METGLAS AMORPHOUS METAL FOR TRANSFORMER

CORE AND APPLICATION IN REMOTE AREA

POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM

by
Edward Zhi-Wei XUE

A thesis submitted to
The University of New South Wales
for
The Degree of Master of Engineering

School of Electrical Engineering

June 1992

1
UNIVERSITY OF N.S.W.

2 6 AUG 1993
LIBRARIES
 CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and

that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material
previously published or written by other person nor material which
to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any
other degree or diploma of a university or other institute of higher
learning, except where due acknowlegement is made in the text.

Signed By: .

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to acknowledge the following for their

invaluable help in comleting this work:

- Dr. T.R Blackburn for his continued direction and patience

throughout
- Mr. Ted Spooner for his continued faith and artistry
- Mr. Neville Brennan for his supply facilities and kindness
- Mr. Toan Phung for his supply facilities and co-operation

3
 Abstract

The ferromagnetic properties of iron-based amorphous

metal alloys present an opportunity to significantly reduce the
excitation losses of distributiontransformers. Losses of these
materials are on the order of 25% to 35% of conventional electrical
silicon steels at equivalent inductions. Before the benefits of this
advantage can be realized, the unique characteristics of these
amorphous metal alloys and other effects relating to the
transformer characteristics must be taken into account.

This thesis describes the application of amorphous metal

alloys for transformer cores at the design, engineering and
manufacturing levels. The possible configurations of amorphous
metal for transformer cores, their advantages and disadvantages
are described and compared for a variety of applications.

The origin of losses of this material is discussed and

indicates that the major power loss of the material is from
anomalous loss plus some special considerations of the material,
such as the excessive radial stresses which causes the large core
loss in the inner most part of the core.

Since the limitation* o h Metgla* metal law material which

only can be ca*t to a long ribbon with a thickne** oh about

25 JAm, a hew centimeter* in width and ha* a relatively lower

4
saturation 1{lux density which compare to the conventional

silicon steel. The transformer using Metglas metal as core

material can only be made in smaller capacity. In this thesis,

it was discussed the application of Metglas cote transf ormer

in remote area power supply system where usually only requires

small capacity transformer for those individual users. The

effects oft different orders of harmornic contents exist in

such a system to Metglas core t ransf oilmen. were also discussed.

The heat conduction and temperature distribution in

Me-tglas transformer core is another major topic in this thesis.

Since the Uetglas metal core is build up with a large numbers

of individual thin laminations, it was found that heat transfer

in the cross-section of core very special. Most of the heat

transfer through the amorphorus ribbon width direction. That

makes almost no temperature gradient within each ribbon

lamination. But temperature gradient shows in the core thickness

direction.

5
 Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction....................................................................................9

Chapter 2: Amorphous Metal For Distribution

Transformer Core..................................................................... 16

2.1: Description of Metglas Amorphous Metal ......................................... 16

2.2: Metglas Amorphous Metal Manufacture ............................................ 18
2.3: Metglas Amorphous Characteristics Related To Transformer
Function........................................................................................................ 20

Chapter 3: Design Concepts For Amorphous Metal

Distribution Transformers .............................................. 29

3.1: Effect Of Unique Metglas Amorphous characteristics On

Transformer Design..................................................................................... 29
3.2: Qualitative Determination Of Core-Coil Configuration ................. 34

Chapter 4: Possible METGLAS Amorphous Metal

Transformer Core-Coil Configuration ...................... 3 7

4.1: Core-Coil Configurations...........................................................................37

4.2: Core-Coil Assembly Options....................................................................45
4.3: Elimination Of Possible Configurations ................................................ 49
4.4: Core-Coil Configuration Selection...........................................................51

6
Chapter 5: Causes Of The No-Load Power Loss In
Metglas Amorphous Ribbon Material ..................... 5 5

5.1: Hysteresis Loss........................................................................................... 56

5.2: Eddy Current Loss......................................................................................58
5.3: Anomalous Loss.......................................................................................... 59

Chapter 6: Application of Metglas Metal Core

Transformer In The Remote Area Power
Supply System........................................................................ 69

6.1: Non-Sinusoidul Power Supply In Remote Area ............................. 72

6.2: Measurement 1.......................................................................................... 78
6.3: Measurement 2.......................................................................................... 81
6.4: Measurement 3.......................................................................................... 83

Chapter 7: Basic Concepts Of Heat Transfer And

Several Dimensional Heat Conduction ................... 90

7.1: Basic Concepts In Heat Transfer............................................................ 90

7.2: Several Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation ............................. 94

Chapter 8: Temperature Distribution In Cross

Section Of The Amorphous Metal
Core Transformer....................................................................99

8.1: Heat Transfer In Amorphous Core Cross Section ........................ 100

8.2: The Effective Thermal Conductivity For Laminated
Bodies.......................................................................................................... 102
7
8.3: Coordinate System Transformation ................................................... 110
8.4: Comparison of Temperature Distribution Profiles
Btween METGLAS Core and Conventional Silicon
Steel Core....................................................................................................122

Chapter 9: Conclusion.................................................................................................137

Appendix I..........................................................................................................................139

Appendix II........................................................................................................................ 149

References............................................................................................................................ 150

8
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The energy losses . incurred in a distribution or power

transformer consist of winding loss (load or copper loss) and the
loss in the magnetic circuit (no-load or iron loss). Electric utilities
evaluate these losses over the projected life of the transformer,
adding the initial purchase cost of the transformer to the capitalised
cost of the loss to obtain the total cost of ownership. Over the last
decade the relative value of energy has increased dramatically in
the world and as a result, energy conservation has become a basic
strategy to counter the effects of escalating energy costs. Clearly if
the no-load losses of transformers could be economically reduced
then the benefits of lower operating costs would be considerable.
The main advantage in using METGLAS amorphous metal for
transformer core is the reduction in core loss, reported to be of the
order of 70%-75% in 25kVA field-tested units. The potential total
annual savings in the cost of supplying distribution transformer
losses in Australia is estimated to be more than A$20M(4), based on
the following assumptions:

(a) Installed distribution transformer capacity 36 MkVA

(b) Average annual core loss 0.002kW/kVA
(c) Average annual cost of losses A$400/kW
(d) Annual cost of losses A$29M
(e) Saving with 70% reduction in losses A$21M
9
 So there are good economic reasons for pursuing research in
the development of METGLAS amorphous metal transformers.
Especially for the Australian Remote Area Power Supply (RAPS)
system where the power supply net work does not cover those
areas. The energy saving in power and distribute transformers
become more important.

The first liquid quenched amorphous metal was discovered by

accident more than 30 years ago in a laboratory of the California
Institute of Technology. For the next decade these alloys were no
more than a scientific curiosity. Most of them were quenched from
the molten liquid by the gun-technique which produced small foils
of irregular shapes and thickness. They are not suitable for any
commercial applications. With the discovery of the melt-spinning
technique a major step toward the commercialisation of these
materials was accomplished. In this technique, a stream of molten
alloy impinges on a rotating copper wheel and forms a long
amorphous ribbon with a thickness of about 25 pm. In 1967, Duwez
and Lin(11) reported the first liquid-quenched iron based amorphous
alloy exhibiting high saturation magnetization, low coercive field
and relatively high Curie temperature. In 1971, a team at the
Material Research Centre at Allied Chemical Corporation began the
development of amorphous alloys for commercial application. In
1975, Allied Corporation announced the availability of amorphous
iron-based alloys such as Metglas 2605. The relatively high
saturation flux density of this alloy with 60Hz produce core losses
of about 1/3 of those of grain oriented silicon steel. This allowed,
for the first time, the consideration of metallic glasses as core
10
material for distribution transformers. It was difficult to predict at
that time if these new alloys would ever compete with grain
oriented silicon steel, which is the major material used in
transformer today. In 1978, Allied Metglas was selling at US$
300/kg. The dramatic drop in price over the 1980's made Metglas
alloys closer in price to grain oriented silicon steel (about US$2/kg
today).

The production method of amorphous metals involves only

one step from melt to finished strip, compared to the six to ten
manufacturing steps of the present silicon-steel core materials.
With increasing mass production, lower raw materials cost and
improved technology, the price of the amorphous metals will
become even more competitive with the silicon steel in the near
future. Meanwhile, parallel to the development of amorphous
metals, much effort has been given to reducing core losses in grain
oriented silicon steel. Several methods have been used in order to
achieve that goal: improvement in grain orientation, reduction in
thickness, increase in resistivity by increasing silicon content,
reduction in grain size and refinement of magnetic domains by
physical means such as laser irradiation(20). Most of these methods
tend to increase the production cost and therefore reduce the price
difference between grain oriented electrical steel and amorphous
metal. Some obvious improvements have been achieved. For
instance, in 1953, the conventional type of grain oriented electrical
steel had power losses on the order of 4.4W/Kg at 1.7T and 60Hz,
while today the laser-irradiated magnetic domain-controlled
electrical steel has losses around l.lW/Kg at this flux density
value(20). It is certain that if an amorphous core transformer with
manufacturing cost comparable to conventional design could be
realized, it would offer significant advantages and savings in areas
where core loss evaluation is high.

The performance of METGLAS amorphous core transformers

in a power supply which contains different harmonics is a very
important topic that needs to be well studied since the thin
METGLAS amorphous ribbon with lower stacking factor makes
more vibration and noise than that of silicon-steel under the high
frequencies. That will affect the service life of these brittle ribbons.
Heat transfer and thermal characteristics of the amorphous metal
cores are more complicated than silicon-steel cores because of their
configuration and thinness.

This thesis describes the characteristics of METGLAS

amorphous metal 2605-S2 in a few aspects. First, it described how
METGLAS amorphous metal's characteristics relate to transformer
functions, transformer designs, possible transformer core-coil
configurations, their advantages and disadvantages, their assembly
options and the differences of this new type transformer compared
with the conventional silicon steel transformers. Second, it discusses
the origins of losses for this amorphous material and indicates the
possible major sources which cause the losses. These are compared
with the origins of losses of the conventional silicon steels.

In the applications of METGLAS amorphous metal material

transformers, one of the potential fields is for the remote area
power supply system. Australia is a very large country. There are
many areas where are not covered by the current power supply
12
system. In those areas, the power supply systems are relatively
individual and are small in capacity. The system has to have high
efficiency since the operational cost for such a system will be
relatively higher than the large power supply grid system. The
principal diagram of such a power supply system is shown as
following:

SOUR TRANSFORMER
BATTERY
ARRAY AND INVEFITER

BATTERY
CHARGER

BsD
DIESEL 240V USER
ORGRD 240V
50Hz
50Hz

Currently, the average efficiency of such a power supply

system is about 85% when the system is under the full load
condition. Among the 15% of losses, around 12% comes from the
transformer and inverter unit and one-third of them(4%) is
contributed by the transformer itself. A typical core (iron) loss has
been estimated at about one-third of the losses of a fully loaded
transformer while the remaining two-third is attributed to the
winding (copper) loss. It indicates that the transformer core loss
contributes 1.3% of the total 15% losses. If the METGLAS amorphous
metal transformer core can save 3/4 of the core loss ( according to
the information supplied by the manufacturer ), then the efficiency
of remote area power supply system will directly improve 1% when
the system is in full load condition and will improve more

13
significantly when it is in half or no load conditions. The economical
benefit are obvious.

The thermal characteristics of METGLAS amorphous material

and the thermal behaviour of the amorphous transformer is
another major topic discussed in this thesis. METGLAS amorphous
transformer can save energy when the transformer is operating.
But the initial investment for this device is relatively higher than
that of conventional silicon steel transformer since the thin
METGLAS raw materal is very difficult to handle and it needs to be
annealed. So the service-life of such a transformer becomes
important to the investors. Research results(16) indicate that aging of
METGLAS amorphous metal will cause an increasment of core loss.
So, in later parts of this thesis, it was discussed in detail about how
heat transfers in the METGLAS amorphous transformer core and
calculated temperature distributions in the core cross-section area
are compared with the silicon steel core and their advantages and
disadvantages. Finally, it suggests better ways to improve the
temperature distribution in the core cross-section area to make it
more acceptable in practice.

This thesis describes and investigates the magnetic and

thermal characteristics of METGLAS amorphous transformer cores.
Comparing the differences of these amorphous cores and the
conventional silicon steel transformer cores in magnetic and
thermal aspects, it discusses their advantages and disadvantages. It
shows that the appplication of METGLAS amorphous metal
transformers in Remote Area Power Supply system will creat
potential economic benefit by increasing efficiency of RAPS system.
14
 With the growing acceptance of amorphous alloys by
transformer manufacturers and users, one of the remaining
concerns is long term magnetic and thermal stability. Since
traditional grain-oriented silicon steels have been studied for
decades, data on their long term stability are available and
mechanisms by which their magnetic properties change .with age
are generally well-understood. Decade-scale stability data on new
low-loss Metglas amorphous materials are not yet available. But it
is natural that with the development of new technology, old
material replaced by new one is only a matter of time.

*
Information Supplied By RAPS Reserach Group In The Power Dept.of N.S.W University

15
 CHAPTER 2

AMORPHOUS METAL FOR DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER

CORES

2.1 Description Of METGLAS Amorphous Metal

METGLAS amorphous metals, which are manufactured by a

continuous rapid quenching from the molten state, are metallic
material with liquid-like molecular structure. This means that they
are non-crystalline. A crystalline material has an orderly, array of
atoms in space exhibiting long-range order, while an METGLAS
amorphous metal material does not. All atoms of the amorphous
metal material are packed in a random arrangement. They do not
have grains, grain boundaries or grain orientation (see Fig.2-1).
They are essentially one phase with chemical homogeneity.

Ordinary Metal Amorphous Alloy

Fig.2-1

As revolutionary as these materials may be, METGLAS

amorphous metals are no newcomers to electrical power.
Researches on amorphous metals was begun with Allied Corporation
16
in 1970, and single and three phase prototype distribution
transformers were first produced in 1978 and 1982 respectively02*.
Now we have a new opportunity with that advent of METGLAS
amorphous metal for transformer cores. It comes at a time when
energy costs have soared and the issue of using limited natural
resources is becoming more and more important. It appears that
because of the development of METGLAS amorphous metal
magnetic core material, no-load losses of transformer may be
eventually cut again to about one-fourth of present-day losses. For
example, an existing "high-efficiency" 25KVA pole transformer with
a grain-oriented silicon steel core might have a no-load core loss of
85W. A METGLAS amorphous metal core could save more than 75%
of that loss.

The amorphous metal material for use in transformer cores

has slightly lower density than the crystalline material of the same
composition. Furthermore, the electrical resistivities of such
"metallic glasses " are much greater( up to 3 times higher ) than
those of crystalline materials of similar composition. This will
significantly reduce eddy current losses. Such amorphous metal is
magnetically soft which results in a large magnetization responses
to a small applied field and this is the primary requirement for
transformer applications.

A comparison of the properties of Metglas alloy 2506S-2 and

grain oriented silicon steel are shown below:

17
 Metglas Alloy 3% Oriented Silicon

2605S-2 Ribbon Steel (0.23mm)

3
Specific Gravity (g/cm ) 7.2 7.65

Lamination Stacking Factor (%) 85 >95

Thermal Conductivity (W/m.k) 8.0 25

Electrical Resistivity (pfl-cm) 137 48

Saturation Flux Density (T) 1.58 2.0

Coercive Field (A/m) 1.59 6.37

Curie Temperature (°C) 415 740

Table.2-1

From above comparison, it can be seen that the advantages of

using Metglas amorphous materials transformer cores are light in
weight which is easy for carry and install; having larger electrical
resistivity that will reduce eddy current loss. The disadvantages are
poor core lamination stacking factor, lower thermal conductivity
which will slow heat dissipation.

2.2 METGLAS Amorphous Metal Manufacture

To manufacture METGLAS amorphous metals, molten liquid

metal must be cooled rapidly to prevent crystallization of the
material during solidification from the molten state. An amorphous
metal strip is made by rapid cooling on to a continuous metal
substrata such as a rotating wheel. A cooling rate of 106 degree
Kelvin/second or higher is required to prevent crystallization of the
cast strip. This needs a high heat transfer coefficient at the interface
of the molten metal and the chill substrata, and a thin metal cross-
section. An alloy composition that has low viscosity will facilitate
the strip casting process from the liquid is also desirable.

The Metglas manufacturing process procedure and a piece of

sample are showing (Fig.2-la and Fig.2-lb) below ( information
provided by Nippon Amorphous Metals Co. LTD):

Schematic Diagram of Allied's Process for Continuous Casting bv Rapid Quenching iCCL Process)

A Raw materials are melted down m
induction furnace
B Melt is transferred to the feeder section
C Control of casting head
O. Thin film of melt is ejected onto the rapid-
quenching wheel
E. Jet is quenched at 10* 'C per second to
form an amorphous strip
F. Strip wdth & thickness are measured in­
line and fed back for process control
G Strip is gu'ded to the thread-up unit for
take-up
H Strip tjko-up

Fig.2-la. From molten metal to Metglas alloy — in millisecond

Fig.2-lb. Metglas alloy 2506S-2 strip sample

The success of the process depends upon the metal

composition, the quenching rate (approaching 60 miles per hour),
the strip geometry, and the viscosity of the melt puddle. Ease of
manufacture is a major advantage of METGLAS amorphous metals.
19
All of the time-consuming steps for manufacturing traditional high
performance silicon-steel alloys are eliminated. The Metglas process
involves no casting of ingots, no forging of billets, no rolling of bars,
no drawing of strips. Just a one-step rapid solidification, directly to
the final shape. Because of the amorphous metal process simplicity,
the capital investment required for equipment is much less than
that needed for the manufacture of grain oriented silicon steel.
Energy consumption, time, labour required for processing the
amorphous metal strip are also less than that for the manufacture
of grain oriented silicon steel.

2.3 METGLAS Amorphous Metal Characteristic Related

To Transformer Core Function

Since METGLAS amorphous metal is made by the quenching of

molten metal, the product strip material is very thin, the usual
thickness being about one and one-half thousandth of an inch
(25 pm). It has outstanding tensile strength (250,000 lbs/squre
inch), toughness, and ductility, the shortcoming is its brittleness
after stress relief anneal which makes it very difficult to handle,
when it is realized that it is a metallic glass. A readily available
METGLAS amorphous metal suitable for making transformer cores
is Allied Chemical’s 2605S-2 Metglas.

If we compare METGLAS 2605S-2 to 3% silicon-steel. We can

find following differences:

Magnetization ........ The magnetization curve of the

amorphous material compared to that of 3% Si-Steel is shown in
20
Fig2-2. The excitation current of the amorphous material is about
30% of that of Si-Steel, but it increase rapidly when the flux density
exceeds 1.4T, because the saturation flux density is lower than that
of Si-Steel. Regulation of voltage or inrush current should be
considered in determining the flux density. Here 1.35T has been

used as the flux density value for Metglas applications.

2605S2

H (A/cm)

Fig.2-2 Magnetization Curve of the amorphous material and the Si-steel

Core Losses ----- The core loss dependence on flux density

for the amorphous metal and 3% Si-Steel are shown in Fig.2-3.

Although the core characteristics of the amorphous material vary

considerably for different types of Metglas amorphous materials,

the core loss will be about 0.26W/kg at 50Hz, 1.35T when the
quality is stabilized. This value is about 40% of the 0.63W/kg for
the silicon steel under the same excitation conditions.

21
 5 605S2

Fig.2-3 Core loss of the amorphous material and the Si-steel

As we know the difference between the power input to a

transformer and the power output is attributed to transformer
losses and is a measure of the transformer efficiency. It consists of
core loss (no load) and winding loss (load). Typically core loss has
been estimated at about one-third of the losses of a fully loaded
transformer, while the remaining two-thirds is attributed to the
winding loss.

But transformer cores are magnetized and demagnetized

around 100 times a second, 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. In this
process, electrical steels waste energy through heat dissipation,
even when the transformer isn't loaded. For example, calculate the
total annual losses of a high efficiency 25KVA pole transformer (as
we mentioned before, its core loss is 85W), we can find that how
great the core loss it is. We assume that 33% of total transformer
losses is core loss and 67% of total transformer loss is load loss,
every day 10 hours on full load and 14 hours off:

22
 Total annual core loss: 85W*24*3600*365= 2.687 GW
Total annual load loss: 170W*10*3600*365= 2.234 GW
Total annual losses: 2686560+2233800= 4.92 GW
Core loss contribute 54.5% of total annual losses
load loss contribute 45.5% of total annual losses

Because the core loss is present at all time When the

transformer is excited, it takes on an added significance in the
overall energy loss of transformer operation.

The transformer core carries the magnetic flux that

transforms energy from the primary to the secondary winding;
When alternating current is applied to the primary coil, alternating
flux is set up in the core. The alternating flux generates an
alternating voltage that opposes the primary voltage. It also
generates an alternating voltage in the secondary. Current flow in
the primary coil drives the flux around the magnetic loop; the
secondary current is driven through the secondary coil by that flux.
There are losses that occur in the core due to the alternating
magnetic flux. These losses are usually divided into hysteresis, eddy
current and anomalous losses (also called excess eddy current loss).
Because of the structure and composition of the amorphous metal, it
has a high electrical resistivity that significantly reduces eddy
current losses. In addition, the very thin laminations of the
amorphous material further reduce eddy current losses. It also has
lower hysteresis loss due to easy domain movement because it has
no grain boundaries. These produce much lower losses than that of
in typical silicon-steel laminations.
23
 On the other hand, anomalous losses of amorphous metal are
somewhat greater because of very wide domain wall spacing. Since
the domains move, the wide spacing results in increased losses
because of a distance effect. Also, because of imperfections in the
surface of the amorphous metalstrip, which is cast to the final
shape and the material itself is very thin, the space factor (or
packing factor) of such a transformer core material is only about
85%. In comparison with conventional grain oriented electrical steel
which has a space factor in excess of 95%, transformer cores built
with the amorphous metal are not as efficiently stacked as its
counterpart. As the core space factor is decreased, the mean turn of
the winding will increase to disadvantage of the transformer which
have higher load losses and be bigger in size. The poor space factor
will also effect the heat dissipation properties of the core and
produce vibrations in the core when it is excited by alternating flux
density.

Recently, the METGLAS products business unit of Allied

Corporation has been developing a pre-annealed, consolidated
version of its amorphous core material. This material has been
trademarked POWERCORE strip. It gives transformer manufacturers
a pre-annealed, thicker, rigid, higher lamination stacking factor
material with core losses about a third to quarter that of
conventional grain oriented silicon steels. POWERCORE strip is a
compact of several amorphous ribbons. It is currently produced in
thickness ranging between 125pm to 250pm. It is a rigid material
which is still flexible enough take 200mm bends and to be coiled
for transportation. It has a stacking factor of about 90% is midway
between conventional silicon steels and amorphous ribbons. Core
loss tents to increase with increasing thickness.

POWERCORE consolidated strip is neither a solid wrought sheet

nor is it a collection of individaul ribbions. Rather it is a spot
bonded stack of weakly interlocked laminations. Scanning laser
acoustic microscopy and scanning acoustic microscopy analyses
suggest 3) that the individaul layers are connected by a small and
large bonds that compose between 15%- 75% of the area. These
bonds are not randomly distributed. Rather they tend to align
themselves into a continuously bonded spot through the thickness
of the strip. Both acoustic microscopy and fracture energy testing(33)
confirms that the bonding and bond strengths are uniform along the
length of the strip (Figure 2-4 shows an acoustical micrograph of a
6-ply strip at the centre of the width). It also suggests that there
are two types of bonding actions occurring. There is a mechanical
bond caused by matching interlayer high points interlocked by local
plastic deformation. There is also a chemical, silicon oxide bond
produced by diffusion of silicon to the surface.

Fig.2-4 The white regions correspond to a high

level of acoustic transmission(ie. well bonded)
and the dark regions to poor transmission ( ie.
air gaps). Image is of a 2mm x 3mm section.

25
 The mechanical bonding and plastic deformation give
POWErCORE strip many of its physical characteristics. The strip is
rigid enough to be handled in transformer cutting, punching and
stacking operations. It is tough enough to be coiled and recoiled and
fed through strip processing equipment. However, if bend around
too tight a radius, the strip will delaminate into its individual plies.
Also POWERCORE strip is very strong under tension with an
ultimate tensile strength of about 500-750 MPa. But, if the load is
not applied evenly through the strip thicness, it may fail in stages
at half these values. Finally, the local plastic deformation between
adjoining ribbons is consistent with the increased pack factor of the
strip.

It is believed that the localized chemical oxide bond aides the

magnetic properties of the consolidated strip in much the same way
as the coatings help silicon iron. The practical importance of this
fact is that as strip thickness increases, the specific core loss
increases, but because of the thin amorpnous layers connected by a
smi-continuous mechanical and oxide bond. These localized bonds
mean that the eddy current losses within the strip are lower than

that would be expected. The typical physical and magnetic

properties of the METGLAS 2605-S2 and POWERCORE strip are

shown in Table 2-2:

26
 METGLAS ALLOY POWERCORE
2605-S2 RIBBON STRIP
Specific Gravity (g/cm3) 7.2 7.2
Lamination Factor (%) 85 90
Young's Modulus (GPa) 180 150
Thermal Conductivity (W/m.K) 8 9
Electrical Resistivity (pO-cm) 137 -
Saturation Induction (T) 1.58 1.58
Remanent Induction (T) 1.30 1.20
Coercive Field (A/m) 1.60 3.20
Curie Temperature (K) 688 688
Core Loss 1.4T/60Hz (W/kg) 0.15-0.25 0.25-0.28
Exciting Power 1.4T/60Hz (VA/kg) 0.25-0.45 0.50-0.80
Table 2-2

From Table2-2 and above description, it shows that the

consolidated POWERCORE strip has the advantages in high stacking-
factor, it is pri-annealed, easier to handle and construct for
transformer manufacturer. However, it has the limitations in higher
core loss (about 15% higher than METGLAS amorphous), need high
exciting power and does not fit for small radius construction which
will possibly cause its delamination. Both of these materials have
advantages and disadvantages, it depend on what type of
transformers are going to be made and their application areas.

Destruction factor is a measure of the performance (losses) of

transformer core material after it is built into a transformer in
comparison with the losses performance of the base material. It
remains to be seen what the destruction factor of commercial

amorphous metal will be in transformer core.

27
 However, while new opportunity is exciting, there still
remains much to be done in the way of material development,
material manufacturing, transformer engineering and transformer
manufacturing if the advantages of amorphous metal cores are to
be fully utilized.

28
 CHAPTER 3

DESIGN CONCEPTS FOR AMORPHOUS METAL DISTRIBUTION

TRANSFORMER

The use of METGLAS amorphous metal cores in distribution

transformers could potentially result in a step increase in the
efficiency of these units. What is the most appropriate design for
such new type distribution transformers? In order to answer this
question, the particular characteristics of METGLAS amorphous
metal must be considered first.

3.1 Effect Of Unique METGLAS Amorphous Metal

Characteristics On Transformer Design

Thickness ...... The nominal thickness of amorphous metal is

one mil (25pm). This is less than one tenth the lamination thickness
of conventional electrical silicon steels. The resulting increase in the
number of laminations of Metglas required to make a core has an
adverse effect in core manufacturing productivity. In addition, the
large number of thin laminations makes the forming of a core joint
a more difficult and expensive procedure; this makes the concept of
a jointless METGLAS amorphous metal core very attractive. Finally,
the amorphous metal core, composed of these thin laminations, will
not support itself. Thus, some form of core support is required to
maintain the core shape.

29
 Hardness --- Amorphous metal is extremely hard ( diamond
point hardness of approximately 900). Its ultimate tensile strength
is more than four times that of conventional electrical silicon steels.
These characteristics, in combination with its thinness, make the
material exceedingly difficult to slit and shear; therefore
transformer design using as-cast widths or requiring only a few
cuts in the material ( i.e: jointless core ) are desirable..

Stacking Factor ----- Because it is cast to its final thickness,

amorphous metal exhibits surface roughness and random thickness

variations across its width, whereas conventional electrical silicon
steels which are rolled to their final thickness are much more
uniform. The combination of thinness, surface roughness, and
thickness variation gives amorphous metal a relatively low stacking
factor, on the order of 80%-85%, compared to a stacking factor of
95% or higher for conventional electrical steels. Consequently, an
amorphous metal core requires about 18% overall cross-sectional
area than conventional steels to obtain the same effective cross-
sectional area of metal. The resulting of softer of METGLAS
amorphous metal ribbon which can't maintain a certain shape itself
exhibits a tendency for one lamination to slide with respect to
adjacent laminations again indicating the need for a core support.

Annealing----- Conventional electrical steels are magnetically

oriented and stress relieved as received by the transformer

manufacturer; annealing is required only if stresses are introduced

during the core manufacturing process. METGLAS amorphous metal,

by contrast, is not magnetically oriented and has high internal

stresses resulting from the casting process. Whether or not

30
additional stresses are introduced in the core manufacturing
process, amorphous metal must be annealed in the presence of a
magnetic field and an inert atmosphere, such as nitrogen, argon, or
helium to develop the best magnetic properties. The annealing of
the amorphous metal can serve three purposes:

1. magnetic orientation;
2. relief of residual stresses;

3. relief of stresses caused by shaping the core;

The first two purposes can be served by annealing the

amorphous metal either prior to forming the core (preannealing) or
after forming the core (postannealing). The last purpose is not
necessary for stack cores because there is no stress introduced
when forming stack cores. For wound cores, the last purpose can
only be achieved by post-annealing. Each of these purposes
improves the performance (no load loss and exciting current) of the
finished core. The time-temperature window for the optimum

anneal of amorphous metal is very critical. The magnetic properties

of METGLAS amorphous metal 2605S-2 are optimized by annealing,
generally between 340°C-410°C (613K-683K), in an applied

magnetic field. Fig.3-1 shows the time-temperature window for the

annealing process.
 400
Oven Temp.

0>
Core Skin

Core Cerl ter

Time (hours)
Fig.3-1 Typical temperature profile of anneal process

for 175 mm ID, 50 kg METGLAS 2605S2 core

It is used primarily for inducing uniaxial anisotropy (domain

alignment) along the ribbon direction. The field level used through
the anneal process was 800A/m, which was chosen to ensure that
the core material is fully saturated during the annealing. To fully
develop this anneal-induced anisotropy, the core material must
approach magnetic saturation during the annealing. Fig.3-2 shows
the field levels required to ensure core material saturation at
various temperature.

Recently, the Metglas products business unit of Allied

Corporation has been developing a pre-annealed version of its

amorphous core material. This material has been trademarked

POWERCORE strip. It gives transformer manufacturers a pre­
annealed, thicker, rigid, higher lamination stacking factor material

with core losses about 35%-40% of conventional grain oriented

silicon steels. POWERCORE strip is a compact of several amorphous

ribbons. It is currently produced in thickness ranging between 125

32
to 250pm. Its stacking factor of about 90% is midway between

conventional silicon steels and amorphous ribbons. Core loss tents to

increase with increasing thickness.

19
cn
ID
18 (/)
V)
17 Z)
<
16 o
0
_J
15
*
14 1
13
12
11

10
9
8

6
5
20 40 60 80 100120 140 160180 200 220240 260280300 320340 360 380400
temperature cq

Fig.3-2. Saturation Induction vs. Temperature

Metglas alloys, as do other magnetic materials, experience a

drop in saturation flux density with increasing temperature over
their operating range. It is noteworthy that using a magnetic field
greater than the minimum value required to saturate the core
material has no beneficial or detrimental effect on resultant

magnetic properties. So the anneal must be sufficient to relieve as

much stress as possible, but should not cause crystallization of the

amorphous metal. Because the anneal cannot relieve all stresses, it

is desirable to use a core-coil configuration which minimizes the

stresses introduced in the core forming process.

Transformer Configuration ----- Considering the above

factors, a METGLAS amorphous metal distribution transformer

design is significantly different from its conventional electrical steel

counterpart. It will have lower losses. But it could use more core
material and more conductor material.

3.2 Qualitative Determination Of A Core-Coil

Configuration

In its simplest form, a transformer may be looked like as two

interlinked rings one ring being the core and the another being the
coil (as shown in Fig.3-3).

Primary
.Secondary
Tore

The Principle Of a Transformer

The core and coil are highly interdependent. That means,

increasing the cross-sectional area of the core ring also means
increasing the diameter of the coil ring. This increases the total
length and resistance of the wire in the coil ring, thus increasing the
transformer load loss. To return the load loss to its original value,
the size of the wire must be increased. But the wire size increase
enlarges the cross-section area of the coil ring and the diameter of
the core ring. The enlarged core ring diameter increases the weight
of the core material and thus the core loss of the transformer. To
reduce the core loss of the transformer to its original value without
34
change of the flux requires an increase in the the cross-sectional
area of the core. Some iteration is required. A change in the volts
per turn of the coil (which also changes the core induction) may also
be getting the same result. However, regardless of the method
chosen to return the transformer to its original loss performance, if
the original increase in core cross-sectional area was caused by
inefficient use of space (i.e: a poor stacking factor), the result will
be a significant increase in the amount of core material and
conductor material and, thus, a large increase in the cost of the
transformer.

The most reliable qualitative indicator of the economics of a

core-coil configuration is the determination of its relative efficiency
in the use of space. For the purposes of this determination, only coil
conductors and core steel are considered to occupy useful space, all
other space is wasted. The core stacking factor is the ratio of the
space occupied by actual core steel to the total space required by
the core. The required space can vary with configuration even
though the core shape does not change. For example, if a square coil
were applied to a square core leg, the core's required space would
be the area of the square occupied by the core; however, if a
circular coil was applied to the same core, the core's required space
would be the area of the circle whose diameter is equal to the
diagonal of the square occupied by the core. A coil stacking factor is
also defined in a similar manner by taking the ratio of the space
occupied by the conductor to the total space required by the coil.
One further measure of wasted space is an approximation of the
clearance required between core and coil for assembly of one on the
other. This determination of effectiveness is the use of space
considering core stacking factor, coil stacking factor, and assembly
clearance is one of the most valuable tools used in the qualitative
evaluation of possible configurations that are described in the
following chapter.

36
 CHAPTER 4

Possible METGLAS Amorphous Metal Distribution

Transformer Core-Coil Configuration

4.1 Core-Coil Configurations

Based on the standard transformer principle, there are many

different core-coil configurations possible. They can be divided into
three groups(1).

With reference to group one (I) Fig.4-1 shows toroidal core

configurations. These might be considered the most desirable
configurations from the stand-point of field theory. The core and
coil are in very close proximity to each other. The geometry allows
very little flux leakage and that will minimize the reactance.

The outer member, the coil, in the cases of IA, IB and the core
in the cases of IC and ID, can not rotate around the inner member.
Thus, the outer member must be wound around the inner member
by inserting the end of the coil conductor or corestrip material into
the centre hole, pulling it out and tight around the inner member,
and repeating the process again and again. Currently available
production machines (toroidal winders) are not suitable for this
group because the numbers of turns which can be continuously
wound by such a machine is inversely proportional to the size of
the centre hole. For distribution transformers, the size of the
37
conductor may leave a choice of either using a large centre hole
which would need additional core material and conductor material
required to surround the large centre hole or having a large
number of joints in core or conductor, which will cost more in
labour.

Group two (II) involves the concept of some change of group

one in the outer member of each configuration so as to allow one
member to rotate with respect to the other (See Fig.4-2). For those
configurations where the inner member has a circular cross-section
(IIA, IIC), this results in either member being able to rotate with
respect the other. Since one (or two) member(s) can now rotate
while the other remains stationary, the end of the outer member
can be fed in and the remainder of the outer member wound
continuously through rotation of this member. Because of the
elimination of the centre hole, the amount of wasted space is
lowered. Some space is used by the divides to rotate one member;
this space is wasted and serve no useful purpose after the core-coil
configuration is finished.

Group three (III) results from the group two conversion of the
inner member from an overall circular shape to an overall
rectangular shape with the same type of cross-section (See Fig.4-3.).
But for those configurations where only one member could rotate in
group two (IIB and IID), this change eliminates the possibility of
rotation. For those where both members could rotate in group two,
one member still retains the possibility of rotation (IIIA and IIIC).
For assembly of the configurations where the possibility of rotation
is lost in this change, either joints must be introduced or the process
38
 GROUP I

A (configuration 1) B (configuration 2)

c (configuration 3) D (configuration 4)

COIL

Flux Path In Core Flux Path In Core

Fig.4-1.
 GROUP II

A (configuration 5,6) B (configuration 7,8)

C (configuration 9,10) D (configuration 11,12,13)

Fig.4-2.

40
 GROUP III

A (Configuration 14,15,16) B (Configuration 17,18,19)

CORE— CORE----- COIL

C (Configuration 20,21) D (Configuration 22,23,24)

CORE COIL
CORE COIL

Fig.4-3.

41
involves the outer member being inserted through the centre
window and pulling tight around the inner member as described in
group one. In this group, one variation of configuration IIIB is the
popular rectangular coil core-form distribution transformer and one
variation of configuration HID is the familiar rectangular coil shell-
form distribution transformer.

Beside the above core-coil configurations, there are two basic

core types possible: one is the wound core in which the surface of
the core ribbon material is parallel to wound lines in the core and
another is the stacked core in which the core material surface is
parallel to the core layer lines. The wound core may be made
without core joints or it may have joints to aid in assembling the
core around coil. The stacked core must have joints; a jointless
stacked core could be constructed by cutting a core opening in very
wide core material but this technique is extremely wasteful of
material and it is only considered to be practical where the core has
discrete corners (i.e: configuration IIIA); it is not practical where
the core has continuous curves (i.e: configuration IA,IIA).

Combining the three groups of configurations with two core

types results in about 24 possible core-coil configurations00 for the
use of Metglas metal as core in distribution transformers. The
rectangular core cross-section is constructed by using a constant
overall lamination width. The circular core cross-section is
approximated by either a cruciform cross-section (several discrete
lamination widths) or a polygon shaped cross-section (lamination
widths which vary linearly). As shown in Fig.4-4.
 Cruciform Shaped Polygon Shaped
Core Cross-section Core Cross-Section
Fig.4-4.

Possible Core-Coil Configurations

Basic Configu­ Coil Cross Core Cross Core Type Configuration

rations * section section Number

IA Conforms Circular Unjointed 1

to core Wound
IB Conforms Rectangular Unjointed 2
to Core Wound
IC Circular Conforms Unjointed 3
to Coil Wound
ID Rectan- Conforms Unjointed 4
gul ar to Coil Wound
IIA Circular Circular Jointed 5
Wound
Unjointed 6
Wound
IIB Circular Rectangular Jointed 7
Wound
Unjointed 8
Wound
IIC Circular Circular Jointed 9
Wound
Unjointed 10
Wound
IID Rectan- Circular Jointed 11
gul ar Wound

43
 Basic Configu Coil Cross Core Cross Core Type Configuration
rations * section section Number

IID Rectan- Circular Unjointed 12

gul ar Wound
Stacked 13
IIIA Rectan- Circular Jointed 14
gul ar Wound
Unjointed 15
Wound
Stacked 16
IIIB Rectan- Rectangular Jointed 17
gul ar Wound
Unjointed 18
Wound
Stacked 19
me Circular Rectangular Jointed 20
Wound
Unjointed 21
Wound
HID Rectan- Rectangular Jointed 22
gul ar Wound
Unjointed
Wound
Stacked

* From Three Groups Of Possible Configurations

The above discussion will be applicable only to the use of

Metglas amorphous metal core material in strip form with thickness
of about 0.03 mm (approximately 1 mil) and width larger than 25
mm (1 inch). Such core material is not suitable for the configuration
IC and ID since it is impossible to process the core material around
the coils on these two shapes; thus, we eliminate them from further
consideration.

44
4.2 Core-Coil Assembly Options

Because of the unique requirements of Metglas amorphous

metal material, core construction, coil construction and annealing
techniques should all be considered when choosing acceptable core­
coil assembly options for an amorphous metal transformer.

Coils can be constructed with three basic techniques: (1)

winding the coil separate from the core using lathes or planetary
winders; (2) rotating the coil around the core while feeding in the
conductor and (3) using toroidal winding methods to apply the
conductor around the core. A schematic example of a wound
cruciform core is illustrated in Fig.4-5. Cruciform designs are
attractive since the windings can be applied without disturbing the
previously annealed core. Fig.4-5 shows how a core can be formed
with an approximately round cross-section using metallic glass
which is either slit or cast in varying widths. Coils can then be
wound onto the core using split bobbins, for example.
 Unjointed wound cores can be constructed with three similar
basic techniques: winding and forming the core separate from the
coil using lathes and presses, rotating the core around the coil while
feeding in core material and using toroidal methods to apply the
core material around the coil. Toroidal transformers have been out
of favour for many years because they are comparatively difficult
to manufacture, but a new approach to toroidal distribution
transformer design and construction was recently introduced by
Kuhlman Corporation00. In a significant departure from other
designs, this device is manufactured by first forming an innovative
split winding which is then spread to allow a pre-annealed strip of
core material to be wound into the hollow of the windings. The
windings are then closed and the transformer placed in a
conventional can. The windings are optimally shaped to take best
advantage of the toroidal geometry and to minimize airflux leakage,
as illustrated in Fig.4-6.

46
 Fig.4-6 .
Jointed wound cores and stacked cores are usually
constructed separately from the coil, then assembled onto the
previously wound coils.

Toroidal winding methods require that only one side of the

item is inside the other item. For example, the coils in the basic
configuration IIIB could be toroidally wound onto the core (only
one leg of each coil is within the core); but the coil of basic
47
configuration HID could not be toroidally wound (two legs of the
coil are within the core).

The above construction and annealing techniques lead to five

options for assembling the core-coil:

(1) Winding the coil around an unjointed wound core (which

has previously been formed and postannealed) by rotating the coil.
(2) Winding the coil around an unjointed wound core (which
has previously been formed and postannealed) by using toroidal
winding methods.
(3) Assembling a jointed wound core, which has been
previously formed and postannealed, to a previously wound coil or
assembling a stacked core whose laminations have been
preannealed, to a previously wound coil.
(4) Winding as-cast or preannealed amorphous metal onto a
previously wound coil by rotating the core (it could be very difficult
because the core strip material will be very sharp and brittle after
annealling).
(5) Toroidal winding as-cast or preannealed amorphous metal
strip onto a previously wound coil.

A six assembly option, annealing the complete core-coil

assembly, is theoretically possible. It requires a high temperature
insulation system for the transformer coil. Since amorphous metal
material is not suitable for high temperature operation due to
saturation induction reduction with increasing temperature and
aging at continuously elevated temperature(16), this high
temperature insulation system will be of no use in the finished
48
transformer and even could even reduce heat dissipation. So, it is
not considered a viable choice to anneal a core with the coil.

Each remaining core-coil configuration lends itself to only a

limited number of assembly options: these are:

Option Core-Coil Configurations

1 . 6, 10, 12, 15

2. 1, 2, 6, 8, 15, 18

3. 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 19, 20, 22, 24

4. 6, 8, 10, 21

5. 10, 12, 21, 23

4.3 Elimination Of Possible Configurations

With the core-coil assembly options discussed, some

configurations may be qualitatively eliminated based on the
efficient use of space and manufacture costs.

A rectangular core cross-section can be actually obtained. A

circular core cross-section may be only approximated or obtained at
some expense. Because the approximations to circular cores waste
space between the actual core and the idea circle, rectangular cross-
section cores use space more efficiently; therefore, configurations
using cores with circular cross-sections may be eliminated. Instead,
rectangular cross-section core configurations can be used where
the assembly option does not demand a circular cross-section core.
So, configurations 1, 6, and 15 are eliminated and could be replaced
49
by 2, 8, and 18 respectively, using assembly option 2.
Configurations 5, 9, 11, 13, 14, 16 are eliminated and can be
replaced by 7, 20, 22, 24, 17 and 19 respectively using assembly
option 3. Configurations 6 and 10 are eliminated and could be
replaced by 8, 21 respectively using assembly option 4. Finally,
configurations 10, 12 are eliminated and could be replaced by 21, 23
respectively using assembly option 5.

Similar to the core, a coil with a rectangular cross-section can

be actually constructed by using square cross-section conduct wires
but a circular cross-section coil may be only approximated by using
circular cross-section conduct wires. Thus, rectangular cross-section
coils use space more efficiently than that of circular cross-section
coils, and configurations using circular cross-section coils may be
used instead where the assembly option does not demand the
circular cross-section coil. Thus, configurations 6, 10 are eliminated
and could be replaced by 15,12 respectively using assembly option
1. Configuration 8 is eliminated and could be replaced by 18 using
assembly option 2. Configurations 7, 20 are eliminated and could be
replaced by 17, 22 respectively using assembly option 3. Then,
configuration 21 is eliminated and could be replaced by 23 using
assembly option 5.

After these eliminations, the following remaining possibilities

are left:

50
 Option Core-Coil Configuration

1. 12, 15

2. 2, 18

3. 17, 19, 22, 24

4. 8, 21

5. 23

4.4 Core-Coil Configuration Selection

The amorphous metal core-coil configuration selection process

must consider transformer performance, transformer material
usage, and manufacturing cost of these three factors. Each of the
possible core-coil configurations noted above have both advantages
and disadvantages. Some of them have similar construction to
conventional electrical steel transformers and some of them have
identical construction. Thus, the advantages and the disadvantages
of the conventional electrical steel transformers may also be
advantages and disadvantages of Metglas amorphous metal core
transformers.

The jointed wound core in configuration 17 (rectangular coil

core-form distribution transformer) and 22 (rectangular coil shell-
form distribution transformer) are good from a performance and
material usage aspect. Many current distribution transformer
manufacturing machines could be adapted for use with these
configurations. But, cutting each laminations of Metglas metal strip
and assembly of a jointed wound core with very thin, brittle
material around the coil presents great manufacturing challenges.
 The stacked core configurations 19 and 24 use more core
material and will have higher losses than similar wound core
configurations. But, the joints are easier to assemble since the
springiness of amorphous metal are to be processed in flat
laminations. These configurations would also allow the adaptation of
presently used coil winding equipment.

Because transformers with conventional electrical steel have

been made using configurations 12 and 15, many of the required
manufacturing techniques and equipment designs are presently
available. However, because of the space required for tooling which
rotates the coil on the core, these configurations have relatively
high material costs and losses.

Configuration 2, 18 and 23 have the greatest manufacturing

challenges of the configuration possibilities. Presently available
toroidal winding equipment requires a significant amount of space
of the core centre window; this space is wasted in the finished core-
coil. Present toroidal winding techniques are not directly adaptable
to the large secondary conductors required in distribution
transformers. However, if the manufacturing problems can be
solved, configuration 2 offers the most efficient use of material and
lowest losses. Configuration 18 would be among the better
configurations in terms of material usage and losses. Because the
core configuration 23 could not be annealed after forming (will melt
coil insulation material), it would have a higher no load loss.

52
 GROUP IV

A (Configuration 15) B (Configuration 18)

£ n
Flux___ _

r 1 1
1
hp

L j
1
1

Fig.4-7

53
 Configuration 8 and 21 are the inverses of 12 and 15
respectively in that the core is rotated rather than the coil. Like 12
and 15, they have advantages in manufacturing techniques and
disadvantages of high material costs and losses. Because the cores
are not annealed after forming, the no-load losses of 8 and 21
would be among the highest of the configuration possibilities.

To conclude the above discussion, each configuration has both

advantages and disadvantages. In practice, there are only four of
the above configurations which are very popular. These are shown
in Fig.4-7. IVA was designed by GEC-OSAKA Corporation; IVB was
designed by IREQ*; IVC is the familiar rectangular coil-core form
distribution transformer; IVD was designed by Allied Corporation(27).

The unique characteristics of amorphous metals present

significant challenges to the transformer designer and
manufacturer. Success is dependent on the relative value of energy,
the cost and performance of the material, and economically
manufacturable design.

IREQ—Institute de recherche d'Hydro-Quebec

54
 CHAPTER 5

CAUSES OF THE NO-LOAD POWER LOSS IN METGLAS

AMORPHOUS RIBBON MATERIAL

The total power loss under no-load conditions and alternating

flux at power frequencies and zero applied stress conditions is an
important criterion for the manufacturer and user of METGLAS
amorphous ribbon material. The total power loss can be divided
into three major types, namely the static hysteresis loss, classical
eddy current loss in core lamination and anomalous loss (excess
eddy current loss). The division of the total power loss into the
constituent losses is necessary in order that the attempts to
decrease the power loss can be concentrated in the most substantial
area.

As we know, many attempts have been made to understand

the causes of the power loss in grain-oriented silicon steel. The
advent of METGLAS amorphous ribbon materials has meant that the
causes of the power loss of this material must now be investigated.
An easy starting point for this investigation is to use the existing
techniques which have been developed to analyse and elucidate the
causes of the power loss of grain-oriented silicon steel, then to
consider the specialities of METGLAS amorphous alloy itself to help
us to understand more about this new material.

55
 anomalous loss

power loss
per cycle

classical eddy
current loss

static hysteresis loss

Frequency

Fig.5-1.

The total power loss per cycle against frequency

characteristic, shown in Fig.5-1 is obtained by measuring the power
loss over the frequency range from 20Hz to 1000Hz and
extrapolating the characteristic to zero frequency(31).

Fig.5-2 Typical Hysteresis Loop for Ferromagnetic Materials

5.1 Hysteresis Loss: If the magnetizing force applied to a

ferromagnetic specimen is increased to saturation and is gradually
56
reduced again to zero, the return B-H curve does not retrace the
initial curve, but lies above it (as shown in Fig.5-2). This lag in the
demagnetization is a consequence of inclusions that impede the
motion of domain walls, sometime referred to as irreversible
boundary displacement. This effect is called hysteresis. The finite
value of B when H is zero is called residual flux density. To
demagnetize the specimen completely, we. must apply a negative
magnetizing force represented by OC. This is called the coercive
force. If the magnetizing force is increased in this direction,
saturation in the opposite direction is obtained at point D. If, finally,
the magnetizing force is gradually reduced to zero, reversed, and
increased to its maximum value in the original direction, the curve
DEFA will be traced out. The complete curve forms a closed loop
called a hysteresis loop. It can be seen that to take the specimen
through the various states represented by this loop, an alternating
magnetizing force is required. If these alternations are maintained
and the maximum value of BM is the same during each cycle, the
specimen will continue to go through the same series of changes.

The hysteresis loop can be regarded as a magnetic indicator

diagram. During each cycle, an amount of energy represented by
the area enclosed by the loop is expended. This is shown as follows:

Suppose the specimen is a ring of mean circumference L in

meter, and cross-sectional area A in meter2. Assume that a coil of N
turns is wound over the specimen. If the value of the magnetizing
current at any instant of time t(in second) is i in amperes, then the
magnetizing force H is given by:

57
 ampere turn
meter

If the value of the flux density at the instant considered is B,

then the induced voltage E in the coil is:

Ndj>
E= (volts)
dt

The current i following at that instant will be opposed by this

induced voltage, and therefore, power will have to be expended in
order to maintain the increase in current. This required power is
given by:

dB
Power at any instant= E i= H A L- ^ (watts)

dB
Work done in time dt= H-A-L- — dt (joules)
dt

Total work done (one cycle)= A-L-jHdB (joules)

It can be seen from Fig.5-2 that HdB is the area of an

elementray strip of the B-H curve, and therefore, J HdB (for an

entire cycle) is the area enclosed by the loop. The volume of the
ring specimen is A-L:

Work Done_____
Area of Loop = (joules)
Specimen Volume(m3)

5.2 Eddy Current Loss: A time-changing magnetic field in a

conducting solid, either ferromagnetic or non-ferromagnetic,

58
produces an induced voltage around each closed path that encircles
lines of magnetic flux. Circulating currents induced in the conductor
by these voltages are known as eddy currents, and the resulting
heat losses are eddy current losses. In an effort to minimize these
losses in transformer cores, magnetic material are made in thin
sheets, or laminations.

In classical theory, eddy current loss is calculated from

Maxwell's equations, assuming that the material is homogeneous,
has constant permeability and full flux penetration occurs. Under
these conditions the classical eddy current loss Peddy is given by:

(Ttd-f-B V
eddy w/kg (5-1)

Where: d is the material lamination thickness in meter;

Bm is the peak flux density in Teslas;
f is the frequency of the applied field in Hz;
p is the resistivity of the material in Q meter;

It is to be noted that the eddy current loss is proportional to

the square of the thickness, d, of the laminations, the square of
applied frequency and inversely proportional to the resistivity of
the lamination.

5.3 Anomalous loss: The difference between measured total

transformer core loss and the sum of the hysteresis and calculated
eddy current losses is termed " anomalous loss".

59
 From experimental measurement it has been shown the
anomalous loss is responsible for more than 90% of the total power
loss of Metglas amorphous ribbon materials at power frequencies.
This compares to the 30% - 90% range for grain-oriented silicon
steel(21). A convenient method commonly used to define the
magnitude of the anomalous loss is to compare to the classical eddy
current loss giving the anomaly factor, which is defined, as:

_____ anomalous loss_____

Tla = 1 + (5-2)
classical eddy current loss

It can be seen from equation (5-1) that classical eddy current

loss of grain-oriented silicon steel is a factor of about 400 times of
this loss in METGLAS amorphous ribbon materials at a given
frequency and flux density because of the differences in specimen
thickness and resistivity. Following is the typical values of
properties of amorphous ribbon and 3% grain-oriented silicon steel:

Specimen thickness Resistivity

(pm ) (O)

METGLAS amorphous ribbon: 25 137

Grain-oriented silicon-steel: 300 48

Therefore, although the anomalous loss makes a greater

contribution to the total power loss in METGLAS amorphous ribbon
material than in grain-oriented silicon steel, it is possible to make
sensible comparisons of the causes and magnitude of the different
contributions to the anomalous loss. These comparisons will help us
to elucidate the causes of anomalous loss in the amorphous ribbons.

60
 Origin Of The Anomalous Loss

The origin of the anomalous loss has been attributed(22) to

many causes such as:
1. Occurrence of domain walls, domain wall angles.
2. Non-sinusoidal, non-uniform and non-repetitive domain
wall motion.
3. Lack of flux penetration and domain wall bowing.
4. Non-sinusoidal flux density and localised variation of
flux density.
5. Interaction between grains, grain size, grain orientation,
and specimen thickness effects.
6. Nucleation and annihilation of domain walls.

OCCURRENCE OF DOMAIN WALLS AND DOMAIN WALL ANGLES

The Classical eddy current loss is calculated assuming that the

material is homogeneous and has a constant permeability but
neither of these assumptions is correct due to the metallurgical
nature and domain structure of the METGLAS amorphous material.
Theoretical predictions of the increase in the eddy current loss due
to the existence of domain walls have been made by Pry and Bean
(9) who suggested that the simplest and most easy formulation for
the value of the anomalous factor is :

Domain Wall Spacing

T1 1.63 (5-3)
Specimen Thickness

61
 The most commonly observed domain structure on amorphous
ribbons is a bar structure which consists of alternate wide and
narrow domain, (as shown in Fig.5-3.)

Domain Configuration Before Domain Configuration After

Stress Relief Annealing Stress Relief Annealing
Fig.5-3.

This domain structure appear in patches throughout the

ribbon and some in areas show no obvious domain structure. These
bar domains do not align themselves along the ribbon length and
the direction of alignment is due to the previous heat, field and
stress treatment applied to the ribbon. The bar structure is not as
uniform as in grain-orientd silicon steel. Since the occurrence of
uniform bar domain structure is a prime cause of this loss in grain-
oriented silicon steel, so the occurrence of domain wall is not the
principal cause of the anomalous loss in METGLAS amorphous
ribbons.

The calculations andexperimental work done by some

researchers show that domain walls in grain-oriented silicon steel
should make a consistent angle with the surface of the lamination
due to orientation and energy minimisation requirements. These
wall angle restrictions should modify the power loss(23,24). But it is
improbable that domain wall angle considerations affect the power
loss of amorphous ribbons since the specimens are almost ten times
thinner than the silicon steel and there are no preferred directions
of orientation. Maybe some further experimental investigations can
explain the domain wall angles in METGLAS amorphous ribbons.

NON-SINUSOIDAL, NON-UNIFORM AND NON-REPETITTVE

DOMAIN WALL MOTION

The observation of the dynamic wall motion of amorphous

ribbons under sinusoidal magnetisation conditions using the Kerr
magneto-optic effect, has shown that the domain wall motion is
non-uniform and non-repetitive(21). Domain walls are pinned
throughout the magnetization cycle, the walls are annihilated at
saturation and are sometimes nucleated at the same point and
sometimes not nucleated again as the flux density is decreased,
walls are nucleated at different places and at different parts of the
magnetization cycle etc. However, it is not accurate to say that
domain wall motion in amorphous ribbons is completely random
because some walls appear to move in a uniform repetitive and
sinusoidal manner. Furthermore, if a stress is applied to a
amorphous ribbon specimen then it observed that the domain wall
motion appears to be more uniform and repetitive and less random
( We will discuss this later ). This improvement in the uniformity of
the domain wall motion correlates with a decrease in the power loss
(23). Therefore, the domain wall motion in amorphous ribbons
contrasts similarly with the uniform, sinusoidal and repetitive
domain wall motion observed in grain-oriented silicon steel.

63
 LACK OF FLUX PENETRATION AND DOMAIN WALL
BOWING

It has been shown that full flux penetration is achieved (22) in

grain-oriented silicon-steel at a thickness of 0.1mm and domain
wall bowing effects only cause 6% of the anomalous loss(26), so it is
suggested that the METGLAS amorphous ribbons typically with
25jim in thickness means that full flux penetration occurs at power
frequencies and hence domain wall bowing is not expected.

NON-SINUSOIDAL FLUX DENSITY AND LOCALISED

VARIATION OF FLUX DENSITY

Some similar specimen of grain-oriented silicon steel and

METGLAS amorphous ribbons have been magnetized and the
harmonic content of the flux density in different areas have been
measured(25). The measurements(34) have been performed on as-cast
specimens and after a strain-relief anneal are shown in follows:

Typical METGLAS Grain-Oriented Si-Steel

as-cast annealed as-received annealed

Fundamental 100 100 100 100

Third 25 20 4 3

Fifth 9.7 8.8 0.26 0.17

Seventh 8.5 5.5 0.13 0.12

% of harmonics content of the flux density

64
 The local variations of flux density have been measured(34) in
the amorphous ribbon and grain-oriented silicon-steel. It has been
found that the local value of flux density varies from the whole flux
density of the specimen by approximately ±10% for amorphous
ribbon and ±5% for the silicon-steel. There is no obvious change in
these values after strain-relief annealing. It is a quite large
localised variation in flux density in the amorphous ribbon, because
there is no grain-structure which causes the variations in grain-
oriented silicon steel. So the localised variations in amorphous
ribbon is probably caused by differences in its short range ordering,
surface condition, and most probably the localised stresses which
caused by the rapid quenching and quick solidification of the
amorphous manufacturing, and are not removed by strain-relief
annealing. Therefore the variation in localised flux makes a larger
contribution to the anomalous loss in the amorphous ribbon than in
grain-oriented silicon steel.

INTERACTION BETWEEN GRAINS, GRAIN SIZE, GRAIN-

ORIENTATION

The occurrence of grains in various sizes and orientation in

silicon steel causes localised variation in power loss, domain
structure, flux paths, flux density etc. The grainless quality of
amorphous ribbons have these variations as well and in fact these
variations could be more pronounced in this material due to it not
having grain boundary and metastable atom arrangement.

NUCLEATION AND ANNIHILATION OF DOMAIN

WALLS
65
 The non-repetitive and non-uniform domain wall motion in
the amorphous ribbons indicates that many domain walls are
formed and distroyed during each magnetization cycle and not only
when saturation level of magnetization is approached as grain-
oriented silicon steel does. It has shown that the anomaly factor
doesn't increase with flux density which would be expected if the
anomalous loss is due to the extra energy changes required for the
nucleation and annihilation of domain walls in silicon-steel.
Therefore the conditions are different between these two kind of
materials and yet no quantitative measurements of the power loss
of separate areas in amorphous ribbons which respectively exhibit
and do not exhibit domain wall nucleation and annihilation have
been performed. However, it is probably that this origin of the
anomalous loss is more obvious in amorphous ribbon materials than
in silicon-steel but is probable not a major contribution of the loss.

Besides the above origins of the anomalous loss, it is also

worthwhile to consider some specialities of the amorphous ribbon
which may affect the loss as well.

First it should be noticed that the predominant contribution to

the core losses is located in the innermost portion of the core(7). In
some cases, loss improvements as high as 30% were obtained when
small portions of the inner core were removed. Proposed reasons
for this effect have included the possibility of excessive radial
stresses on the inner ribbon layers which is not sufficiently
removed by stress relief annealing. Secondly, from the optical and
scanning electron micrographs of inner core portion samples, it
66
appears that transverse lines represent local plastic deformation of
the ribbon surface. Therefore, the large contribution to total core
loss of the inner ribbon windings may be because of
magnetroelastic strains introduced into the ribbon by the
transverse gouges during core annealing. The existence of large
temperature gradients during core annealing process can also result
different thermal expansion in adjacent ribbon layers. The air or
gas found between the adjacent layers of Metglas ribbon impedes
heat flow in the radial direction through a core, it could reach over
20 times faster in the axial (through ribbon width) direction than
for the same core in the radial (through ribbon thickness) direction
at 673K (400°C).

Unstressed 25MPa tensile stress

Fig.5-4.

As Cast

Annealed

0 5 25 30
Tensile Stress MPa
Fig.5-5.
 Another thing needed to be mentioned is the variation of
power loss with applied stress. It was suggested the application of
stress should reduce the domain wall spacing and then reduce the
total power loss in the core (Fig.5-4 shows the domain configuration
changing under stress). Some experimental results(29) have shown
that power loss of as-cast amorphous ribbon can be improved by
application of stress but not for annealed amorphous ribbons. Fig.5-
5 demonstrates that the effect of introducing tensile stress at 50Hz
and 0.75T.

We can conclude from the above discussion, it is suggested

that the non-sinusoidal, non-uniform and non-repetitive domain
wall motion which is reflected by non-sinusoidal and localised
variation of the flux density could be the major causes of anomalous
loss in Metglas metal transformer core. Thus, if an appreciable
reduction in the anomalous loss is to be achieved then the causes of
these irregular domain wall motions and flux densities must be
fully investigated and understood.

68
 CHAPTER 6

Application of Metglas Amorphous Metal Core Transformer

in the Remote Area Power Supply System

The application of Metglas amorphous core transformers has a

strong potential future and could be used in many areas since they
will save energy loss in the transformer core. Presently, the
limitation is that only small capacity transformers can be made
with this new material due to the reasons of Metglas amorphous
raw material we discussed previously. In this chapter, we will
discuss the application of this type of transformer in Remote Area
Power Supply system which are not covered by the power supply
net-work. In those areas, A.C power supply is sometimes converted
by D.C supply from large sets of batteries. Each of these power
supply units usually supplies power to a single or to a few users, so
normally only small capacity transformers are needed in the power
and distribution system. In that circumstance, lower core loss
transformers make significant savings. They will improve efficiancy
of the system and reduce the energy cost.

Australia is a very large country, there are many areas far

away from major cities and power supply lines. Since November
1986, the N.S.W Department of Energy released guidelines for a
Remote Area Power Assistance Scheme. A farmer who installs a
remote area power supply system in N.S.W which conforms to the
guidelines is eligible for a grant of up to 40% of the capital cost of
69
SOLAR TRANSFORMER
BATTERY
ARRAY AND INVERTER

BATTERY
CHARGER

BSD
DIESEL 240V USER
ORGRD 2 4 0V
' 50Hz
50Hz

Configuration 1.

SOLAR TRANSFORMER
BATTERY
ARRAY AND INVERTER

BATTERY
CHARGER
CHANGE OVER
SWITCH \
DESEL 240V USER
ORGRD 240V

Configuration 2.

SOLAR TRANSFORMER
BATTERY
ARRAY AND INVERTER

END
DIESEL USER
OR GRID 240V 50Hz

Configuration 3.

Fig.6-1

70
 h 20 ms
H

Fig.6-la

the equipment plus an annual subsidy of half the cost of operating

and maintaining the equipment. With this type of economic
encouragement there was a lot of incentive for farmers to buy
equipment which conformed to the scheme and a lot of incentive
for manufacturers to develop and produce this equipment.
Currently, there are three major designs for the Remote Area Power
Supply (RAPS) system. The principle of their block diagrams are
shown in Fig.6-1. The RAPS reserach group in N.S.W University has
tested a number of RAPS inverters. All of these so far have been of
the Modified Square Wave type. These inverters producec
voltage output waveforms under resistive load conditions are as
shown in Fig.6-la. The desired output is sinusoidal waveform what is
normally available in most cities, but is not available in RAPS
system.

All above 3 configurations in Fig.6-1 have a basic principle,

that is : use as much solar energy as possible. But as long as their
outputs go through these inverters, the modified square waveform
will be present. In this chapter, we discuss how this modified
square waveform affect METGLAS amorphous transformer.

71
6.1 Non-Sinusoidul Power Supply in Remote Area

In practical circumstances, remote area A.C power supply

from those invertors contain significant harmonics because they are
non-sinusoidal. The output voltage waveform appears mostly in
such a power suppy systems, as a modified square waveform
shown in coordinate system as follows:

f(t)
i i

20 ms

57C
3
-► cot
271
3

-E

Fig. 6-2

Here, the voltage function E(t) can be expressed as:

° < ,< 2yX

< t < X

ECO =
- <
5x
-E X < t <

< t < 2x

72
 As we know, for a function f(t) which has periodic of perbd T,
if E(t) satisfy a set of rather general conditions. It may be
represented by an infinite set of sinusoids, the Fourier series:

ao V
E(t) = W + 2j [ancosncot + bnsin(ncot)]
n=l

the coefficients an's and bn's may be determined by:

a<)= ^ JE(t)-dt

an= ~ J E(t)-cosncot-d(cot) n=l,2,3,----

| 2tc

bn= ~ J E(t)-cosncot-d(cot) n= 1,2,3,----

In this case, there is no D.C part, so that ao=0; if we pu the

function E(t) in and calculate the a„ and bn:

2n 5n

1 3 3
an=“[ jE*cosncot-d(cot) + j* (-E)-cosncot-d(cot) ]

E , . 2nn 5njc
( sin~— - sm~z— )
nrc 3 3

73
 bn= ~[ jE sin(cot)*d(cot) + J(-E)-sin(cot)*d(cot) ]
0 n

E 5n7t 2nn
= (1+ cos~r~ - cos - cosnii)
njr 3 3

For the first 40 items (n=l to 40), the calculated results for an,
bn and the effective harmonic value V an + bn are as follows:

an bn V an2+ bn2

VIE 2VIe
ai=
K
b,= ^
K 71

VIE u 3E
2VIe
a’"' 5k bs~ 5jc 5k

VIe u 3E
2VIe
1l

b,= 7 it Ik

VIe , 3E
2VIe
a“_' llTt b“~ lire 1 1 7C

VIe 1 3E
2VIe
a,3_ 13 it bl3_ 13tc 1 3 7T

VIe , 3E
2VIe
“17 ' 17tc b,,~ 17* \1k

VIe 1 3E
2VIe
a,,_ 19 it bl9 1971 1 9ti
 b. V a„2+ b„J

V3E 2^13E
■ 3E
*“"23* b23_23jc 23k

V3E , 3E
2^13E
a“_25jt b2S_25Jl 25k

V3E 2a/Ie
1 3E
a2,_29* “29~29k 29 k

V3E , 3E
2^~3E
a’1_31 j: b,,_3l7t 31k

V3E , 3E
2^3E
aM-357t b33“35jc 35k

V3E 2^/lE
a5,"37)t b3,"37jc 31k

The other unlisted items between n=l to 40 have zero value.

That means that in the frequency range from 50 Hz to 2000 Hz,
there are the above components of harmonic content in the power
supply system which comprises the waveform of Fig.6-1. These can
be expressed graphically by the frequency spectrum shown
following:

75
Amplitude

E-
Harmonic Spectrum For The Special
Square Waveform In Fig. 6-2

I i___i I___ I
0.1 0.2 6.3 0.4 6.5 0.6 6.7 6.8 <5.9 fo /.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 18

Frequency

Fig.6-3

From the above calculation and analysis, it is very clear that

the major harmonics in the modified square waveform in remote
area power supply system are 5th, 7th, 9th, 13th, 17th, 19th, 23rd,
25th, 29th, 31st, 35th, 37th orders of harmonics. The 5th order
harmonic has the amplitude about 20% of the fundamental's and
the 37th order harmonic has the amplitude about 2.7% of the
fundamental's.

For full investigation of Metglas amorphous transformer

responses to this special power supply waveform, two similar
configuration prototype Metglas metal transformers were made for
tests and measurements. Both of them are using configuration IIIB
(refer to Chapter 4), with a rectangular centre window and
rectangular core cross-section.
 The transformers dimensions and specifications are as follows:
Core material : Metglas 2506S-2
Core material weight : 8.63 Kg
Total laminations : 1480 (wound by lathe)
Stacking factor : 0.85
Primary coils: 130 (turns)
Flux density: Bm„= 0.92 (T)
Primary voltage: Vp= 60 (v)
Core cross-section area: 5cm (width) * 4.5cm (thickness)

Without Ann«a(u

The magnetization curve for our prototype transformer is

obtained by plotting the relation between the magnetizing current
and the induced voltage in the coil because for a made transformer,
their magnetizing force H and flux density B are only proportional
to the magnetizing current and the induced voltage respectly. As we
iN
discussed in Chapter 5 (E=4.44-f-N-BmA and H= ~).

77
 Magnetization curve for Metglas amoiphous
metal core prototype transformer

l(mA)

Fig.6-4

From the magnetization curve, 60 (V) was chosen as the knee

point voltage.

To fully understand the magnetic properties of METGLAS

amorphous material for transformer cores, Three separate
measurements were performed on our two prototype transformers.

Measurement 1: 50Hz core loss of Metglas amorphous

2506S-2 before and after anneal under
sinusoidual power supply.

As we discussed in the previous chapter, annealing is a very

important process for Metglas amorphous metal transformer core.
It directly affects the core loss. The anneal time-temperature
window that we used in this measurement is recommended by
Allied Chemical Corporation. It is shown diagrammatically below

78
and the temperature is applied together with an applied magnetic
field of 750A/m through out the annealing. The purpose of this
measurement is to find out the magnitude differences of the core
loss in the range from 0 to 0.7T flux density before and after anneal
process under the pure sinusoidual power supply.

Oven Temp.

11!ore: Skin

Coi e Cer ter

Time (hours)

Fig. 6-5 Time-Temperature Window For Anneal

Under the no load condition, because the leakage magnetic

flux is far less than the main flux, so in the primary coil the induced
voltage is attributed equal to the applied voltage. If the applied
voltage is sinusoidal, then the induced voltage varies sinusoidally.
Thus, we can have:
E=U=4.44-f-N-BmA (6-1)

U
and B =
4.44-f-N-A

_____ U_____
B= (6-la)
V2-4.44-f-N-A

79
 Where: U is the applied voltage, f is the applied frequency, N
is the turns of the primary coil, A is the core cross-sectional area
and B is the flux density. In this measurement, pure sinusoidal
frequency is applied. From Eq.6-la, we can calculation the flux
density values through applied voltage U. For example, if we want
to make flux density B=0.1T, According to Eq.6-la:

U=4.44-f-N-B„,-A=4.44-50-130-V2-0.1-0.05-0.045=9.2(V)

The calculated flux densities and the measured results for the
core losses are shown in the Table6-1 following table and plotted
in curve in Fig.6-6.

Table 6-1
Flux Density (T) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Applied
9.2 18.4 27.6 36.8 46.0 55.2 64.4
Voltage (V)

Core Loss W/kg

0.018 0.049 0.089 0.151 0.234 0.343 0.471
Before Anneal

Core Loss W/kg

0.017 0.048 0.082 0.123 0.174 0.247 0.340
After Anneal

80
 50 Hz core loss of Mstglas 2506-S2
before and after anneal

before anne il

after anneal

B (T)

Fig.6-6

From above results, it is shown that in the flux density range

from 0 to 0.2T, there is no obvious difference of the core loss for
these two cores. In the flux density range from 0.3T to 0.7T, the
core without anneal has the loss about 8.5% to 38.2% higher than
the annealed core. It would also indicate that the residual stress in
such a cast material is very large and makes a big contribution to
the total core loss. So, the anneal process for this core material is a
very important step for Metglas amorphous transformer.

Measurement 2: Under the same applied flux density, measure

the core loss at different frequencies

From classical theory, the applied frequency is also a factor

that affects the loss in ferromagnetic materials because it
determines the magnetic field alternating times within a second in
the material. It is well known that under the same flux density,
higher frequencies generate more losses for the ferromagnetic
material. The purpose of this measurement is to find out how the
core loss of this amorphous material responds to different
frequencies under the same flux density.

The measurement was undertaken at flux density B=0.55T. By

using the Equation 6-la to calculate the applied voltage U at
different frequencies to ensure the above flux density and
measured the core loss. The results are shown in Table6-2 and
plotted in Fig.6-7.
Table 6-2
f (Hz) 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

W/Kg 0.24 0.45 0.72 1.04 1.36 1.71 2.05 2.41 2.79 3.17

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

O 1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Frequency

Fig.6-7

82
 From the measurement, it shows that at 0.55T flux density,
the loss in the Metglas 2605S-2 amorphous core is nearly linear
increased with frequency in the range from 0 to 500 Hz. This would
indicate that very large portion of the core loss are hysteresis loss
(since hysteresis loss is proportional to the applied frequencies).
While eddy current loss are negligible (since eddy current loss is
proportional to the square of the applied frequencies). This matches
the physical properties of this material which is very thin in
thickness and has large electrical resistivity.

Measurement 3: Core loss against applied voltage at

different frequencies.

The purpose of this measurement is to theoretically estimate

the core loss of modified square waveform power supply under
different flux density, then through the separation of the modified
square waveform to a series of sinusoids and according to their
content percentage in the modified square waveform to determine
their contribution to the total loss of the special waveform. Finally,
we superpose all the contributions to get the total loss of this
special modified square waveform.

In this measurement, we measured the core losses variation

with the applied voltage U at different frequencies with pure
sinusoidal waveform supply. The results are shown in Table6-3
below and plotted in Fig.6-8.

83
 Table 6-3
^w/kg\|W 10 20 30 40 50 60

50 Hz 0.02 0.05 0.09 0.14 0.207 0.28

150 Hz 0.014 0.04 0.07 0.109 0.151 0.199

250 Hz 0.01 0.035 0.06 0.092 0.127 0.167

350 Hz 0.009 0.027 0.05 0.08 0.116 0.15

450 Hz 0.007 0.022 0.042 0.070 0.103 0.137

550 Hz 0.005 0.018 0.035 0.062 0.091 0.122

150Hz

250Hz

,350Hz
l450Hz
550Hz

Voltage

Fig.6-8 Core Loss vs. Voltage at Different Frequencies

From the above data table and graph, it can be seen that at a
certain applied voltage U, the losses are different for different
frequencies (frequency range from 50Hz to 550Hz). It shows that at
the same applied voltage, lower frequency causes higher losses that

84
because of the lower applied frequency gives a higher flux
density(see Eq.6-1).

For a clearer sight of the harmonics distributed in the sjecial

modified square waveform, for an applied voltage U, we can
represent it by the following relation:

= Vl-0875x2

where x is the fundamental component. So:

x= 0.95 U (6-2)

From (6-2), for different values of applied voltage U, the

correspond fundamental component and 5th, 7th and 11th order; of
harmonics content are shown in the Table6-4:

Table 6-4
Applied
Voltage U(V)
10 20 30 40 50 60

Fundamental
X(V) 9.6 19.2 28.8 38.4 48.0 57.0

5th Order
X/5 (V)
1.92 3.84 5.76 7.68 9.60 11.5

7th Order
X/7 (V) 1.37 2.80 4.11 5.48 6.85 8.2;

11th Order
X/11(V)
0.87 1.78 2.61 3.49 4.36 5.2^

85
 It means that for the modified square waveform in Fig.6-1, a
10V applied voltage is equal to the superposition of a applied 9.6V
with 50Hz plus 1.92V with 250Hz, 1.37V with 350Hz and 0.87V
with 550Hz (neglect other higher orders harmonics, see Table6-4
inlOV column). Then we measured the losses at those voltages of
the above four different frequencies and superposed them to get
the losses of the special square waveform. Their corresponding
losses are shown in Table.6-5 and plotted in Fig.6-8 compared with
the losses of 50Hz pure sinusoids:

Table 6-5
LossVw
10 20 30 40 50 60
Harmonics
Fundamental 2.354
0.178 0.435 0.742 1.202 1.722
X(V)

5 th order 0.003 0.013 0.083 0.126

0.031 0.056
X/5 (V)

7th order 0.012

0.0015 0.006 0.028 0.041 0.057
X/7 (V)

11th order
0.000 0.001 0.002 0.005 0.008 0.011
X/11(V)

Total Loss 0.183 0.455 2.548

0.787 1.291 1.854
(W)

Total Loss 0.022 0.053 0.093 0.147 0.216 0.293

per kg

Comparing the core loss of special modified square waveform

with the pure sinusoidal waveform (Datas in Table 6-1), it can be
found that the modified square waveform power supply will cause

86
some more power loss in the Metglas metal transformer core (see
Fig.6-9), but not seriously.

Concluding the above discussion and comparison, it indicates

that harmonic content in the power supply will cause more losses in
the transformer. The special modified square waveform in the
remote area power supply system will causes some more losses in
the Metglas metal transformer core, but it only makes about 5%
more losses at flux density 0.66T. Comparing with these amorphous
material which can save up to 75% of the no-load loss, it can be
predict that Metglas amorphous metal core transformers will still
be economic if applied in the remote area power supply system.

B<T>
0.22 0.33

Special Square
0 .25 - Vaveform

0.20-

0.15-
Sinusoidual j
Waveform
0.10 -

0.05-

Voltage (V)

Fig.6-9

A new power supply system for RAPS, called Pulse Width

Modulated Power Supply System is under development in Power

87
Department, School of Electrical Engineering, UNSW, which is able to
simulate various shape of waveforms by programming two EPROM's
through a micro-processor to control the width of pulses. The
sinusoidaul Pulse Width Modulated Output Waveform and principle
of the controller diagram is shown as following:

20ms

Fig.6-10 Sinusoidual Pulse Width Modulated

Output Voltage Waveform

Over-current Output
Sensing Switching
Logic
Over-temperature
Sensing
Fault
Battery MICRO Indication
Momitoring PROCESSOR Display

Singal
Conditioning

Solar
Cell
Input Watc hdog

Fig.6-11. Pulse Width Modulated Supply System Contrllor

88
 We did try to apply this new system to our measurements to
measure the loss of the modified square waveform, but we couldn't
get the repeatable results since its stability is still not quite able to
match our requirements. But it will provide a direct and convenient
method for the similar experiments and measurements after its
stability is improved.

89
 CHAPTER 7

BASIC CONCEPTS OF HEAT TRANSFER AND SEVERAL

DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION

7.1 Basic Concepts In The Heat Transfer

Conduction...... Heat transfer by conduction is accomplished

via two mechanisms. The first is that of molecular interaction
whereby molecules at relatively higher energy levels indicated by
their temperature impart energy to adjacent molecules at lower
energy levels. This type of transfer will occur in systems where
molecules of solid, liquid or gas are present and in which a
temperature gradient exists.

The second conduction heat transfer mechanism is via "free"

electrons that are present primarily in pure metals or alloy solids.
The concentration of free electrons is very low for non-metals.

It has been mentioned that heat conduction is primarily a

molecular phenomenon require a temperature gradient as a driving
force. A quantitative expression relating a temperature gradient,
the nature of the conducting medium, and the rate of heat transfer
is attributed to Fourier, who in 1822 presented the relation:

90
 where qx is the heat flow rate along X direction in (watts). A
2 dT
is the area normal to the direction of heat flow in (meter ); ^ is

the temperature gradient in X direction in Kelvin/meter; and k is

the thermal conductivity, having units of Watt/meter-Kelvin. The
2
ratio having the units Watt/meter , is referred to as the X

directional heat flux. The complete expression for heat flux is :

^ = -tVT (7-2)

where q is the heat flow vector; V T is the temperature

gradient in vector form. In both equations (7-1) and (7-2) the
negative sign represents heat flow in a decreasing temperature
gradient. These equations sometimes referred to as Fourier's First
Law of heat conduction.

According to the Fourier’s rate equation, heat flux is

proportional to the temperature gradient, with this proportionality
represented by k, the thermal conductivity. It is a property of a
given medium, and equation (7-1) and (7-2) are the defining
relationships for this quantity. The value of thermal conductivity
determines, in large part, the suitability of a material for a given
application.

Convection ...... Convection heat transfer, the second basic

mode to be considered, involves energy exchange between an
interface. Two kinds of convection process exist, one is forced
convection in which fluid motion past a surface is caused by an
91
external driving force such as a fan, or pump; Another is a natural
or free convection in which density changes in the fluid resulting
from the energy exchange which causes a natural fluid motion to
occur.

Mr. Isaac Newton, in 1701, first expressed the basic rate

equation for convection heat transfer. It is known as the Newton
rate equation or Newton's " Law of Cooling " is:

<1 = * A ( T„rf.„ - Tflujd ) (7-3)

where q is the rate of convection heat transfer in Watts; A is

the area normal to the direction of the heat flow in meter2 ;
Tsurface' Tfluid is the temperature driving force in Kelvin, and h is
the convection heat transfer coefficient in Watts/meter2Kelvin.

The temperature difference may be written as in equation

(7-3) or as Tfluid-Tjurface. This temperature driving force determines
whether heat transfer is to or from a given surface. Regardless of
the flow phenomenon involved, it is known that directly adjacent to
a surface the energy transfer mechanism is that of conduction. It is
these surface conductive layers of fluid or fluid "film" which control
the heat transfer rate and thus determines a given value for h. The
coefficient h is often designated the "film coefficient" for this
reason.

The heat transfer coefficient is actually a complicated function

of the flow-conditions, transport and thermo-physical properties of
the fluid, geometry and dimensions of the surface. Its numerical

92
value, in general, is not uniform over the surface. Thermal
convention relies almost entirely on empirical data to provide the
magnitude of the heat transfer coefficient.

Thermal Radiation — Heat transfer by radiation requires

no medium for propagation. Radiant exchange between surfaces is a
maximum when no materialoccupies the intervening space.
Radiant energy exchange can occur between two surfaces, between
a surface and gas or participating medium, or it may involve a
complex interaction between several surfaces and intervening fluid
constituents. Energy transfer by radiation is an electromagnetic
phenomenon. A perfectly emitting or absorbing body is designated
a black body. The rate at which a black body emits radiant energy
is given by:
q 4
A = aT (7-4)

where q is the radiant emission in Watts; A is the area of

emitting surface in (meter2) ; T is the absolute temperature in
Kelvin; and a is the Stefan - Boltzmann constant, numerically equal
to 5.676 x 106 Watts/meter2Kelvin\ Equation (7-4) is the basic rate
equation for radiant energy emission and is know as the Stefan-
Boltzmann Law of thermal radiation. It was proposed by Stefan in
1879, based on experimental evidence and derived from
thermodynamic principles by Boltzmann in 1884. Between two
surfaces the net exchange when at different temperature is:

H=c(T4-T2) w/m2

93
7.2 Several Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation

Consider a small element of material in a solid body. The

element has the shape of a rectangular parallel a pipe with its edges
dx, dy and dz parallel to the x,y,z axis respectively as shown in
Fig.7-1. To obtain an equation for the temperature distribution we
write an energy balance equation for the element in the general
form:

The rate of Heat In-Flow Plus Rate of Heat Generated by

Internal Sources should equal the Rate of Heat Out-Flow plus Rate
of Heat Change in the Internal thermal capacity: mathematically,
the equation is:

3T
(qx+vqz)+ q(dxdydz) = (q*+dx+Vdy+ciz+dz)+ cp(dxdydz) —

where the rate of heat generation per unit volume q , and the
temperature T, are in general functions of the three coordinates x ,y
,z as well as of time t, the specific heat c and the density p are
independent of temperature.

94
 Fig.7-1

The rate of heat conduction into the element across the left
side in the X direction, q can be written as :

Qx =(- ^ ^ ) dxdy

where k is the thermal conductivity.

The temperature gradient is expressed as a partial derivative

because T is not only a function of x, but also of y, z and t. The rate
of heat conduction out of the element across the right side at x + dx,
q is:
aT a aT
^x+dx = [(-*^r) + ^;(-*H7)dx] dydz

Subtracting the heat-flow rate out of the element from the

heat flow rate into the element:

a aT
9x - qx+dx = ^(* dxdydz

95
and similarly for the y and z directions :

d dT
% ■ v<iy = ^ ^) dxdydz

d dT
q* - qz+dZ = ^ ^ ) dxdydz

Substituting these relations into the energy balance equation

and dividing each term by dxdydz and k, we can get:

a 3t a 3t a 3t aT
^(*^)+^(*^)+^(*^) + q = cp*

if the system is homogeneous and k is assumed to be uniform

it can be written:

a'T a2T q i 3t
«. 2 + •% 2+-n2+» —
dz k a X-^ (^*5)
ax dy at

k
where the constant a = — is called the thermal diffusivity and
cp
has the unit meter2/sec. in SI system. Equation (7-5) is known as
the general heat-conduction equation and governs the temperature
distribution and conduction heat flow in a solid having uniform
physical properties.

If the system contains no heat sources, equation (7-5) reduce

to the Fourier equation :

a2T a2T a2T I

2 + 2 + _. 2
ax a y az a at

96
 If the system is steady, but heat sources are present, equation
(7-5) becomes the Poisson’s equation :

32T 32T 92T q

-.2+~2+-2+, = 0
dx dy dz k

In the steady state the temperature distribution in a body

free of heat sources must satisfy the Laplace equation :

tfr cfr
= 0
dy2

In order to formulate a practical problem from the basic

principles, the following steps have to be followed:

i) Select a coordinate system appropriate to the geometry

of the problem.
ii) Select a system or a control volume suited to the one-,
two, or three dimensional nature of the problem.
iii) State the first law of thermodynamics for the system or
the control volume selected in step (ii).
iv) Introduce the Fourier's law of heat conduction into the
resulting equation in step(iii), and obtain the governing
differential equation for the temperature distribution.
v) Specify the origin of the coordinate system and state the
necessary boundary conditions ( and the initial condition
for time-dependent problems) on the temperature.

97
 In the following, the above analysis will be applied to the
problem of heat distribution and transfer in a core made of Metglas
amorphous material. Because the thermal, electrical and special
characteristics of Metglas differ from normal silicon steel cores, the
thermal response will also quite different.

98
 CHAPTER 8

TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION IN CROSS-SECTION OF THE

AMORPHOUS METAL CORED TRANSFORMER

In this chapter, we discuss the temperature distribution in the

Metglas amorphous core cross-section. Metglas amorphous metal
for transformer core can save energy during the transformer
operating. But it has a relatively higher cost for the initial
investment. So the service-life of such a transformer is a very
important question that the transformer user may ask. Research
has been done on the aging behaviour of Metglas 2605-S2(16).
Although it predicts 25% change in 1.4T of power loss at 125°C after
400 years, it shows an observed 5% change at 180°C after 9 days.
That makes a proper thermal monitoring system more sence.

Metglas amorphous metal as a "metallic glass", has thermal

conductivity 3 times less than that of typical electrical silicon steel
and the mean of heat transfer inside the core is also quite different
from the conventional transformer core.

The following discussion will give the detail of the heat

transfer in the Metglas amorphous metal core. We only discuss the
steady-state temperature distribution in the cross-section of the
amorphous metal core transformer under the non-loaded condition.

99
8.1 Heat Transfer In The Cross-Section Of Amorphous Core

We have discussed in the preceding chapter the possible

configurations of the amorphous core transformers. There are many
kinds of different possibilities. But, because of the limitation of the
amorphous metal raw material which only can be made in a very
thin film and a few centimetre in width, it doesn't matter what kind
of configuration is chosen, the common point of the choices is that
the core can only be made by a large number of laminations of
amorphous metal strips.

It is well known that metals are good conductors of heat,

while gases and air are relatively poor conductors or insulators.
Because of the method of construction of the wound transformer
core, a percentage of the device is air or gas. The air or gas found
between the layers of Metglas ribbon impedes heat flow in the
radial direction through a core. Our experiments have shown that
thermal conductivity along the X axis (through the ribbon width)
direction is much larger than that of Y axis (for the same core along
the radial direction or through the ribbon thickness.

Fig.8-1

100
 Here, we choose the as-cast rectangular unjointed wound core
as an example for analysis (referring to configuration IIB in Chapter
4). In Fig8-1. is the cross-section of such a core which is made by
amorphous metal 2605S-2. A rectangular coordinate system is set
for the analysis.
y

T4=f4(y)

Fig.8-2

As show in Fig8-2, consider the rectangular cross-section area.

Heat is generated in this fin at a constant rate q per unit volume
(w/m3). Assuming that there is no temperature gradient in the Z
direction, the effective thermal conductivity &effective is constant and

the system is steady. The differential equation for the temperature

distribution then can be written as:

32T 02T q
= 0 (8-1)
dx2 + dy2 + ^"effective

Which is linear but not homogeneous. The boundary

conditions are:

T^fjCx) T2=f2(y)
T3=f3(x) T4=f4(y)

101
 The problem here is to find out the effective thermal
conductivity in this cross-section area and then the solution of
equation (8-1).

As we know, under the non-loading condition there are iron

losses in transformer cores and it is the major heat source which
causes the core temperature to rise. Transformer core loss is
uniformly generated in the core cross-section area and because the
outer part of the core dissipates or exchanges heat faster than the
inner part of the core, that makes the temperature different across
the core cross-section. When we analyse the temperature
distribution problem in the cross-section, we assume that the no-
load core loss are generated uniformly in the transformer core. Also
we assume there is not temperature gradient in the Z direction.

In our circumstance (with reference to Fig 8-2), the core

cross-section is a laminated body. The mean of heat transfer in
such a laminated body is different from that of isotopic body. There
is no direct mathematic method which can govern such a problem.
Generally, the Poisson's Equation is the mathematical method
available to deal with a system which is steady and heat sources
are present, but it requires the thermal conductivity to be a
constant. To apply the Poisson's Equation to our situation, we can
process as follows:

8.2 The Effective Thermal Conductivity for Laminated

Bodies

In the heat conduction problems, thermal conductivity k is a

102
scalar; it represents the ability of heat transfer of a certain solid
body. In what follows, we shall restrict ourselves to the discussion
of laminated structures and calculate the heat fluxes normal and at
right angles to the laminate. Although the heat fluxes not only
transfer normal to or at right angles to the laminate, heat flux is a
vector and it can be divided into two components along X axis and Y
axis respectively. Only steady-state conduction is discussed.

Fig.8-3

Heat Flow Normal to Laminate ...... First we consider the

general situation of a laminated body in Fig.8-3, which consists of m
individual laminations whose thickness are 51? 52, 53, , , ,5m and
whose corresponding effective thermal conductivities are k{, k2, k2 ,
, , , , ,km. We suppose that the two external planes are kept at
temperature Tj and T2(T1>T2). In such circumstances there will
arise a definite heat flux, equal through every layer, and we can
write that:

q =ij- ( T, - Ta ) (Ta - Tb ) = , , . =Y ( T, - T2 ) (8-2)

103
 Here, T , Tb, , , , are the temperatures at the internal planes of
contact and :
m
8=18;
j=l

is the total thickness. The effective thermal conductivity

normal to the layer is denoted by kn. By the elimination of the
intermediate temperatures Ta, Tb, , , , etc.. According to Eq.8-2,We
can establish the relation:

and TrT2= TrT.+ T.-Tb

qs, qs2
so + )
k1 +k2

Si+S2+.... +5m
and k
n S1
+ 52 Sm Jl,
ki
, + ..... + r1
k2
X
V 8-

j=l
ki

(8-3)
This equation looks like resistance connected in series and
consists of a sum of reciprocal conductivities because it can also be
written as :

...... h
kn kl k2 km ^ ki
j=l

if we define X is the core lamination stacking factor.

k.„k
air^ metal
then kn - (8-4)
8(1-X) k.,,X + ka„. i(l-X)
-------+ —;---------
' metal

104
 Heat Flow Parallel to the Layers .. Now we consider
another general circumstances, the structure isshown in Fig.8-4,
which consists of m layers of thickness, Sj, s2, s3, , , , sm ofmaterials
whose thermal conductivities are kx, k2, k3 , , ,km. The total
thickness is S..

Fig.8-4

When two parallel planes normal to the layers and separated

by a distance d are kept at constant temperature Tj and T2 ( Tj >
T2 ). We can represent the partial heat transfer rates in the form:

Qi= k\ ( ^1 ‘ T2 ), Q2- ^2 ( ^1 ■ ),•••• » etc.

Here / denotes a constant length normal to the plane(this

paper) of the drawing. The partial heat flows add up to total heat
transfer rate:

Q = Qi + Q2 +....... + Qm = *pf (Tj -T2) (8-5)

105
here kis the effective thermal conductivity paralleled to the
layer. We substitute the expressions from (8-3) and (8-4), obtain:

Q =d ( T1 ' T2 ) + k2S2 +.........+ kmsm ) (8‘6)

Upon comparing with the right-hand side of equation (8-5)

and equation (8-6), we can get:

X¥i
(k\s\ + ^2S2 + + kmlm ) i=l__ (8-7)
5l + 52 + + S,

if we define X is the core lamination stacking factor.

kmcMXS + *,lr(l-X)S
then £p = ^ + £.ir(l-X) (8-8)

Comparison between kn and A:p ...... The ratio of the

two effective thermal conductivities is given by:

5 6
T1 =
in
s v 5i
xvi k.
j=i j=i j

In the same structure S becomes identical with 5 , and we

can obtain:

T1 =7^ = (8-9)
w 5j_ 82
(& 18 ^ + ^282 +
)(k,+ k2 +

The ratio r| becomes equal to unity only in the special case

when k{= k2 = , , , ( isotropic body). In all other cases this ratio is
smaller than unity as is easy to verify by performing the

106
 multiplication in Equation (8-9). That fact indicates heat transfer
along the lamination direction faster than it transfers along the
thickness of the laminated body.

In our practical application, we encounter laminated materials

which consist of m layers of only two different components: the
amorphous metal strip and the air. There is no other materials
between two layers of the amorphous metal strips in the
transformer core. Their thermal conductivities are kmttll and &.ir
respectively. The thickness of the amorphous metal strip is 5m.tal
which is a constant.

Then we get the total thickness of the core :

5 = m 8m.ul + m 5sir= ~ 5mmul (8-10)

where X is the ratio of total thickness of the core and total

thickness of the amorphous metal in the core, we call it stacking
factor.

If we express Eq.(8-9) use Eq.(8-4), Eq.(8-8) and verify, we

can obtain :

k.A
air™- m ctal
n= (8-11)
[^metal+M^air^metal)] f ^air-*" ^(^metajair) ]

__ air'*' metal

Here, we define :

k = [£met.l+M£.ir-£met.l)] [£.ir+ ^ (^mct.r^.ir)] > 0

107
 Since k * is symmetric with respect to the indices the metal
and the air, it means that interchanging these two different
materials changes nothing in the properties of the compound.

Form Equation (8-4) and (8-8), we can find that the effective
thermal conductivities kn and £p are determined by the lamination
stacking factor X, the thermal conductivity of air &tir and the thermal
conductivity of Metglas metal kmtltl. So, if for a Metglas metal
transformer core with:

stacking factor >.=0.85

air thermal conductivity ktir= 0.0257 W/mK
Metglas metal thermal conductivity kmeltl= 8.0 W/mK

Then, its effective thermal conductivities are:

k __ kmitkmMl ________ 0.0257 x 8.0________

n k.itX + *BeuI(l-Jl) 0.0257 x 0.85 + 8.0 x (1-0.85)

= 0.21 W/mK (8-1 la)

kv = kmMlX + Ul-M= 8.0 x 0.85 + 0.0257(1-0.85)

= 6.804 W/mK

K 0.21
*1 ~fr~= ft gQ4 “ 0.03 ; (kp is about 33 times of ^n) (8-1 lb)

If the same core with lamination stacking factor of X = 0.95,

then:

_ kiirkmelil ________ 0,0257 x 8.0________

+ itm.ui(l-30 0.0257 X 0.95 + 8.0 x (1-0.95)

= 0.49 W/mK

108
 *P = + Ul-M= 8.0 x 0.95 + 0.0257(1-0.95)

= 7.602 W/mK

^ ~ 0^65; (&p is about 15 times of kn) (8-1 lc)

So, for a Metglas metal transformer core, if the stacking factor

improves from 85% to 95%, its effective thermal conductivty
through the core thickness K improves 133% and the effective
thermal conductivity (through the core width) improves 11.7%.

From the above calculation, we can find that the effective

thermal conductivities of a certain laminated bodyare largely
affected by its lamination stacking factor.

If comparing a Metglas metal core to a conventional silicon

steel core with same core cinfiguration and dimensions, we can find
the differences of their effective thermal conductivities as follows:

We assume the silicon steel core has a stacking factor X=0.95,

forsiliconsteel the thermal conductivity is k =25W/mK. Apply
these datas to equation 8-4 and 8-8 respectly, we can get:

v ktirkglee\ 0.0257 x 25.0________

n ktxrX + *gU6l(l-Jt) 0.0257 x 0.95 + 25.0 x (1-0.95)

= 0.5 W/mK

*p =kslet]\ +M\-X)= 25.0 x 0.95 + 0.0257(1-0.95)

=23.8 W/mK

109
 K_ 0.5
0.021; kp is about 47 times of kn. (8-1 Id)
kp 23.8

Comparing Eq.8-llc and Eq.8-lld, we can see if a Metglas

metal core and a conventional silicon steel core have the same core
configuration, same lamination stacking factor, then their effective
thermal conductivity through the core thickness are almost the
same, but for the effective thermal conductivity through the core
width, silicon steel core transfers heat around 3 times as fast as of
that Metglas metal core. Just like the thermal conductivity of silicon
steel is about 3 times that of Metglas amorphous raw material.

Conclude the above discussion, we find that for a finished

Metglas amorphous metal transformer core (core cross-section
dimension has been set), if we know the core stack-factor, then the
effective thermal conductivities for the core cross-section kn and k

can be determined. The ratio of the two effective thermal

conductivities is a constant.

8.3 Coordinate System Transformation and the solutions

Concluding the above discussion, it is confirmed that for a

laminated Metglas amorphous transformer core, its effective
thermal conductivities are different along X axis (through core
width) and Y axis (through the core thickness). Then it does not
satisfy the condition we assumed for Poisson's Equation. To solve
this problem, we use the concept of coordinate system
transformation.
 According to our measurements if the transformer is exposed
in the air, under steady state conditions, on the surfaces AB and OC
(see Fig.8-7) , their temperatures will maintain at a constant value,
but along AO and BC side, temperatures will not maintain at
constant but can be represented by two temperature functions f3(y')
and f4(y') which are symmetric to each other. Our measurements
were performed by setting 5 test points on each boundary (for the
prototype transformer core: 5cm in width, 4.5cm in thickness, see
Fig.8-6) to measure the temperatures under the steady state.

Test points

x6 x7 x8 x9 xlO

Temperature Test Points at the Cross-Section Boundaries

Fig.8-6

The test results obtained under the no-load condition, the

voltage applied on primary coil was 60 volts (it is equal to 0.6T flux
density excitation according to E=4.44-f-NB mA) for 6 hours which
was ensure the transformer under the steady state and the no-load
loss measured as 0.247W/kg.
 Test Points Temperature ( C)

xl=24.9 x2=24.8 x3=24.9 x4=24.7 x5=24.8

x6=25.1 x7=24.9 x8=25.0 x9=25.2 xl0=25.1

y 1=30.5 y2=33.6 y 3=34.5 y4=33.5 y5=30.3

y6=30.3 y7=33.5 y 8=34.5 y9=33.6 y 10=30.2

Table 8-1

From Fig.8-6 and Table 8-1, it clearly shows that temperatures

along AB and OC are very near to a constant value and temperature
distributions along AO and BC side are symmetric.

Since equation (8-1) is linear and boundary conditions along

AB and OC are constants, we can transform the coordinate system in
Fig.8-3 to the new system as follows:

where : x'=tvx and y=y ;

AB=p=r|j ; AO=8

1 12
then the effective thermal conductivity along x' and y' axis become:

k'=k-
p p

So, under the new coordinate system, the thermal

conductivities along x' and y' axis are the same constant kn. It is
satisfy the conditions we assumed for Poisson's Equation. Now we
can rewrite the equation as:

a2r a2r
,2+,-.*+k =o (8-12)
ay' effective

U lr
. __ , __ _________ ^air^mctal
where: effective n k ■ k
'metal (1-A.)

For our prototype transformer:

X= 85%, £lir=0.0257W/mK, kmettl= 8.0W/mK,

5=4.5cm and S= 5.0cm,
So: &effective= kn = 0.21 w/mK. and r| = 0.03 (see Eq.8-lla,b)

Q is the constant rate of heat generated in the core per unit

volume (W/m3). In our case, we assume all the iron loss transform
to generate heat which was measured as 0.247W/kg (see table6-l,
under flux density 0.6T). Since our prototype transformer is 8.63kg
in weight, and the gravity of Metglas 2605S-2 material is
7200kg/m3(see table.2-1), so:

* ^ 7200kg/m3 3
Q= 0.247W/kg x 8.63kg x~8~63kg = 1778-4 W/m
 According to our measurment, the boundary conditions are:

T1= 24.8°C T’2=24.9°C;

Since T' =f (y') and T'4=f4(y') are symmetric, so f3(y')=f4(y').

3 3 If

we assume that the temperature function curve in the form:

T(y’)= a4y’4 + a3y’3 +a2y’2 +aty’ +a<)

Then, the temperature function curve can be fitted by MS-

Cricketl.3 software package (see Fig.8-8) using the temperature
values from test points in Table 8-1 correspond to the Y' axis in the
coordinate system. It is set that 4th order is the highest order for

the temperature function curve. Thus, boundary conditions f3(y')

and f4(y') is shown below:

f3(y')=f4(y’)=-2873200y’4+271750y’:>-27286y’2+937y’+24.9 (8-13)

the coefficients are:

a4= -2873200
a3 = 271750
a2= -27286
at= 937

a0= 24.9

1 14
 36

12

0.05

Y axis
Fig.8-7

Now the conditions for solve the Poisson’s Equation 8-12 are
completed. The differential equation is:

92T' <fT q _
3x'2+3y'2 + ive = °

and the boundary conditions are:

T\= 24.9°C T'2=24.9°C;

f3(y')=f4(y')=-2873200y’1+271750y’3-27286y’2+937y’+24.9

If the solution for Equation (8-12) is assumed to be in the

form:
T(x\y')= (p(x\y’) + <Kx’)

then the problem can be written as a superposition of the two

simple problems:
 d2<\> q
“TT2 + = 0; (8-14)
' effective

with boundary conditions: <t>(x’) = 0 x'=0

<Kp) =0 x'= p

8zip 9z(p
and (8-15)

with boundary conditions:

t>tab 0 < x' < P;

T2=Tx 0 < x' < P;
H

0 < y' < 5;

I

✓
I

V—
U>

T'4=f4(y') 0 < y’ < 5;

Eq.(8-15) represent a linear system with a homogeneous

differential equation and four non-homogeneous boundary
conditions. Since it is linear, by the principle of superposition, the
solution of (8-15) can be divided to a sum of four solutions given as
below:

1 16
 Then the temperature distribution of the core cross-section is:

+ (j>(x’) (8-l5a)

from (8-14), the solution for the problem d(x) can easily be

found to be:
d24> _ q
tlx ^"effective

boundary conditions: d(x') - 0 x'=0

d(p) =o x'= p

dd _ q
then. j i~ k x + C\
^effective

<t>(x’)= - ----- x’2 + C,x’ + C2 (8-15b)

Xeffectivc

applythe boundary conditions to (8-15b) and get:

qp
C,= rr----------- C2=0
Xeffective

q*x’ ,
So: <j)(x')= (P-x ) where p=rja, x'=T|x (8-16)
effectie

The problem for cp(x',y') can be solved using the method of

separation of variables (see Fig.8-8):

d2<Pi a2<p,
In easel: rr + r^T-O with the boundary conditions:
dx dy

(pi(0,y’)=0; <Pi(P,y')=0; cp,(x',0)=0; cp1(x’,5)=T/

1 17
 3‘cp; 32(p2
In case2: + with the boundary conditions:
dx dy

(p2(0,y')=0; cp2(P,y*)=0; ^(x’.O^T*; <p2(x\8)=0;

32<p3
In case3: dx,2 + 9^_^ with t^ie boundary conditions:

<P3(0,y’)=0; 93(P,y,)=f3(y’); <p3(x’,0)=0; <p3(x\S)=0;

a:(p4 a2<p.
In case4: + with boundary conditions:

<p4(0,y>f4(y’); q>4(P,y*)=0; <P4(x’,0)=0; <p4(x\8)=0;

(Please see Appendix I for the detailed derivation of the

solutions.)

The solution for case 1 is:

n7tx' n7iy'
2T ri-MVl ~ sin( —)-sinh(—^—)
(Pi(x',y') = 2lAB[I ( 1)j X -
tt • n n= 1 n7t8
sinh(—)

where : x'=rix; p=rj5 ; y'=y; thus, under the original coordinate

system, the final solution for case 1 is:

nttx n?ty

(pi(x,y) = £ Sin( * } Smh( 115 }

7i-n „ i nrco
sinh(----- )
v r\s '

118
 Similarly, solution for case 2 is:

nn x n7t(5-y X
n oo sinf )-sinh[ 1
, , 2Tor[l-(-l)l ^ K s J T\s
(p:(x,y) =------------------ 2- —
n-n n=1 nrcS
sinh( )
r\s

Solution for case 3 is:

nrcy n7t(r|S -x)

, ~ sin(-r-)-sinh[------ r------ ]
<Pj(*.y) = —
n7i n£--------------- -------------------g(n)
nTr'Hi'
=1
sinh(—-—)

Solution for case 4 is:

nrcy nn\
oo sin(-r-)-sinh[-r-]
<P.(*,y) = I -------------- —^ ' g(n)
sinh(~~)

where:

5 n+l 4 3 2
g(n)= [(-1) (a48 +a38 +a28 +a18+a0)+a0] -
nrc
8 8
(—H(-lf !-(12a4S2+6a38+2a2)+2a2] + (—)5'24a4[ 1 -(-!)“]
n 7T nn

Then the temperature distribution T(x,y) is the sum of above

5 solutions and can be calculated by a computer or a calculator and
add them together. A computer program is attached in Appendix II

for calculate the temperature distributions.

To calculate different transformer cores (rectangular only),

the following constants and coefficients need to be input manually:

The width of core: X=?

The thickness of core: Y=?

119
 The constant temperature: TAB=?
The constant temperature: Toc=?
The boundary condition coefficients: a4, a3, a2, a! and ao=?
The effective thermal conductivity kcffecuve = ?
The heat generate rate: q=?
The coordinate transform coeffiecient rj = ?

But, for a particular transformer core, all above constants and

coefficients may set in a data base and it can be read into the
program automatically. For that case, the only manual input needed
is the location of the particular point (x,y) where the temperature
need to be calculated, then the computer will do the rest (include
the coordinate system transformation).

Here we choose and calculate some points as example for the

propotype transformer (locations in cm). The results of above
calculating after transform back to the original coordinate system
are shown in following:

T(l, 1)=31.8 °C T(2.5, 1 )=31.9 °C T(4, 1)=31.7 °C

T(l, 2.25)=34.5 °C T(2.5, 2.25)=34.5 °C T(4, 2.25)=34.3 °C

T(l, 3.5)=31.7 °C T(2.5, 3.5)=31.8 °C T(4, 3.5)=31.7 °C

If we calculate 2500 location of temperatures inside the core

cross-section area and plot them out graphically, it shows as
following by rotate X-Y (horizontal) plane 45°C clockwise when
viewed from above and tilt X-Y (horizintal) plane 45°C clockwise
when viewed from left, then the picture is:

120
 T« C»

T= fjiy1

15cm. -* 5cmi T= 24 S *C

Temperature Distribution in Core Cross-Section

when it is exposed in the air

Fig. 8-9a

Fig.8-9b

121
8.4 Comparison of Temperature Distribution Profiles
Between Metglas Metal Core and Conventional Silicon Steel
Core

The above example in episode 8.3 shows the temperature

distribution in the core of our prototype METGLAS metal
transformer which is exposed in the air under the steady state. Now
we compare the temperature distribution profiles of a METGLAS
metal core transformer and a conventional silicon-steel core
transformer under the steady state when both of them are force
cooling at a 30°C environment. The comparison is base on the

following assumptions:

1. Both of the cores use the configuration IIIB (refer to

Chapter 4). Square core cross-section area with 5cm x 5 c m
dimension are used in the calculation.
2. 10 kg of METGLAS and silicon steel material are used.
3. The gravity of silicon steel is 7.65g/cm3 and the gravity of
Metglas metal is 7.2g/cm3, because their gravity are similar that
means they will have similar material volume under the same
weight. This makes it possible that 10kg of each core material can
be made in same square cross-section with similar size.
4. Under the 1.35T flux density, the core loss for METGLAS
2605-S2 is 0.26W/kg and core loss for silicon steel is 0.63W/kg (see
Reference 2).

5. The stacking factor for METGLAS 2605-S2 is Xmetal= 85% and

stacking factor for silicon steel is ^steci=95%.

6. Assume all the iron loss convert into heat as the heat
source.

122
 Case 1: We calculate the Metglas 2506-S2 amorphous metal
core temperature profile with the same analysis in episode 8.3 but
it is force cooling at 30 °C (303K) enviroment:

T44 2

“c
>2

Fig.8-10a Fig.8-10b
cross-section of points where the
Metglas metal core temperature calculated

10kg Metglas 2605-S2 with loss 0.26W/kg at 1.35T, A,meul= 85%

and &metal= 8.0W/mK, a=5cm=0.05m, b=5cm=0.05m, so its effective

thermal conductivity:

K _ ^air^metal _________ 0.0257 X 8.0_________

n kairx + *m.ul(l-X) 0.0257 x 0.85 + 8.0 x (1 -0.85)

= 0.21 W/mK

kv = kmctalX + Ul^)= 8.0 x 0.85 + 0.0257(1-0.85)

= 6.804 W/mK

123
 n = k p = AIL
6.804
- 0.03 ;

q= 0.26W/kg x 10kg x = 1872W/m:

if we choose the same coordinate system in Fig.8-2 and do the

same coordinate transformation in Fig.8-7. Thus, the effective
conductivity is:
k„
effective
= k n = 0.21W/mK

The boundary conditions are (because it force cooling to 30°C):

Ti~T2~ T3=T4=30°C— 303K

With the same analysis and calculation in Appendix I. We can

get the results:

q*Tlx
(1) 4>(x)=2^------ (^a-qx)
effectie

n oo sin( )-sinh( )
<»»»*>i-..t *
" 1 sinh(-----)
v rja y

n7tx n7t(b-y)
n oo sin( )*sinh[ ]
2T2[l-(-l) ] ^ qa
(3) <p2(x,y) =
^•n n= 1
nrcb
sinh( )
v rta '

124
 nrcy nTi(Tia-x)
sin( g )-sinh[ b
n7iria
sinh( ^ ')

nny mix
sin(-^-)*sinh(-^-)
nrcpa
sinh(_b~)

The temperature distribution profile T(x,y) for the Metglas

metal core is the total sum of above five solutions. If we calculate 9
temperatures inside the core cross-section area (their locations are
shown in Fig.8-10b) and get:

T1(l,l)= 33.8°C T2( 1,2.5)= 48.8°C T3(l,4)= 33.9°C

T4(2.5,l)= 34.0°C Ts(2.5,2.5)= 48.9°C T6(2.5,4)= 33.9°C

T7(4,l)= 33.8°C T8(4,2.5)= 48.8°C T9(4,4)= 33.9°C

If we calculate 2500 temperatures inside the cross-section

area and plot them graphically in a 3-dimensional coordinate
system, it shows as following by rotate X-Y (horizontal) plane 135°C
clockwise when viewed from above (see fig.8-1 Od) and tilt X-Y
(horizintal) plane 45°C clockwise when viewed from left:

125
 Ti :Ci

When It Force Cooling at 30 °C Enviroment

Fig.8-10c

x(cm)

Core Cross-Section Area of a METGLAS

Amorphous Transformer

Fig.8-10d

126
 Case 2: We calculate the silicon steel core temperature
distribution profile.

Fig.8-1 la Fig.8-1 lb

cross-section of points where the

silicon steel core temperature calculated

10kg silicon steel with loss 0.63W/kg at 1.35T, Xsttel= 95% and

^ steei-25.OW/mK, a=5cm, b=5cm, so its effective thermal

conductivity:

k _________ 0.0257 x 25.0_________

n + *>t..i(l-Jt) 0.0257 x 0.95 + 25.0 x (1-0.95)

= 0.5 W/mK

*p =k«„iX +**(1-31)= 25.0 x 0.95 + 0.0257(1-0.95)

= 23.8 W/mK

127
 0.5
= 0.021
23.8

7650kg/m3
q= 0.63W/kg x 10kg 4819.2W/m3
10kg

if we choose the same coordinate system in Fig.8-2 and do the

same coordinate transformation in Fig.8-7. Then the effective
thermal conductivity becomes:

kH = k = 0.5W/mK

The boundary conditions are (because it force cooling to 30°C):

T1=T2=T3=T4=30°C=303K

With the same analysis and calculation in Appendix I. We can

get the results:

q-qx
(!) ------- (Tla_Tlx)
effectie

nrcx nrcy
sin(----- )-sinh(----- )
2T,fl-(-l)°l v rja y v -qa y
(2) cp,(x,y) =
7tn n= 1 nrcb
sinh( )

n7ix n7i(b-y)
sin( )-sinh[ ]
2T,ri-(-l)‘l
(3) tp2(x,y) =
7t-n n= 1 njib
sinh( )

128
 nrcv n7r(Tia-x)
~fcT>sinh[ b“
njiTja
sinh( 5 )

nny nix
sin( —g ^)-sinh(—)
nTtrja
sinh( b )

The temperature distribution profile T(x,y) for the silicon steel

core is the total sum of above five solutions. If we calculate 9
temperatures inside the core cross-section and their locations are
shown in Fig.8-1 lb and get:

T1(l,l)= 34.6°C T2(l,2.5)= 49.8°C T3(l,4)= 34.6°C

T4(2.5,l)= 34.9°C Ts(2.5,2.5)= 49.8°C T6(2.5,4)= 34.9°C

T7(4,l)= 34.6°C Tg(4,2.5)= 49.7°C T9(4,4)= 34.6°C

And also if we calculate 2500 locations of temperatures inside

the cross-section area, then plot them out graphically, it shows by
rotate X-Y (horizontal) plane 135°C clockwise (see fig.8-1 Id) when
viewed from above and tilt X-Y (horizintal) plane 45°C clockwise
when viewed from left, we can see the following picture:

129
 T' :C

Temperature Distribution of a Silicon Steel Transformer

Core When It Force Cooling At 30 ‘C Enviroment

Fig.8-1lc

Core Cross-Section Area of A Silicon Steel Transformer

Fig.8-1 Id

130
 Case 3: If we also consider the same silicon steel core to be
operated at its maximun flux density which is 1.7 T, the core loss
under the flux density is l.l\V/kg(20> and the heat generate rate:

q= l.lW/kg x 10kg xg'"™'" = 841 5W/m3

Under this circumstance, if we also calculate 9 temperatures

inside the core cross-section area as above two examples (see their
locations in Fig.8-12a) and plot out its temperature distribution
profile graphically in a three dimentional coordinate system by
calculate 2500 temperatures as before, we can find:

Ti( 1,1 )= 43.7°C T2( 1,2.5)= 58.8°C T3(l,4)= 43.7°C

T4(2.5,l)= 43.9°C Ts(2.5,2.5)= 58.9°C T6(2.5,4)= 43.9°C

T7(4,l)= 43.7°C T8(4,2.5)= 58.8°C T9(4,4)= 43.7°C

locations where temperature are calculated

Fig.8-12a

131
 T( °C)

Temperature Distribution of a Silicon Steel Transformer

When It Operate at 1.7T Flux Density

Fig.8-12b

^0839320

Core Cross-Section Area of Silicon Steel Transformer

Fig.8-12c

132
 Case 4: If we want a METGLAS metal core transformer to
have the same power handling capacity (able to handle same
applied voltage) as in Case3, then it must increase cross-section
area to compensate its lower magnetic saturation flux density to
ensure it can handle the applied voltage (E=4.44-f-N*BmA). Since the
width of the METGLAS amorphous 2605-S2 is fixed at 5cm, so we
can only increase the laminations (the core thickness) to increase its
cross-section area.

In Case3, the operate flux density is 1.7T, the maximun

operate flux density for METGLAS 2605-S2 is 1.35T. So, according to
E=4.44-f*NBmA, the Metglas metal core need to increase its cross-
section area to:

a-TT5a= l26A

thus, the Metglas metal core with the same power handling ability
as in Case3 should have the dimensions( see Fig.8-13a):

a=0.05 m
b=0.05 x 1.26= 0.063 m

the heat generate rate per volume:

7200kg/m3
q= 0.26W/kg x 10kg xl.26 x 10kg xl.26 = 1 872W/m3

133
 y(cm)

T2
Fig.8-13a

If we also calculate 9 temperatures inside the core cross-

section as before and their locations are shown in Fig.8-13b and get:

^(1,1)= 35.5°C T2(l,3.15)= 52.6°C T3(l,5.3)= 35.5°C

T4(2.5,l)= 35.7°C T5(2.5,3.15)= 52.7°C T6(2.5,5.3)= 35.7°C

T7(4,l)= 35.5°C Tg(4,3-15)= 52.6°C T9(4,5.3)= 35.5°C

1'“ t" “ H-

Locations where the temperature ia calculated

Fig.8- 13b

134
 If we do the calculation of 2500 temperatures inside the
cross-section area and plot out them graphically in a three
dimentional coordinate system as before, it shows as following by
also rotate X-Y (horizontal) plane 135°C clockwise when viewed
from above (see fig.8- 13b) and tilt X-Y (horizintal) plane 45°C

clockwise when viewed from left:

V °C)

Temperature Distribution of METGLAS transformer

with 5cmx 6.3cm core cross-section dimention

Fig.8-13c

From above comparasions, we find that temperature

distribution in either the METGLAS amophous metal or the silsicon

steel cores have the similar temperature distribution profile under

the steady state. Temperatures appear a close parabolic cylinder

135
distribution along the core width derection because heat tranfer in
that direction have to go through many layers of air gaps which
resist the transfer and cause the temperature gradient. On the other
hand, temperatures change sharply in the interfaces between core
and ambient along the core width direction that because heat is
generated in the core laminations uniformly and heat transfer
within the metals are much fast than it into the ambient.

This indicates that the temperature distribution in a

laminated body are very different from the isotropic body which
usually shows the same temperature profile at all directions if the
boundary conditions are same. But because the laminated body has
different thermal conductivties through its lamination direction and
through its layer thickness direction, that is the main reason which
makes the laminated body having above described temperature
profiles. Thus, the most efficient way to improve the temperature
distribution of a laminated body is to improve the heat transfer
rate along the lamination direction or make large temperature

differece at boundarys of those directions.

136
 CHAPTER 9

Conc^a4-ton4:

The last two decade have. seen remarkable tmpfLOve.me.nt In

the cofie material* useful fofi transformers In the electrical

utility industry. The advent of Metglas amorphorus metals in

commercial quantities has accelerated the drive to more effecient

transformers based on materials with lower core losses. Distri­

bution transformers with amorphorus cores and signicantly

reduced losses at both no-load and at full load are at an

advanced stage of prototype development and testing. New designs

are being explored, many of which will be amenable to automated

production methods. Power transformer designs are not as far

advanced. The core losses of grain-oriented silicon steels

are likely to be reduced somewhat. However, amorphorus materials

will become increasingly important, and their relative prices

will decline, as energy costs rise and as methods for manufac­

turing devices improve .

In this thesis, the unique characteristics of Metglas

amorphorus were discussed and indicated its major advantages

for transformer core are lower core losses and easy manufacture

of raw material. The major disadvantages are lower core lamination

stacking factor, critical annealing conditions. The origins of

the core losses for this material was also discussed. It was

suggested that more than 90% of the total core loss of amorphorus

metal material are caused by the non-sinusoidal, non-uniform

and non-reprtitive domain wall motion which is reflected by

the non-sinusoidal and localised variation of the flux density.

137
Therefore, the causes of these xnconsxstent domain wall motions
and variational flux densities must be fully Investigated and

understood If an appreciable reduction oft anomalous loss Is

to be achieved.

The configuration of Metglas amorphorus transformer core

Is an Important field discussed In the thesis. Base on the

theoretical point, there are many configurations are possible,

but only a few of them pratlcally valuable. The discussion

result Indicated that unjolnted as cast wound core construction

Is the better choice since the thin, brittle amorphous metal

Is very hard to cut and make joints.

The heat transfer In Metglas metaf core cro is-sectlon ivas

’

described and temperature distribution wa* calculated. Most

of the heat generated In the core transfered through the core

ribbon width direction, only small part of the heat transfer

through the core thickness direction because the poor

lamination stacking factor allows the air exist between adjacent

layers which resists heat transfer through this direction.

Metglas metal In present state of the art does have

limitations. But Improvements In Its Intrlnstlc properties

and core processing techniques will make Metglas metal more

attractive and lead early commercialisation.

138
 Appendix I

Solution of steady two-dimensional problems in the

rectangular coordinate system

As we described in chapter 8, the temperature distribution of

the rectangular Metglas amorphous transformer core-cross section
can be calculated as a sum of serval simple solutions. Here is the
detail derive for the solution.

Fig.A-l

Let's consider a rectangular fin which has a constant thermal

conductivity(stc Fig.A-l). If there is no temperature gradient in the

z-direction, then under steady-state conditions the temperature

field T(x,y) in the fin must satisfy Laplace's equation in two

dimensions:

32T 32T
~ 2+ 2 —0 (A-l)
ox dy

139
 If the boundary conditions of the fin are:

T(0,y)= 0, 0 < y < b;

T(a,y)= 0. 0 < y < b;
T(x,0)= 0, 0 < x < a;
T(x,b)= f,(x), 0 < x < a;

By the method of separation of variables, it is assumed that

the existence of a product solution of the form:

T(x,y)=X(x)Y(y) (A-2)

where X is a function of x alone and Y is a function of y alone.

Introducing (A-2) to (A-l), there follows

<?X dV
Y7T+X7T (A-3)
dx dy

or separating the variables and gets

1 d2X 1 d2Y
(A-4)
' Ydx2 “Xdy2

since each term in Eq.(A-4) is a function of only one of the variables

and then each variable can be changed independently, the right and
left side of Eq.(A-4) will be equal to each other if and only if they
are equal to the same constant, say y. Eq.(A-4) now can be written
as two ordinary differentail equations:

d^X
^T- + yX(x) = 0 (A-5)

140
 d2Y
- YY(y) = 0 (A-6)

where the separation constant y is arbitrary. Let's now consider the

following possible situations:

Situation 1: y=0, in this case, solving Eq.(A-5) and (A-6)

obtain:
X(x) = Ax + B and Y(y) = Cy + D
hence,
T(x,y) = (Ax + B)(Cy + D) (A-7)

Y(y) = Cy + D cannot vanish as it would lead to T(x,y)=0 which does

not satisfy the boundary condition T(x,b)= fi(x). Imposing the
boundary conditions T(0,y)= 0 and T(a,y)= 0, we get:

A=B=0

which will lead to T(x,y)=0. Hence, for y=0 there is no solution.

Situation 2: If y < 0, the general solutions of Eq.(A-5),(A-6)

are of the form:

X(x)=Asinhocx+Bcoshax, Y(y)=Csinhay+Dcoshay

where we have substituted y = - a2. Hence,

T(x,y)=(Asinhax+Bcoshax)(Csinhay+Dcoshay) (A-8)

application of the boundary conditions T(0,y)= 0 and T(a,y)= 0, we

get: A = B = 0 Hence, for y < 0 there is no solution.

141
 Situation 3: If y > 0, the general solutions of Eq.(A-5),(A-6)
are of the form:

X(x) = Asinhax + Bcoshax, Y(y) = Csinhay + Dcoshay

where we have substituted y = a\ Therefore,

T(x,y) = (Asinhax + Bcoshax) (Csinhay + Dcoshay) (A-9)

application of the boundary conditions T(0,y)= 0, we get:

T(0,y) = 0 = B(Csinhay + Dcoshay)

so that B=0 as (Csinhay + Dcoshay)=0 would lead to T(x,y)=0.

Similarly, the boundary condition T(a,y)=0 gives D=0. Thus,

T(x,y) = E • sinax • sinhax (A-10)

where E = AC. Imposing boundary condition T(a.y)=0 we obtain:

T(a,y) = 0 = E • sinaa • sinhay

In order not to have T(x,y)=0, it follows that sinaa=0, which, in

true, implies that a can have any of the following values

nk
d
, n=l, 2, 3, •••• (A-ll)

it is to be noted that n=0 has not been included because it leads

T(x,y)=0. n=-l, -2, -3, • • • • can be omitted with no loss of generality.
57t 5tc
For instance, it we put , and a°- - into Eq.(A-lO) the
a a
result differ only in the sign in front which can be absorbed by the
arbitrary constant E. Thus, a solution of the differential equation

142
(A-l) which satisfy the boundary conditions T(0,y)=0, T(a,y)=0 and
T(x,0)=0 can be written as:

Tn=(x,y)= EnsinanX sinnhany (A-12)

In general,
f^x) * Ensinanx sinnhanb

Therefore Eq.(A-12) does not satisfy the boundary condition

at y=b. Since the Eq.(A-l) and the above three boundary conditions
are linear and homogeneous, it follows that a linear combination in
the form:
oo

T(x,y)= ^ En sincux sinnhany (A-13)

n= 1

Finally, imposing the boundary condition T(x,b)= f^x) on Eq.(A-13)

we can get:

oo

fi(x) = ^Easinanx sinnhany

n= 1

oo

or fi(x) = ^ansinaDx (A-14)

n= 1

where a„ = E.sinha.b and let us observe that:

T(0,y)= X(0)Y(0) -4 X(0)=0

T(a,y)= X(a)Y(y) -* X(a)=0

So, X(x) satisfies

d2X
-^r + yX(x) = 0 at X(0)=0; X(a)=0;

143
 This is a Sturm-Liouville (see reference 30, p 129-p 131) problem

with the following characteristics functions and characteristics

values:

nrc
\|/n= sinctnX and , n=l, 2, 3, • • • •
a

nrcx
Therefore, f^x) can be expanded in terms of sin and, in fact,

Eq.(A-14) is the Fourier sine expansion of f^x) over (o,a), where the

expansion coefficients an’s can be evaluated by using:

a
an
2
a
J f1(x)-sinanx-dx
o
Thus,
a

a-sinhoinb o
2
J f1(x)*sinanx dx

The final solution for the temperature distribution may then be

written as:

n7ix nrcy
2 00 sin( y )-sinh(“^—)
~ ~

T(x,y) = 7 X -------------- 77H ' g(")

n= 1 nnb
sinh( )

Where: g(n) = Jr fj(t)- u 711

sin(—)-dt
o

If, in particular, fj(x) = T0= constant, then

E =
a-sinhcub
J fi(x) nttx t
sin--dx =
2T0
mi
[l-(-l)°]
sinhanb

144
Substituting this result into Eq.(A-13), we find:

n:cx n7ty
sin( —)-sinh(—)
. 2T0
T(x,y) = — I f 1 -(-1n )n]
n= 1 nrcb
sinh(_a~)

Let us now consider the problem for the Eq.(A-l):

a2T a2T
_ 2 + _ 2 =0

with boundary conditions:

T(0,y)= 0, 0 < y < b; (A- 14a)

T(a,y)= 0, 0 < y < b; (A-14b)

T(x,0)= f2(x), 0 < x < a; (A-14c)

T(x,b)= 0, 0 < x < a; (A-14d)

Assuming the existence of a product solution of the form

T(x,y) = X(x)Y(y)

the solution of the differencial equation A-l can again be written

as:
T(x,y) = (Asinhax + Bcoshax) (Csinhay + Dcoshay) (A-l5)

where the sign of the seperation constant is chosensuch as

that the homogeneous x-direction results in a Sturm-Lioville type
characteristic-value problem. Application of the boundary condition
at x=0 yields B=0, and the boundary condition at y=b gives:

A sinax(C sinhab+D coshab)=0

145
from which we obtain:

sinhab
D=-C
coshab

Sudstituting D into Eq.A-15, together with B=0, gives:

sinhab
T(x,y) = A C sinax (sinhay - coshay) (A-16a)
coshab

which can also be written as:

T(x,y) = E sinax sinha(b-y) (A-16b)

A C
where E = Application of the boundary condition at x = a
coshab
yields:

E sinaa sinha(b-y) = 0

which results in

sinaa = 0
or
n;c
a”=T,
d
n=l, 2, 3, • • • •

Equation A-16b satisfies, for each value of an, the differential

equation A-l and the boundary conditions (A-14a,b,d). The solution
of Eq.A-1 which will satisfy all the boundary conditions can now be
written as the linear combination of these individual solutions;
that is :

146
 T(x,y)= ]TEnsinanX sinnhou(b-y) (A-1 7)
n= 1

Finally, appying the condition T(x,0) = f2(x), we get:

f2(x) = ]TansinanX (A-18)

n= 1

where an = Ensinhoub. Equation A-18 is the Fourier sine series

expansion of f2(x) over (0,a), and the expansion coefficients an's may
be written as :

a
2
a„ J f2(x)-sinoux-dx
a
o

Hence, Equation A-17 becomes:

nrcx njt(b-y)
sin( —“)*sinh[ r n7tt
T(x,y) = - I J f2(t)- sin(—)-dt
a n= 1 nrcb
sinh( )

Similarly, the solutions for the problem in Equation A-l, with

boundary conditions:

T(0,y>= 0, 0 < y < b;

T(a,y)= f3(x), 0 < y < b;

T(x,0)= 0, 0 < x < a;

T(x,b)= 0, 0 < x < a;

and

T(0,y)= f4(x), 0 < y < b;

T(a,y)= 0, 0 < y < b;

T(x,0)= 0, 0 < x < a;

 T(x,b)= 0, 0 < x < a;

their final solutions are:

n7ty nxx
sin( )-sinh( ■)
~b~
T(x,y)
nrca o
sinh(—)

nny nTt(a-x)
sin(-£-)-sinh[ g----- ] nxt
T(x,y) T)-dt
nrca
sinh(-^~)

In our case, for the Metglas amorphouse metal core which is

exposed in the air envirament, the boundary conditions:

f3(0 = f4(t) = T(y) (See Eq.8-11)

and T(y) = a4t4+a3t3+a2t2+a1t1+ao

nnt
So, g(n) = (a4t4+a3t3+a2t2+a!t+a0)-sin(~g~)-dt

_b_ 4 3 2 nrct nrct

(a4t +a3t +a2t +a^ +a0)-sin(-g-)*d(-g-)
nrc

D n7t 4 3 2 1 I b
= “ [-cos(-g~ t)(a4t +a3t +a2t +a4 +ao) I 0 +

b
nnt 3 2 nTtt
cos(-g~)(4a4t +3a3t +2a2t+a1)*d(-g-)]
o

148
 n7i [(-l)n+I(a4b4+a3b3+a2b2+a1b1+a0)+ ao)] +

(n^)2[(4a4t3+3a3t2+2a2t+a J*sin(/^) | *

nrct nrct
(12a4t>6a3t+2a2)-sin(~j—)-d(~j^~)]
n7i

[(-l)n+1(a4b4+a3b3+a2b2+a1b1+a0)+ ao)] -
nn

n;it njct
(—y (12a4t +6a3t+2a2)-sin(~^~)]
nji

nK [(-l)n+ (a4b4+a3b3+a2b2+aib1+a0)+ ao)] -

(r~)3 [(-ir'(12a4t2+6a3t+2a2)+2a2] -
nn

n7tt nrct
(—)5 (24a4)-sin(-y)-d(-g“)
me

= nK [(■l)n+1(a4b4+a3b3+a2b2+a1b1+a0)+ ao)] -

3 n 4-1
(~) [(-1) (12a4b +6a3b+2a2)+2a2] -

(^-)5-(24a4)-[ 1-(-I)*]

149
 Appendix II

A COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR CALCULATING

THE TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION IN THE

TRANSFORMER CORE CROSS-SECTION AREA

150
 DATE: 28-2-92
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t_c5 "' q*x/2*k*(b-x)

I* The s~a and output *I

t_total • t_c1 + t_c2 + t_c3 + t_c4 + t_cS;
printf( 11 The value for X= Xf and Y =Xf is Xf\n", x, y, t_total);
}
}
}

ISSUE: 0 - CAL.C
ISSUE: PAGE: 4 of 4 44 DATE: 28-2-92
28-2-92
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