stands about 20 m from the wheel. Describe qualitatively what is heard by the observer. [Speed of sound in air = 344 m s~'] 6. A model aircraft is flying in a horizontal circle of radius 12 m and completes one revolution every 3.0 s. The engine of the aircraft produces a note of constant frequency 400 Hz. (a) Explain why an observer detects periodic variation in the frequency of the sound he hears. (b) Derive an expression for the minimum observed frequency in terms of f, the true frequency of the engine; v, the speed of the aircraft, and c, the speed of sound in air. What is the corresponding expression for the maximum observed frequency? (©) If is 340 ms“, calculate the maximum and minimum observed frequencies. What is the time interval between the occurrence of the minimum frequency and the next maximum frequency’? (d) The model aircraft is painted yellow so that it reflects light from a narrow frequency band in the region of 6 10" Hz. Estimate the apparent change in frequency of the reflected light during one complete revolution of the model, and explain why the aircraft does not appear to change colour during its flight. 44 The Doppler Effect in Light ‘The speed of light in a vacuum is 3.0 X 10 ms”. This is a very high speed. Even the speed of a light source in a jet plane travelling at twice the speed of sound is only about 660 m s~!. Hence it is practically impossible to detect the Doppler effect produced by the relative motion between an observer and a source. Take for example, a reckless driver approaching a red traffic light at a speed of 108 km per hour or 30 m s“!, He would still see the light as red. For a hypothetical case where the speed of the car is one-tenth the speed of light, ie. 3.0 X 10 ms~, the driver would see the red light as amber. The Doppler effect is used to determine whether a distant star or comet is approaching or moving away from the earth. The speed of the moving star can also be estimated. The temperature of plasma can be determined by measuring the apparent frequency of the light emitted from the plasma, 95‘Suppose that a particular star is moving away from the earth with a relative velocity of v. If ‘Lis the actual wavelength of the light from the sta, the frequency f= ¢ where c is the speed of light in a vacuum. In 1.0 second, f wavefronts are produced. Since the star is moving away, the f wavefronts occupy a distance of (c + v). Hence the apparent wavelength, 2’ [since v << c] by binomial expansion and neglecting the terms (:)’ and higher. If the star approaches the earth with a relative velocity of v, then apparent wavelength, 2’ apparent frequency, f" = by binomial expansion, Neglecting (zy and higher terms, since v < 2. Microwaves from a source are reflected by a distant aeroplane which is approaching the source. The superposition of the wave from the source and the reflected wave produces beats of frequency 990 Hz. If the wavelength is 0.10 m, what is the speed of the aeroplane? 100(a) (b) A spectral line has a wavelength of S00 nm when observed in the laboratory. When observed from the earth, the same line emitted by a distant star has an apparent wavelength of 550 nm. What can be deduced about the velocity of the star? Calculate the change in the wavelength of the spectral line if observation is made from a spacecraft leaving the earth and moving towards the star with a speed of 3km s~' relative to (i) the earth, and (ii) the star. One line in the spectrum of the light from a distant star is found to have a wavelength of 377 nm. The same line in the spectrum of a source in the laboratory is found to have a wavelength of 373 nm. Deduce whether the star is approaching or moving away from the earth and calculate its velocity. (a) (b) Define frequency and explain why an observer moving away from a stationary source of sound hears an apparent frequency which is not the true frequency of the source. Derive an expression for this apparent frequency f” in terms of the true frequency f, the speed of the observer 1 and the speed of sound v. ‘The planet Mercury may be assumed to be at a constant distance from the earth and rotates about an axis which is perpendicular to the line joining the centres of the earth and Mercury (see figure below). radio waves Mercury from the earth A short pulse of monochromatic radio waves travelled from the earth to Mercury and back in 1.26 X 10's. (What is the distance of the planet from the earth? Assume that the space between the earth and Mercury is a vacuum, (ii) When the reflected pulse was received back on the earth, its duration was found to have been extended by 1.63 x 10" s and its spectrum had been broadened into a band of frequencies of width Af given by the expression 4 =4 s F = 400 10 where f is the original frequency. Explain these two observations and determine the radius of the planet Mercury and its period of rotation. 101