Powder Technology 230 (2012) 36–47

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Powder Technology
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Parametric CFD studies on hydrocyclone

Y. Rama Murthy a,⁎, K. Udaya Bhaskar b
a
Research Development and Technology, Tata Steel Ltd, Jamshedpur, 831007, India
b
ArcelorMittal Global R & D, 3001 E. Columbus Drive, East Chicago, IN 46312, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This research article encompasses development of hydrocyclone simulation methodology through validation with
Received 17 December 2011 suitably designed experiments at a range of process conditions and further understanding on the parametric
Received in revised form 23 May 2012 design and operating conditions. The salient features of the methodology included Eulerian primary phase flow
Accepted 23 June 2012
field generation through steady state simulation using RSM turbulence modeling, and evaluation of particle distri-
Available online 9 July 2012
bution behavior through discrete phase modeling using particle injection technique. The results are validated with
Keywords:
water throughput, split and cyclone cut size while classifying flyash. The results have indicated a reasonable
Hydrocyclone matching between the simulated and the experimental values. The studies revealed that the cyclone cut
CFD simulation size increases with an increase in vortex finder diameter, a decrease in the spigot diameter, decrease in
Flyash processing the inlet velocity of the fluid, and decrease in the viscosity of the fluid.
© 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Hydrocyclone is one of the most versatile processing units being in
use applied in mineral processing industry. The cyclone as a process
equipment was introduced to the industry in 1891 and the first pat-
ent on its use was granted in the United States. Driessen first reported
the application of hydrocyclone to mineral industry in the year 1939.
There is hardly any modern mineral processing industry without
hydrocyclone as one of the unit operation. It has also wide application
for classification of solids in various industries pertaining to chemical
engineering, petroleum, paper and pulp industries because of its good
separation efficiency, ease in operation, high throughput, less mainte-
nance, less floor space requirement etc. A typical hydrocyclone consists
of — a cylindrical section (closed with a plate from the top through
which passes an axially mounted overflow pipe); a conical section —
open at its apex joined to a cylindrical section; a tangential feed inlet.
Fig. 1 shows the schematic of widely used hydrocyclone depicting the
inner and outer spiral along with main parts.
The driving force for particle separation in a cyclone separator is the
strong swirling turbulent flow. The feed slurry (water laden with parti-
cles) enters the cyclone separator with a high rotational velocity through
a tangential inlet which imparts a swirling motion to the pulp. Different
inlet configurations like tangential, involute, scroll, axial etc., exist to
provide high rotational velocity. Of these, the tangential and involute
types are the most frequently used configurations in mineral industry.
This swirl generates a vortex in the cyclone, with a low-pressure zone
along the vertical axis. Inside the cyclone, the particles within swirling
flow are subjected to two opposing forces — an outward centrifugal
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 9204058852.
E-mail address: yrama.murthy@tatasteel.com (Y.R. Murthy).
force and an inwardly acting drag. The centrifugal force developed ac-
celerates the settling rate of the particles in the radial direction thereby
separating particles according to size, shape, and specific gravity. Faster
settling particles move to the wall of the cyclone, where the velocity is
lowest, and migrate to the apex opening. Due to the action of the drag
force, the slower-settling particles move towards the zone of low pres-
sure along the axis and are carried upward through the vortex finder to
the overflow [1]. The upward rotating flow continues along the cyclone
axis forming a double vortex structure while the inner vortex leads the
flow to exit through the vortex finder. The vortex finder protrudes with-
in the cyclone body. It serves both in shielding the inner vortex from the
high inlet velocity and stabilizing its swirling motion. The heavy solids
are separated due to the centrifugal force and descend along the cyclone
wall and further report to the underflow in the direction of gravity. An
increase in inward migration occurs, closer to the cone apex and the
fluid in this migratory stream reverses its vertical direction and flows
upwards, to the overflow outlet. The spirals rotate in the same circular
direction. Despite its simple operation, the fluid dynamics and flow
structures in a cyclone separator are very complex. The hydrocyclone
design and process understanding has been mostly heuristic due to
the complex physical phenomenon involved in analyzing flow behavior
inside the hydrocyclone system. Numerous research works have been
reported on the development of empirical models for hydrocyclone
process simulation. Among them widely used models include the
models developed by Lynch and Rao [1] and Plitt [2]. These models
found great use in regular plant controls within a well-defined range of
process boundary conditions for which the model suitability is evaluated.
However, understanding on the flow physics of the separation system
has been a myth for several years mainly due to non-availability of ex-
perimental evidences. In this connection, the studies of Kelsall [3] on
the axial, radial and tangential velocity profiles are the first of its kind,

0032-5910/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.powtec.2012.06.048
 Y.R. Murthy, K.U. Bhaskar / Powder Technology 230 (2012) 36–47 37

and geometry evaluated through the experimental and CFD simulation

work is presented in Table 1.

2.1. Meshing

The computational domain constituted of 150,000 CFD cells. Fig. 3

represents an overall view of the grid generated and zooms on different
inlet and outlets of the cyclone. In order to achieve enhanced capture of
the flow features, at the critical regions like near the cyclone walls,
around the core, within and near the vortex finder and at the spigot
opening, methods like boundary layer mesh adjacent to the outer cy-
clone wall, block-structured mesh at the core, and increased mesh den-
sity near the spigot region are adopted. The rest of the cyclone is
meshed using unstructured hexahedral mesh, which is known to be
less diffusive compared to other types of meshes like tetrahedral. A
boundary layer mesh is generated adjacent to the outer wall of the
cyclone. In order to capture the low-pressure central air-core,
block-structured mesh is generated in that region. Additional care
is taken to generate mesh near the spigot region where maximum
aspect ratio is restricted to 10. This is important to capture the back
flow through spigot opening. Grid independence study was carried
out with five different mesh densities with mesh sizes varying from
75,000 to 200,000 for the same designs. Water distribution studies
have indicated that better predictions are obtained at higher mesh
densities. The computational domain is divided into 150,000 volumes
based on the earlier studies of the authors [12,13] for an optimum
balance between accuracy and computational time.
Fig. 1. Schematic of hydrocyclone.

3. Simulation methodology
which have formed the basis for further research on hydrocyclones. Mea-
surements on flow patterns using dyes are reported by Bradley and The flow inside a hydrocyclone is characterized by an inherently
Pulling [4]. Subsequently, laser-Doppler velocimetry (LDV) technique unsteady, highly anisotropic turbulent field in a confined, strongly
has been found useful for examining the velocity profiles generated swirling flow. Time dependent turbulence approaches such as large
through the numerical techniques (Pericleous and Rhodes [5]; Hsieh eddy simulation (LES) or direct numerical simulation (DNS) should be
and Rajamani [6,7]). Multiphase simulations and validation using the used for such flows. However, these techniques are computationally
large eddy simulation (LES) turbulence model and gamma ray tomogra- intensive and although possible, are not practical for many industrial
phy was reported by Narashima et al. [8]. Initial design-based studies applications. This renders most of the first order turbulence closures,
were reported on 2D axis-symmetric simulations of different cyclone di-
mensions and development of particle classification curves by validating
with dilute concentration of solid slurries (Monredon et al. [9]; Rajamani
and Milin [10]; Devulapalli and Rajamani [11]). But the research work
relevant to the effects of variables or design parameters on the cyclone
performance is scanty. Present studies involves methodology develop-
ment and extensive validation with the experimental data (generated
on a 3 in. 20° cone angle cyclone) on water throughput, split and particle
cut size (d50) achieved by treating flyash, and performance simulation at
different design and operating conditions.

2. Geometry and meshing

Fig. 2 shows the schematic of hydrocyclone and depict main parts

and dimensions used for the present study.
The main body of the cyclone consists of a cylindrical portion with
76 mm diameter and 85 mm height. The bottom (smaller) diameter of
the frustum is variable in size with openings corresponding to 13 mm,
15 mm and 17 mm with an included angle of 20° suitably maintained
by adjusting the height of the conical portion. A cylindrical vortex finder
having outer diameter of 37 mm and inner diameter of 19 mm protrudes
into the main cylindrical body extending over a height of 43 mm inside
and 37 mm above the top closed surface. Vortex finders with different
internal diameters of 19 mm, 22 mm and 25 mm are used as one of
the design variable. A rectangular feed inlet opening with dimensions
23 mm× 19 mm is connected tangentially to the main cylindrical
body at a height of 15 mm below the top surface. Studies were carried
out under the above geometries by changing the inlet velocities of
water into the cyclone body. Different hydrocyclone design details Fig. 2. Detailed dimensions of hydrocyclone.
38 Y.R. Murthy, K.U. Bhaskar / Powder Technology 230 (2012) 36–47

Table 1
Design details of 76 mm hydrocyclone.

Dimension (mm) Cy-1 Cy-2 Cy-3 Cy-4 Cy-5 Cy-6 Cy-7 Cy-8 Cy-9

CD 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76
CyL 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80
VFOD 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37
VFID 19 19 19 22 22 22 25 25 25
VFL 80 (37↑–43↓) 80 (37↑–43↓) 80 (37↑–43↓) 80 (37↑–43↓) 80 (37↑–43↓) 80 (37↑–43↓) 80 (37↑–43↓) 80 (37↑–43↓) 80 (37↑–43↓)
FI (l × w) 23 × 19 23 × 19 23 × 19 23 × 19 23 × 19 23 × 19 23 × 19 23 × 19 23 × 19
CA 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
SPD 13 13 13 15 15 15 17 17 17

CD: cyclone diameter; CyL: cylindrical length; VFOD: vortex finder outer diameter; VFID: vortex finder inner diameter; VFL: vortex finder length (↑) above the cylindrical portion
(↓) within the cylindrical portion; FI: feed inlet dimensions (length × width); CA: cone angle in degrees; SPD: spigot diameter.

" !#
like the popular k − ε model, unusable for reliable prediction of the flow ∂ ∂   ∂p ∂ ∂ui ∂uj 2 ∂ui
ðρui Þ þ ρui uj ¼ − þ μ þ − δij
characteristics. Several attempts were made to overcome this limita- ∂t ∂xj ∂xi ∂xi ∂xj ∂xi 3 ∂xi
tion. For turbulence calculations k − ε, k − ε RNG, Reynolds stress ∂  
′ ′
model (RSM) was independently used to evaluate the comparative þ −ρu i u j : ð2Þ
∂xj
simulation results. Turbulence models based on higher-order clo-
sure, like the Reynolds stress model (RSM) along with unsteady
Reynolds averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) formulation have shown Eqs. (1) and (2) are called Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes
good prediction capabilities (Slack et al. [14], Wang et al. [15]). Further, (RANS) equations. They have the same general form as the instanta-
the results of previous CFD simulation work carried out by authors on neous Navier–Stokes equations, with the velocities and other solution
hydrocyclone using RSM has proven better results. Turbulent flow variables representing ensemble-averaged (or time-averaged) values.
inside a hydrocyclone is anisotropic in nature, hence within the Additional terms represent the effects of turbulence.
  These Reynolds
framework of RANS family, Reynolds stress model (RSM) which is stresses include turbulence closure, Rij ¼ ρu′ i u′ j must be modeled
reported to predict turbulence behavior inside a cyclone with a better in order to close Eq. (2). In Reynolds averaging, the solution variables
accuracy was chosen. The RSM has been proven to be an appropriate in the instantaneous Navier–Stokes equations are decomposed into
turbulence model for cyclone flow, although it is computationally the mean (ensemble-averaged or time-averaged) and fluctuating
more expensive. The governing equations for an incompressible fluid components. For the velocity components:
can thus be written as:
′
ui ¼ u
i þ u i ð3Þ

∂p ∂ where ūi and u′i are the mean and fluctuating velocity components
þ ðρui Þ ¼ 0 ð1Þ
∂t ∂xi (i = 1,2,3).
Likewise, for pressure and other scalar quantities:

′
φ¼φ
 þφ ð4Þ

where φ denotes a scalar such as pressure, energy, or species

concentration.

3.1. Turbulence model RSM

The Reynolds stress model involves calculation of the individual

Reynolds stresses, using differential transport equations. The individual

0.70
Predicted Throughput(kg/s)

0.60
Feed velocity
1.0 -1.2m/s Feed velocity
>1.2ms
0.50

Feed velocity >1.2m/s

0.40 Feed velocity 1.0 to 1.2m/s
Feed velocity <1.0m/s
Feed velocity <1.0m/s Ideal match
0.30
0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70
Experimental Throughput(kg/s)

Fig. 3. Meshed hydrocyclone geometry. Fig. 4. Comparison of actual and simulated water throughput.
 Y.R. Murthy, K.U. Bhaskar / Powder Technology 230 (2012) 36–47
Reynolds stresses are then used to obtain closure of the Reynolds-
averaged momentum equation (Eq. (2)). The exact form of the Reynolds
stress transport equations may be derived by taking moments of the
exact momentum equation. This is a process wherein the exact momen-
tum equations are multiplied by a fluctuating property, the product then
being Reynolds averaged. Since several of the terms in the exact equation
are unknown and modeling assumptions are required in order to close
the equations. The Reynolds stress transport equations are presented to-
gether with the modeling assumptions required to attain closure. This
method of simulation implicitly has generated the low-pressure core
around the cyclone axis without any additional definitions for air core.
Transport equations of the Reynolds stresses terms Rij ¼ ρu′ i u′ j ,
are written as:
∂Rij
þ C ij ¼ P ij þ Dij −ε ij þ φij þ Gij :
∂t
Where Cij, Pij,Dij, εij, φij, Gij are respectively: the convective transport
term, the stress production term, the diffusion term, the dissipation
term, the pressure strain term and the buoyancy production term. The
RSM model requires the following empirical constants: Cμ = 0.09,
Cε1 = 1.44, Cε2 = 1.92, σε = 1.3, σk =1.0.
3.1.1. Discrete phase modeling (DPM)
The motion of a particle is described by the stochastic Lagrangian
multiphase flow model. Its trajectory is obtained by integrating the
force balance on particle. There are many forces that act on a particle
in cyclone as centrifugal force, drag force and gravitational force.
Thus, the particle motion equation can be written in the following
form:
 
dup   g x ρp −ρ
¼ F D u−up þ þ Fx:
dt ρp
Fx is a source term which expresses the presence of additional accel-
eration (force/unit particle mass). u — fluid phase velocity; up — particle
velocity; ρ — fluid density ; ρp — particle density. FD(u − up) — drag force
per unit particle mass and FD is given by
18μ C D Re
FD ¼
ρp d2p 24
where,
 
Re ¼ ρf uf −up dp =μ f :
CD, ρf, ρp, μf, dp are the drag coefficient, the density of the fluid, the
density of the particle, the molecular viscosity of the fluid and the
particle diameter respectively.
It was assumed that the trajectories of particles do not influence the
primary phase flow behavior. The discrete phase formulation used in
fluent contains the assumption that the second phase is sufficiently
diluted that particle–particle interactions and the effects of the particle
volume fraction on the primary phase are negligible. In slurries with di-
lute concentrations of solids (particle concentration below 10% by
weight) (Stovin and Saul [16]), particle distribution behavior can be sim-
ulated using Lagrangian particle tracking approach. Thus in the present
study particle tracking is carried out using the above methodology.
3.2. Boundary conditions
Flow simulation was carried out using a 3-D segregated, steady
state, double precision implicit solver. Initially, the properties of the
water were used along with the pressure and face mass fluxes for cal-
culating the momentum equations and further update the velocity
39
field. PRESTO (pressure staggered option), a pressure interpolation
scheme which was reported to be useful for predicting highly swirling
flow characteristics prevailing inside the cyclone body was adopted
[17]. To obtain the pressure field inside the system, SIMPLE (semi-implicit
pressure linked equations) algorithm scheme, which uses a combination
of continuity and momentum equations to derive an equation for pres-
sure was used. Interpolation of field variables from cell centers to faces
of the control volumes was opted with higher-order quadratic upwind
interpolation (QUICK) spatial discretization scheme as it was reported
to be useful for swirling flows. No slip boundary condition was used for
wall boundary, and near-wall treatment was standard wall function.
A velocity inlet condition is used to prescribe water inflow through
the rectangular cyclone feed inlet. The overflow and underflow out-
lets were designated as pressure outlets. The primary water phase
(density=998.2 kg/m 3 and viscosity = 1.003 ∗ 10−6 kg/m s) enters
ð5Þ
the cyclone through the feed inlet. Radial pressure distribution from
the cyclone axis to the edges is opted at both the pressure outlets. Back-
flow direction was specified as normal to the boundary zones and back-
flow turbulence intensity was assigned a value of 10%. The vortex finder
outlet diameter of the hydrocyclone was varied at 19 mm, 22 mm and
25 mm. Similarly, the spigot diameter was varied at 13 mm, 15 mm
and 17 mm. For each of the above conditions, water flow behavior
was simulated at different feed inlet velocities and further particle dis-
tribution characteristics were carried out using particle injection from
the inlet surface.
Inert solid spherical particles of different sizes varying from 1 μm to
100 μm were injected through the feed inlet. The fly ash particles below
100 μm are completely spherical and hence no factors for shape correc-
tion were considered. The particles leaving from any of the pressure
outlet zones were assigned to escape from the vessel.
Before particle tracking, simulation was conducted with single
phase (water) to determine the velocity distribution of water inside
ð6Þ the cyclone. The outlet stream in which the each particle reported
was noted and the separation characteristics of the cyclone were de-
termined. Sample group of 1000 particles of defined sizes within a se-
lected range were injected into the cyclone body through the feed
inlet. The density of the material is maintained constant at 2300 kg/m3
which corresponds to the density of flyash. Each time 10 sample runs
were carried out and the report of particles into the overflow and
underflow outlet streams were averaged. These data were then used
ð7Þ to generate the partition curve of the cyclone and to predict the cut
size (d50). The model predictions were compared with the experimental
results obtained for similar conditions.
ð8Þ
100
90
Predicted water split (%)
80
70
60
Feed velocity >1.2m/s
Feed velocity 1.0 to 1.2m/s
50
Feed velocity <1.0m/s
Ideal match
40
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Experimental water split (%)
Fig. 5. Relation between the experimental and simulated water split results.
40 Y.R. Murthy, K.U. Bhaskar / Powder Technology 230 (2012) 36–47

4. Results and discussions a

2.66e+04
2.51e+04
The results obtained in the present work are discussed in three 2.56e+04
2.20e+04
sections i.e., validation studies, general flow behavior and the para-
2.05e+04
metric studies as follows: 1.90e+04
1.75e+04
4.1. Validation 1.60e+04
1.45e+04
1.30e+04
Validation is brought between the experimental and simulation 1.14e+04
results for cyclone throughput (water entering the cyclone), 9.92e+03
8.41e+03
water-split into overflow product and with the cyclone classification
6.89e+03
cut size. The experimental and simulated mass flow rate achieved 5.38e+03
using different hydrocyclone design and operating conditions is 3.87e+03
presented in Fig. 4. Here the mass flow rates obtained at different 2.35e+03
8.36e+02
inlet velocities are presented in three groups. The first group comprises
-6.79e+02
the mass flow at velocities corresponding to b 1.0 m/s. The second -2.19e+03
group represents the mass flow rates at velocities between 1.0 and -3.71e+03
1.2 m/s and the third group having velocities >1.2 m/s. It is observed
from Fig. 4 that the actual and predicted values of mass flow rates b 8000
have a close match.
Spigot
The actual and predicted water splits in the outlets for various Interface
inlet water velocities is presented in Fig. 5. It is observed that the simulat- 6000 Votex finder

Static pressure (Pascal)

ed values are slightly higher than the actual values at all the normal range
of splits between 55% and 90%. However, lower predictions are made
4000
where splits above 95% (at a combination of smallest spigot opening
and maximum vortex finder diameter) are obtained. Higher values of
error in the mass splits are observed at lower velocity inlet groups 2000
corresponding to wider spigot opening especially when the mass splits
are below 55%.
The experimental results on the particle classification cut size 0
which is generated through distribution points of different size parti- -0.015 -0.01 -0.005 0 0.005 0.01 0.015
cles in the feed to report into either of the products is presented
against the simulated cut size results (Fig. 6) at different design and -2000
operating conditions. It is observed that the data is matching with Radial position in m
ideal line of actual and predicted values over the entire range of cut
Fig. 7. (a). Contours of static pressure axial and radial planes. (b). Radial distribution of
sizes between 8 μm and 20 μm achieved at different process condi- static pressure values.
tions. The maximum error value observed is at an experimental
value of 16.5 μm where the simulated value is 20 μm indicating a de-
viation of 3.5 μm and in terms of percent error is about 21%. Though
the error at 8.1 μm cut size is 23%, the absolute deviation is only by
1.9 μm.
at the cyclone walls and at radial distances away from the cyclone
4.2. Flow features axis whereas lower values were observed near the spigot outlet. To
analyze the static pressure values generated around the core region, stat-
4.2.1. Static pressure ic pressure values were captured at three different heights (Fig. 7b)
The simulated static pressure contours in central vertical plane are corresponding to the spigot opening, interface of the vortex finder and
presented in Fig. 7a. Higher values of static pressures were observed upper cylindrical portion and at the vortex finder. The figure indicates
that the steep region is the boundary region for the air core and the
25 water where, large amount of shear is expected between air and water
due to pressure differential. The total pressure increases in the radial
direction from the center to the wall of the cyclone. Flow reversal in a
Simulated cut size (microns)

cyclone is due to the low pressure center.

20

4.2.2. Axial velocity

15 The axial velocity contour obtained on central vertical plane along
with positive and negative flow in the vertical plane is presented in
Fig. 8a, b and c respectively. It is observed that the axial velocity is pos-
itive indicating a vertically upward flow throughout the axial height, for
10
a characteristic radial distance around the cyclone axis. Beyond this
radial distance, the axial velocity shows a negative value indicating
a downward flow. In between these regions exists the region of zero ver-
5 tical velocity. In general, concentric cylinders of constant axial velocities
5 10 15 20 25
Experimental cut size (microns) can be observed along the radial planes. However considerable anisotropy
in the flow behavior can be observed at heights approaching the spigot
Fig. 6. Relation between the experimental and simulated cyclone cut size values. opening.
 Y.R. Murthy, K.U. Bhaskar / Powder Technology 230 (2012) 36–47 41

(a) Axial velocity contour (b) Zone of positive (c) Zone of negative
at central vertical axial velocity axial velocity
2.52e+00 0.00e+00
2.52e+00
2.27e+00 2.39e+00 -1.15e-01
2.26e+00 -2.31e-01
2.03e+00
-3.46e-01
1.79e+00 2.14e+00
2.01e+00 -4.61e-01
1.55e+00
1.31e+00 -5.77e-01
1.89e+00
1.07e+00 -6.29e-01
1.76e+00 -8.01e-01
8.28e-01 1.64e+00
-9.23e-01
5.87e-01 1.51e+00
3.46e-01 -1.04e+00
1.38e+00
1.05e-01 1.26e+00 -1.15e+00
-1.36e-01 1.13e+00 -1.27e+00
-3.78e-01 1.01e+00 -1.38e+00
-6.19e-01 8.80e-01 -1.50e+00
-8.60e-01 7.55e-01 -1.61e+00
-1.10e+00 6.29e-01 -1.73e+00
-1.34e+00 5.03e-01 -1.85e+00
-1.58e+00 -1.96e+00
3.77e-01
-1.82e+00 2.52e-01 -2.08e+00
-2.07e+00 -2.19e+00
1.26e-01
-2.31e+00 -2.31e+00
0.00e+00

Fig. 8. (a) Axial velocity contours at central vertical plane; (b) zone of positive axial velocity; (c) zone of negative axial velocity.

4.3. Parametric studies
The effect of parameters such as vortex finder diameter, spigot di-
ameter, velocity inlet and viscosity on the flow characteristic variables
is discussed as follows.
4.3.1. Effect of vortex finder diameter
The vortex finder diameter has visible effect on flow characteristics
like static pressure, tangential velocity, and axial velocity.
4.3.1.1. On static pressure. The effect of vortex finder diameter on the
static pressure along the radial distances, and at different axial
heights is presented in Fig. 9. Each set of curves represents effect of
vortex finder diameter on static pressure values at different radial po-
sitions. For instance, a decrease in the vortex finder diameter from
25 mm to 19 mm, at an axial position of 75 mm below the cylindrical
top surface has decreased the maximum value of static pressure from
18.7 kPa to 14.6 kPa at a radial distance of 38 mm from the cyclone
axis. It can be observed from the figure that the values of negative static
pressure are higher at wider vortex finder diameter. For instance, an in-
crease in the vortex finder diameter from 19 mm to 25 mm, at an axial
position of 175 mm below the cylindrical top surface has increased the
negative value of static pressure from −0.5 kPa to −4.2 kPa. A negative
pressure zone appears in the forced vortex region (central region) due
to high swirling velocity. The pressure gradient is largest along the radial
direction, while the gradient in axial direction is very limited.
4.3.1.2. On axial velocity. Empirical models based on the double vortex
structure postulate radially constant values for the downward flow in
the outer vortex and upward flow in the inner vortex. Both these
values are zero at the axial position where the vortex ends. In reality,
the profiles are not flat but exhibit maxima and minima. Typically the
downward flow shows a maximum near the walls, while the upward
flow shows either a maximum or a minimum at the symmetry axis.
The effect of vortex finder diameter on the axial velocity is presented
in Fig. 10. The result is an inverted V, or an inverted W shaped profile
for the inner vortex. The V pattern forms an axial velocity maximum at
the vortex core of the cyclone while the W pattern forms an axial velocity
maximum at the vortex finder radius with a minimum at the vortex core
(Harasek et al. [18]). An observation of the data at different axial heights
indicates that the high values of positive vertical velocity in case of
smaller vortex finder diameter hydrocyclone is confined to cylindrical
portion of the cyclone and to a small height in the conical portion. At
wider vortex finder diameter, it can be observed that the vertical veloci-
ties in the core region are extended to larger heights in the conical por-
tion. Similarly the magnitude of negative axial velocities indicating a
downward vertical flow is high at smallest vortex finder opening. For in-
stance, in the cyclone with 19 mm vortex finder opening at 75 mm axial
height the maximum positive axial velocity is 1.05 m/s while at 125 mm
it is 0.22 m/s. In case of cyclone with 25 mm diameter vortex finder the
maximum positive axial velocity at 75 mm axial height is 0.90 m/s, is
more or less similar at 125 mm axial height and 1.20 m/s at 175 mm
axial height. The observation indicates that at wider vortex finder diam-
eter increased water splits into overflow products are achieved due to
classification at extended heights in the conical portion.
4.3.1.3. On tangential velocity. The tangential velocity component is the
dominant component of fluid flow in cyclones which results in centrif-
ugal force for particle separation. Fig. 11 shows tangential velocity pro-
files at five different radial positions for the cyclone from simulations
performed with different vortex finder inner diameters. The figure
shows an increase in the vortex finder diameter which decreases the
maximum value of tangential velocity at all the axial heights. For in-
stance, an increase in vortex finder diameter from 19 mm, 22 mm
and 25 mm has resulted in decrease in maximum value of tangential
velocity (corresponding to an axial height of 75 mm from the cyclone
top and at a radial distance of 10 mm from the cyclone axis) from
3.55 m/s, 3.35 m/s and 3.25 m/s respectively. The tangential velocity
values at 125 mm axial height are 3.53 m/s, 3.48 m/s and 3.22 m/s
for vortex finder diameter of 19 m, 22 mm and 25 mm respectively.
The observations indicate that at smaller diameter vortex finder, the
tangential velocity and hence the centrifugal force generated is higher
at the boundary layer of free and forced vortex zones. It diminishes at
relatively higher rate compared to a wider opening vortex finder in
the free vortex zone. Due to lower values of centrifugal forces generated
inside the cyclone at wider vortex finder diameter, while classification
with solids, relatively coarser particles which are uninfluenced at
lower centrifugal forces cannot penetrate towards higher radial dis-
tances to reach the cyclone walls and thus are influenced by the vertical
drag to report into the overflow product.
42 Y.R. Murthy, K.U. Bhaskar / Powder Technology 230 (2012) 36–47

25mm
22mm

19mm
20000
Axial heights
15000 25mm
10000
VFD 19mm
5000
VFD 22mm
VFD 25mm
0

-5000
20000

15000
75mm
10000

5000

-5000
20000

15000
125mm
10000

5000

-5000
20000

15000

10000 175mm
5000

-5000
20000

15000

10000

5000
225mm
0
-0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
-5000
Radial Position (m)
Fig. 10. Effect of vortex finder diameter on axial velocity (m/s).
Fig. 9. Effect of vortex finder diameter on static pressure (Pascal).
vortex at all the axial heights. The figure also indicates that in both the
4.3.2. Effect of spigot diameter free vortex and forced vortex regions, the slope of the data points
corresponding to 19 mm diameter vortex finder is higher. This steeper
4.3.2.1. On static pressure. The effect of spigot diameter on static pressure decrease in tangential velocity values cause the relatively coarser particles
at different axial heights is presented in Fig. 12. The observation of remain in smaller radial distances from the cyclone axis and hence report
change in the value of positive static pressure with spigot opening is to overflow which results in higher cyclone cut size.
found reducing with decreasing axial height. The maximum negative
static pressure values observed near the cyclone axis at 17 mm and 4.3.2.3. On axial velocity. The effect of spigot diameter on the axial
13 mm spigot opening are 0.9 kPa and 1.2 kPa respectively. The observa- velocity indicated that an increase in the spigot diameter decreases
tions on increase in the positive static pressure on the walls and decrease the positive vertical velocity (upward flow) around the core region
in the negative static pressure at the cyclone core indicate increased radial and increases the negative vertical velocity (downward flow). The
pressure differential at constricted spigot opening. observation which shows the increase in the positive vertical velocity
is prominent at the heights corresponding to higher axial positions
4.3.2.2. On tangential velocity. The effect of spigot diameter on the from the cyclone top. Similarly, the increase in the downward axial ve-
tangential velocity is presented in Fig. 13. It can be observed from the locity corresponds to the axial heights nearing to the spigot position. For
figure that an increase in the spigot diameter increases the maximum instance an increase in the spigot diameter from 13 mm to 17 mm at an
value of tangential velocity in the transition region of free and forced axial height of 75 mm has decreased the upward axial velocity from
 Y.R. Murthy, K.U. Bhaskar / Powder Technology 230 (2012) 36–47 43

VFD 19mm 4.0 20000 Axial heights

VFD 22mm 25mm
15000
VFD 25mm 3.0
10000
SPD 13mm
2.0
5000 SPD 15mm
SPD 17mm
1.0 0
Axial heights
-5000
0.0 25mm 20000
4.0
15000 75mm
3.0
10000

2.0 5000

0
1.0
-5000
20000
0.0 75mm
4.0 15000 125mm

3.0 10000

5000
2.0
0

1.0 -5000
20000

0.0 125mm 15000

4.0
175mm
10000
3.0
5000

2.0 0

-5000
1.0 20000

15000
0.0 175mm
4.0
10000
225mm
3.0 5000

2.0 0
-0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
-5000
1.0
Radial Position (m)
0.0 225mm Fig. 12. Effect of spigot diameter on static pressure (Pascal).
-0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Radial Position (m)
cut-size. The studies revealed that with decrease in spigot diameter
Fig. 11. Effect of vortex finder diameter on tangential velocity (m/s). the cyclone sharpness of separation improves.

4.3.3. Effect of feed velocity inlet

1.03 m/s to 0.55 m/s. Similarly, for an increase in the spigot diameter
from13mm to 17 mm, at 225 mm axial position, the negative axial
velocity is 0.94 m/s to 0.97 m/s. The observations indicate increased
water split to overflow and hence results in higher cut size.
From the predictions, it is observed that when the spigot diameter
increases, the efficiency drops for both coarse and fine particles. The drop
in efficiency for fine particles is due to the increase in the water
underflow split ratio. When spigot diameter is enlarged a greater portion
of the inflow fluid reports to the underflow, which carries with it more
particles in each class. In addition to the fluid split effect, the crowding
effect plays a role in the classification of coarse particles. Crowding
effect refers to the crowding of particles between the air core and
conical wall near the spigot region. The bulk volume of solids in the
spigot region becomes greater than the solids capacity of the spigot
opening, hence a portion of the coarse particle is carried upward to
the overflow. The saturation in the spigot region is responsible for
the decrease in the efficiency and corresponding decrease in the
4.3.3.1. On static pressure. The effect of feed inlet velocity (at vortex
finder diameter 22 mm and 13 mm spigot opening) on the radial dis-
tribution of static pressure at different axial heights is presented in
Fig. 14. It is observed that for any given radial distance, the positive
value of static pressure increases for an increase in feed inlet velocity.
It can also be observed that negative values of static pressure around
the core region are decreased with increase in the feed inlet velocity.
The observations indicate an increase in differential pressure at in-
creased feed inlet velocity, which causes more radial transfer of water
to core region and hence higher water mass splits to overflow.
4.3.3.2. On tangential velocity. The effect of feed inlet velocity on the
tangential velocity at different radial distances and at different axial
heights is presented in Fig. 15. It can be observed from the figure that
an increase in the feed inlet velocity increases the values of tangential
velocity at both free and forced vortex regions at all the axial heights.
44 Y.R. Murthy, K.U. Bhaskar / Powder Technology 230 (2012) 36–47

SPD 13mm 4.0 30000

SPD 15mm
SPD 17mm 3.0 20000

2.0 10000 25mm

1.0 0 VI 0.88 m/s

Axial heights
VI 1.10 m/s
0.0 25mm VI 1.39 m/s
4.0 -10000
30000
3.0
20000
2.0
10000 75mm
1.0
0
0.0 75mm
4.0
-10000
30000
3.0
20000
2.0

10000 125mm
1.0

0
0.0 125mm
4.0
-10000
30000
3.0

2.0 20000

1.0 10000
175mm
0.0 175mm 0
4.0

-10000
3.0
30000
2.0
20000
1.0

10000
0.0 225mm
-0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Radial Position (m) 0 225mm
-0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Fig. 13. Effect of spigot diameter on tangential velocity (m/s). -10000
Radial distance (m)

Fig. 14. Effect of velocity inlet on pressure (Pascal).

Within the forced vortex region the slope of increase in data points with
increase in the radial distance is high at higher velocity inlet. Similarly,
the slope of the data points in the free vortex region decreases with de-
crease in the feed inlet velocity. For instance, an increase in feed inlet
velocity from 0.91 m/s to 1.52 m/s has increased the maximum value
of tangential velocity (corresponding to at an axial height of 75 mm
from the cyclone top) from 2.57 m/s to 4.28 m/s. The observations indi-
cate that at higher feed inlet velocity, the tangential velocity and hence
the centrifugal force is higher at all the radial distances. An increase in
the centrifugal field centrifuges relatively finer particles to reach the
cyclone wall and further into the underflow product and hence reduces
the cut size of the cyclone.
4.3.4. Effect of fluid viscosity
In process industries where hydrocyclones are used for classification,
the concentration of fine particles in slurries varies between dilute con-
centrations like 2% by weight to high as 40%. The concentration of solid
particles especially in the sub micron size range, increase the slurry
viscosity values to a considerable extent. It is reported that a clay
concentration around 2% by weight has increased the viscosity to
4.5 cP and at a fine size flyash solid concentration of 40% the viscosity
of the slurry is reported to be 47.7 cP. Thus, in order to understand
the effect of viscosity, the primary phase viscosity has been studied at
three different levels i.e., 0.001 cP, 0.005 cP and 0.01 cP. The results
obtained on the flow characteristics are discussed as follows.

4.3.3.3. On axial velocity. The effect of spigot diameter on the axial ve-
locity indicated that an increase in the velocity inlet has in general, in-
creased the positive (upward flow through the vortex finder) and
negative (downward flow through the spigot outlet) axial velocities.
The observation of increase in the positive axial velocity is prominent
at the heights corresponding to cylindrical region.
4.3.4.1. On static pressure. The effect of fluid viscosity on the radial dis-
tribution of static pressure at different axial heights is presented in
Fig. 16. The figure indicates that fluid viscosity has a major influence
on the static pressure distribution. It can be observed from the figure
that for an increase in liquid viscosity the positive values of static
pressure decrease. It can also be observed that for an increase in the
 Y.R. Murthy, K.U. Bhaskar / Powder Technology 230 (2012) 36–47 45

6.0 VI 0.88 m/s 30000

VI 1.10 m/s 25000
5.0
VI 1.39 m/s
20000
4.0
15000 Axial heights
3.0
10000 25mm
2.0 5000
Viscosity-0.01
1.0 0 Viscosity-0.005
-5000 Viscosity-0.001
0.0 25mm 30000
6.0
25000
5.0 20000
4.0 15000
10000 75mm
3.0
5000
2.0
0
1.0
-5000
30000
0.0 75mm
6.0 25000

5.0 20000
15000
4.0
10000 125mm
3.0
5000
2.0 0
1.0 -5000
30000
0.0 125mm
25000
6.0
20000
5.0
15000
4.0 175mm
10000
3.0 5000

2.0 0
-5000
1.0 30000

0.0 175mm 25000

6.0 20000
5.0 15000
4.0 10000 225mm
3.0 5000
2.0 0
-0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01
-5000 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
1.0
225mm Radial position (m)
0.0
-0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Fig. 16. Effect of viscosity on static pressure (Pascal).
Radial Position (m)

Fig. 15. Effect of velocity inlet on tangential velocity (m/s).

viscosity from 0.001 cP to 0.005 cP, the decrease in the static pressure is
high compared to the decrease from 0.005 to 0.01 cP. For instance, an in-
crease in the fluid viscosity from 0.001 to 0.01 cP, at an axial position of
75 mm below the cylindrical top surface, has decreased the maximum
value of static pressure from 29.1 kPa to 11.0 kPa. Further, in the core
region around the cyclone axis, the negative values of static pressure
decrease marginal with increase in the fluid viscosity. The observations
indicate a decrease in differential pressure at increased fluid viscosity
which causes reduced radial water flows to the core region and hence
lower mass splits to overflow.
4.3.4.2. On tangential velocity. The effect of viscosity on the tangential
velocity at different radial distances and at different axial heights is
presented in Fig. 17. It can be observed from the figure that an increase
in the viscosity decreases the values of tangential velocity at both free
and forced vortex regions at all the axial heights. Within the forced
vortex region the slope of increase in tangential velocity data points
with increase in the radial distance is higher at lower liquid viscosity
indicating rapid increase in the tangential velocity values. For in-
stance at a viscosity of 0.001 cP, the increase in the tangential velocity
from the cyclone axis to a radial distance of 10 mm is 0.08 m/s to
4.6 m/s. Likewise, at 0.01 cP liquid viscosity, the increase in the tangen-
tial velocity from the cyclone axis to a radial distance of 10 mm is
0.02 m/s to 2.82 m/s. Similar observations can be made at all the axial
heights. The observation made could be explained due to the dominating
effect of viscosity of the fluid on the shear between individual layers that
there is a gradual tangential velocity distribution at higher viscosity
46 Y.R. Murthy, K.U. Bhaskar / Powder Technology 230 (2012) 36–47

5.0 Viscosity-0.01 flow caused due to the axial pressure differential. Similarly, the viscous
Viscosity-0.005 shear forces are dominant at the lower conical portion of the cyclone
4.0 Viscosity-0.001 body where relatively higher vertical velocities are observed with
3.0 higher viscosity fluid. Thus, the conditions like low viscosity in the cylin-
drical and upper conical region and high viscosity in the lower conical
2.0 section helps in improved separation efficiency in the actual practice
during solids classification. This condition can be achieved by having
1.0 Axial heights high solid concentration gradient between these regions. In general,
0.0 25mm higher vortex finder diameter and smaller spigot diameter generates
5.0 overflow and underflow products with high difference in the solids con-
centration when classifying fine particles. This results in viscosity differ-
4.0 ential from top to bottom of the cyclone body which is a condition for
higher cut size and sharper classification.
3.0

2.0 5. Conclusions
1.0
A CFD simulation methodology for hydrocyclone process characteris-
0.0 75mm tics has been developed. Validation of the simulated results with the ex-
5.0 perimental results indicated a good match over a range of cyclone water
throughput, water split ranging between 55% and 90% and cut sizes be-
4.0
tween 8 μm and 20 μm during flyash classification. The methodology in-
3.0 cluded primary water phase simulation in an Euler approach using RSM
turbulence modeling for turbulence followed by Lagrangian particle
2.0 tracking approach using discrete phase tracking of solid particles.
An increase in the vortex finder diameter decreases the static pressure
1.0
differential within the cyclone body, reduces the value of maximum
125mm tangential velocity at the interface of forced and free vortex regions
0.0
5.0 and increases the positive axial velocity in the cylindrical portion.
Under these conditions higher cyclone cut sizes are achieved. An in-
4.0
crease in the spigot diameter, though to a lesser extent, decreases the
3.0 static pressure differential inside the cyclone, decreases the maximum
tangential velocities and hence reduces the cyclone cut size. An increase
2.0 in the velocity of the fluid at the feed inlet has increased to a major ex-
tent the radial pressure differential, tangential and axial velocities. The
1.0
increase in radial pressure differential results in higher water split to
175mm overflow and increased tangential velocity results in decrease in the cy-
0.0
5.0 clone cut size. An increase in the viscosity of the fluid has significantly re-
duced the differential pressure and tangential velocities. Higher axial
4.0
velocities are observed at cylindrical and upper conical regions at lower
3.0 viscosity and in the lower conical regions, higher axial velocities
are observed at higher viscosity. An increase in feed flow rate will
2.0
improve efficiency by increasing the centrifugal force on particles,
1.0 and d50 is decreasing. It has been observed that when the spigot diameter
increased, the efficiency drops for both coarse and fine particles.
0.0 225mm
-0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Radial position (m) Acknowledgments

Fig. 17. Effect of viscosity on tangential velocity (m/s).
compared to lower viscosity level. Similarly, due to lesser frictional forces
between individual layers at lower viscosity, the tangential velocity
values achieved are higher at all the radial distances. A higher tangential
velocity values observed at lower viscosity result in higher centrifugal
forces on particles to report towards the cyclone walls and reduce the
particle size reporting to overflow which in turn reduce the cyclone cut
size.
4.3.4.3. On axial velocity. Increase in the viscosity decreases the max-
imum value of positive vertical velocity in the cylindrical and upper con-
ical portions of the cyclone body as observed at heights 75 mm (1.43 m/
s) and 125 mm(0.99 m/s). However, at the heights corresponding to
175 mm (1.40 m/s) and 225 mm (1.10 m/s) it can be observed that
the maximum value of positive axial velocity is observed at high viscosity
conditions. High values of positive vertical velocity in the upper cyclone
body at lower fluid viscosity could be explained due to lower values of
friction between individual water layers which are influenced by vertical
The authors would like to thank Tata Steel Management and Director,
and Advanced Materials and Processes Research Institute (AMPRI), CSIR,
Bhopal for their support and permission to publish this research work.
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