THE CELL
-The cell is the functional unit of living organisms
-An organism can be unicellular or multicellular
SINGLE CELLED VS. MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS:
-An organism can be unicellular or multicellular
-The cells of multicellular organisms, such as humans, show a
great variety of functional and morphological -specializations---
EVOLUTION
-DIFFERENTIATION- the process by which cells assume
specialized structure and function
II. PARTS OF THE CELL AND THEIR FUNCTION
A. Cell Boundaries
PLASMA MEMBRANE
-External lipid membrane
-Aka Plasmalemma
-Function: Dynamic interface with the external environment
-For transfer of nutrient and metabolites
-Attachment of the cell to adjacent cells and extracellular matrix
-Communication with the external environment
PLASMA MEMBRANE
-Cell layer composed of bilayer of phospholipid molecules that
are amphipathic
-Because of Amphipathic nature, phospholipids in aqueous
solution will spontaneously form of a bilayer
PLASMA MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
1. Polar- hydrophilic (water loving), head, glycerol conjugated to
a nitrogenous compound
2. Non-Polar – hydrophobic (water hating), tail, two-long chain
fatty acids
PLASMA MEMBRANE
*FLUIDY AND FLEXIBILITY- Increased by the presence of
UNSATURATED fatty acids, which prevent close packing on the
hydrophobic cell
*Cholesterol molecule is amphipathic and have a kinked
conformation- for the prevention of overly dense packing of the
phospholipid fatty acid tails.
*It mediates the flow of both materials and information into and
out of the cell, a function of vital importance to the cell.
OTHER COMPONENTS OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE:
A.Cell wall- a rigid structure mainly composed of rigid
polysaccharide
B.Cellulose, bacteria - has peptidoglycan and some have
C.Capsule- fungi have chitin
CELL COAT (glycocalyx= sugarcoat): proteins and lipid
conjugated to short chains of polysaccharide (glycoproteins and
glycolipids) project from the surface of the bilayer forming an
outer coating which may be analogous to the cell walls of plants,
bacteria and fungi.
OTHER COMPONENTS OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
Function (glycocalyx):
1.Cell recognition phenomena
2.Formation of intercellular adhesions
3.Adsorption of molecules to the cell surface
4.Provides mechanical and chemical protection for the plasma membrane
5.Provides biochemical identity
NUCLEUS
-Largest organelles in the cell
-Control center of the cell, containing the "blueprint"
-Composition: DNA (20% of its mass)
Protein (nucleoprotein)
Some Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Nuclear RNA includes mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA
NUCLEI
-Heterogenous structures with electron- dense and electron-
lucent (light) areas
-Heterochromatin- dense areas (tightly-coiled inactive chromatin)
-Euchromatin- electron-lucent nuclear material that is active in
RNA synthesis
-HETEROCHROMATIN and EUCHROMATIN- are called
CHROMATIN
NUCLEOLUS
-Sites of ribosomal RNA synthesis and ribosome assembly
-Ribosomal RNA and proteins, synthesized in the cytoplasm and
imported back into the nucleus, are assembled into subunits
-The subunits then passed backed to the cytoplasm to aggregate
the complete ribosomes.
CYTOPLASM AND DIFFERENT CELL ORGANELLES
-Cytoplasmic organelles are suspended in fluid medium called
Cytosol in which many metabolic reactions take place.
-Within the cytosol– the cytoskeleton
-Cytoskeleton- provides structural support for the cells and its
organelles, as well as providing mechanism for transfer of
materials within the cell and movement of the cell itself.
MICROFILAMENTS
-narrowest
-diameter of about 7 nm
-made up of many linked monomers of a protein called actin,
combined in a structure that resembles a double helix.
-also known as actin filaments.
-come together to form linear, rod-like bundles, but they can also
form branching networks with the assistance of -proteins that
anchor new side branches.
-Actin is a key part of the cytoskeleton and is found in virtually all
types of eukaryotic cells.
MICROFILAMENTS
Key Role:
-serve as tracks for the movement of a motor protein
called myosin, which can also form filaments
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
-A type of cytoskeletal element made of multiple strands of
fibrous proteins wound together. A
-Average diameter of 8 to 10 nm
-Unlike microfilaments, which are always made of actin,
intermediate filaments come in a number of different varieties,
each one made up of a different type of protein monomer
-One familiar protein that forms intermediate filaments is keratin,
a fibrous protein found in hair, nails, and skin
 found in many types of animal cells, but typically not in plants or
fungi.
MICROTUBULES
- actually the largest of the three types of cytoskeletal fibers
-diameter of about 25 nm.
-made up of tubulin proteins arranged to form a hollow, straw-like
tube, and each tubulin protein consists of two subunits, α-tubulin
and β-tubulin.
- Microtubules, like actin filaments, are dynamic structures, and
they can grow and shrink quickly by the addition or removal of
tubulin dimers. Microtubules have directionality, meaning that
they have two ends that are structurally different from one
another.
CENTROSOME, CENTRIOLES
-A structure found near the nucleus of animal cells, serves as a
microtubule-organizing center.
- It contains a pair of hollow, rod-like structures that lie
perpendicular to each other.
- Each centriole is a cylinder of nine triplets of microtubules, with
nontubulin proteins to hold the triplets together.
-Anchor and initiate microtubules, and these proteins give the
centrosome its microtubule-organizing capabilities. It surrounds
centrioles
-Plant and fungal cells don’t have centrosomes with centrioles,
but they do have microtubule-organizing centers that play similar
roles.
FLAGELLA, CILIA
-Flagella (singular, flagellum) are long, hair-like structures that
extend outward from the plasma membrane and are used to
move an entire cell
-Cilia (singular, cilium) resemble flagella, but are shorter and can
generally be divided into two different categories: motile cilia and
primary cilia.
-Like flagella, motile cilia generate power by beating, but unlike
flagella, they are usually found in large numbers on the cell
surface.  -Chloroplasts are organelles found in plants and photosynthetic
DIFFERENT CELL ORGANELLES
A.ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
- extensive system of flattened membrane bound tubules,
saccules, and flattened cisterns.
-compartmentalizes the cytoplasm in which increases the surface
area for biochemical synthesis
- Smooth or rough
DIFFERENT CELL ORGANELLES - ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM
-The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) plays an important role in the
modification of proteins and synthesis of lipids.
-It consists of a network of membranous tubules and flattened
sacs. The sacs are referred to as cisternae, a general term for
membrane structures that come in stacks and have a flattened-
pancake structure, and we will see that the -Golgi also has
cisternae.  chromosomes
DIFFERENT CELL ORGANELLES - SMOOTH ER
Key Role:
-It produces lipids, including phospholipids, cholesterol and
steroids, and glycolipids (lipids with carbohydrate groups
attached).
-Enzymes that assemble these lipids manufacture their products
on the smooth ER’s membrane, where hydrophobic molecules
can be sheltered from the surrounding watery (hydrophilic)
environment.
-Detoxification: substances like drugs and toxic byproducts of
metabolism are modified by enzymes that reside in the smooth
ER, making them more water-soluble and easier for the body to
remove.
-smooth ER is as a storage tank for calcium ions, which function
in cell signalling.
DIFFERENT CELL ORGANELLES – ROUGH ER
-Found near the nucleus and typically forms large, flat sheets. As
the ribosomes attached to the rough ER synthesize proteins,
they feed the newly forming polypeptide chains into the lumen
inside the rough ER.
-Another important role of the rough ER is to synthesize new
phospholipids for cell membranes. 
DIFFERENT CELL ORGANELLES
Mitochondria- scattered free in cytoplasm
-relatively large, elongated organelles which have a smooth outer
membrane and a convulated inner membrane system.
"Powerhouse of the cell".
-Chloroplast –found in the plants,algae and certain protozoans
-associated with photosynthesis- major energy trapping on earth
MITOCHONDRIA
The process of making ATP using the chemical energy found in
glucose and other nutrients is called cellular respiration, and its
oxygen-requiring steps take place inside the mitochondria.
Mitochondria are oval-shaped organelles with two membranes:
an outer one, surrounding the entire organelle, and an inner one,
with many invaginations (inward protrusions) called cristae that
maximize surface area. 
CHLOROPLAST
algae (protists), and their job is to carry out photosynthesis.
- In the process of photosynthesis, light energy is collected and
used to synthesize sugars from carbon dioxide, and oxygen is
released as a by-product. 
DIFFERENT CELL MEMBRANES
-Ribosomes-minute cytoplasmic organelles composed of two
subunits which consist of a strand of RNA (ribosomal RNA,
rRNA) with associated ribosomal proteins.
-Align mRNA strands so that transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules may
be brought into position and their amino acids added sequentially
to the growing peptide chain.
The CELL CYCLE
CELL DIVISION
-Dividing cells are needed in order to study
-Cytogenetic abnormalities result from errors in cell
division.
2 types:
MITOSIS – Division of somatic cells
MEIOSIS- division that occurs only on gametic cells
-Some of the daughter cells progressively specialized and
eventually produce the terminally differentiated cells.
-Most tissues however retain a population of relatively
undifferentiated that are able to divide and replace the
differentiated cell population as required.
-In the fully developed organism, the terminally differentiated cells
of some tissues lose their ability to undergo mitosis
-In contrast, the cells of certain other tissues undergo continuous
cycle to mitotic division throughout the lifespan of the organism
replacing cells lost during normal wear and tear.
-Between these extremes are cells that do not normally divide but
retain the capacity to undergo mitosis should the need arise
(facultative dividers)
APOPTOSIS
-CELL DEATH
-Cell division and differentiation are balanced by cell death both
during the development and growth of the immature organism
and in the mature adult.
-Transfer RNA molecules transfer the specific amino acids to the
synthesizing protein chain. This process is continued until a stop
codon is reached.
-New protein is then releases into the cell environment and the
ribosomes split apart.
SYNTHESIS (S)
-Last about 5 hours
-This is when the DNA synthesis occurs
-DNA replicates itself and the chromosome then consist of two
identical sister chromatids.
-Steps: INITIATION– REPLICATION and TERMINATION
-Some DNA replicates early in the S phase and some replicates
later.
GAP 2 (G2)
-Last about 3 hours
-During this phase, the cell prepares to undergo cell division.
-The completion of G2 represents the end of interphase

THE LIVER MITOSIS (M)

-Only human internal organ capable of natural regeneration of -The Final Step in the cell cycle
lost tissue -Last only 1-2 hours
-Only 20% of an adult's liver is needed to serve as liver allograft -Process by which cells reproduce themselves, creating two
for an infant or small child. daughter cells that are genetically identical to one another and to
-Adult-to-adult liver transplantation has been done using the the original parent cell.
donor's right hepatic lobe, which amounts 60% of the liver.

The CELL CYCLE

-AKA CELL DIVISION CYCLE
-Series of events that takes place in a cell leading to its division
and duplication (replication)
-Last about 17-18 hours
-The interval between mitotic divisions or transition of a cell from
one interphase through cell division and back to interphase.

GAP 1 (G1)
-Longest 9 hours
-Chromosomes exist as single chromatids
-Cells are metabolically active
-Protein synthesis takes place
-A cell might be permanently arrested at this stage if it does not
undergo further division. - G0 Gap zero

GAP 1 (G1)
Protein Synthesis
1. TRANSCRIPTION site: nucleus
- DNA is copied in a complimentary piece of messenger RNA
(mRNA)
-Controlled by RNA Polymerase – enzyme
-RNA polymerase attaches to a promoter region
-RNA polymerase moves off the template strand at a termination
sequence to complete the synthesis of a mRNA molecule
-mRNA carrying the information necessary to synthesize of a
specific protein, is transferred from the nucleus into the
cytoplasm of the cell, where it then associates with ribosomes.

2. Translation site: Ribosomes

-a chain of amino acid is synthesized by using the newly
transcribed mRNA molecule as a template with the help of third
ribonucleic acid, transfer RNA (tRNA)
-Ribosomes read mRNA one codon at a time
CELLS -The organization of spindle fibers by the centrioles plays an
-Cells are highly varied and highly organized structures important role in the movement of chromosomes during cell
-Their forms and functions are dependent on the genetic division
expression by each cell type
-Bone, blood, nerve and muscle cells are somatic cells, also CYTOSKELETON
called as body cells -The cytoskeleton is a meshwork of protein rods and tubules that
-Somatic cells have two copies of the genome and are said to be molds the distinctive structures of a cell, positioning organelles
diploid and providing three-dimensional shape.
-Sperm and egg cells have only one copy of the genome and are -The cytoskeleton includes three major types of elements—
said to be haploid microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.
-They are distinguished by protein type, diameter, and how they
PROKARYOTES VS. EUKARYOTES aggregate into larger structures
-Prokaryotes lack nucleus as opposed to the nucleated cells of
the eukaryotes MICROTUBULES
-Specialized organelles are also present in eukaryotic cells -Microtubules are long and hollow
-It provide many cellular movements
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF CELLS -Composed of a pair of protein called tubulin
-Cells are composed of macromolecules important in biological -They form the cilia, which are hair-like structures
processes. The major groups of these substances are:
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. MICROFILAMENTS
-Carbohydrates provide energy -These are long, thin rods composed of many molecules of the
-Lipids form membranes and hormones, provide insulation and protein actin
store energy -Solid and narrower than microtubules, they enable cells to
-Proteins have many diverse functions in the body, and are withstand stretching and compression
important in blood clotting, nerve transmission, muscle -They also help anchor one cell to another
contraction, and immunity, while others serve and catalysts
-Most important in genetics are the nucleic acids DNA and RNA INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
-They have diameters intermediate between those of
CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANELLES microtubules and microfilaments
-All cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane, a covering that -They are abundant in skin and nerve cells
defines cell boundary -In actively dividing skin cells, it forms a strong inner framework
-The plasma membrane actively controls the movement of that firmly attaches cells to each other and to the underlying
materials in and out of the cell tissue
-Most animal cells have glycocalyx or cell coat
-The glycocalyx provides biochemical identity at the surface of
cells, and the components of the coat that establish cellular
identity are under genetic control
-The nucleus is a membrane bound structure that houses the
DNA, which is complex with protein into thin fibers
-During the nondivisional phases of the cell cycle, the fibers are
uncoiled and dispersed into chromatin
-During mitosis and meiosis, chromatin fibers coil and condense
into chromosomes
-The nucleolus, present inside the nucleus, is where ribosomal
RNA is synthesized
-The remainder of the cell within the plasma membrane,
excluding the nucleus, is called as the cytoplasm and includes a
variety of organelles
-The endoplasmic reticulum appears smooth in places where it
serves as site for synthesis of fatty acids and phospholipids, and
in other places, appears rough as it is studded with ribosomes
-Ribosomes are sites of protein synthesis, guided by the
information contained in the mRNA
-The mitochondria provide energy by breaking down nutrients
from food. The energy liberated from food is captured and stored
in the bonds present in a molecule called adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)
-The centrioles are a pair of complex structure that are located in
a specialized region called the centrosome.
-These are associated with the organization of spindle fibers that
function in mitosis and meiosis.