CHEMICAL AND BIOMOLECULAR ENGINEERING LAB

CH2801

a) Impact of a Jet
b) Measurement of Viscosity

Location: N1.2-B4-16

Name: _______________________________________

Matric Number: _______________________________________

Group: _______________________________________

Date of experiment: _______________________________________

 Experiment: Impact of a Jet

Objectives:

1. Application of momentum balance equation.

2. Determine the force exerted by a jet impinging on a solid surface.
3. Application of linear least squares fitting procedure to analyse data.

Principles:

One way of producing mechanical work from fluid under pressure is to use the pressure to
accelerate the fluid to a high velocity in a jet. The jet is then directed onto the vanes of a turbine
wheel, which is rotated by the force generated due to the momentum change or impulse as the jet
strikes the vane. Water turbines working on the impulse principle have been constructed with
outputs of the order of 100000kW and with efficiencies greater than 90%.

In this experiment, the force generated by a jet of water as it strikes a flat plate or hemispherical
cup is measured and compared with the momentum flux in the jet. Consider a vane symmetrical
about the x-axis as shown in Figure 1. A jet of fluid flowing at the mass flow rate of Ṁ along the
x-axis with velocity 𝑉𝑉�⃗1strikes the vane and is r deflected by it through angle β, so that the fluid
leaves the vane with the velocity 𝑉𝑉 �⃗2 inclined at an angle β to the x-axis. The control volume CV
which encloses the vane is selected as shown in Figure 1. The jet enters the control volume with
�⃗1 in the x-direction and leaves the control volume with velocity 𝑉𝑉
velocity 𝑉𝑉 �⃗2 inclined at an angle β
to the x-direction. Atmospheric pressure acts on all surfaces of the control volume.

Assuming (a) steady flow, (b) incompressible flow and (c) uniform flow at each section where
the flow crosses the control volume boundaries, the momentum equation for the control volume
based on Newton’s second law is

𝐹𝐹⃗ = 𝐹𝐹⃗𝑠𝑠 − 𝐹𝐹⃗𝐵𝐵 = ∫𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝑉 �⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴⃗

�⃗ 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 (1)

The equation for conservation of mass (continuity equation) is

�⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴⃗ = 0
∫𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 (2)

Writing the x-component of the steady flow momentum equation

�⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴⃗
𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥 + 𝐹𝐹𝐵𝐵𝑥𝑥 = ∫𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑢𝑢 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 (3)

Neglecting the effect of gravity, Equation (3) then simplifies to

�⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴⃗
𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥 = ∫𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑢𝑢 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 (4)

Now 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥 = 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 (5)

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where Rx is the force of the vane on the control volume. Surface force terms due to atmospheric
pressure cancel out. Hence Equation (4) becomes

�⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴⃗ = −𝑉𝑉1 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉1 𝐴𝐴1 + (𝑉𝑉2 cos 𝛽𝛽)𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉2 𝐴𝐴2

𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = ∫𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑢𝑢 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 (6)
From Equation (2), we have
−𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉1 𝐴𝐴1 + 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉2 𝐴𝐴2 = 0 (7)
Equation (6) then simplifies to
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉1 𝐴𝐴1 (𝑉𝑉2 cos 𝛽𝛽 − 𝑉𝑉1 ) = 𝑀𝑀̇(𝑉𝑉2 cos 𝛽𝛽 − 𝑉𝑉1 ) (8)
The force on the vane is then
𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥 = −𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 𝑀𝑀̇(𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 cos 𝛽𝛽) (9)
For the case of a flat plate, β = 90°, so that cos β = 0. It follows that
𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥 = 𝑀𝑀̇𝑉𝑉1 (10)
is the force on the flat plate (acting upwards), irrespective of the value of V2.
For the case of the hemispherical cup, we assume that β = 180°, so that cos β = -1, and
𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥 = 𝑀𝑀̇(𝑉𝑉1 +𝑉𝑉2 ) (11)
If we neglect the effect of change of elevation on jet speed and the loss of speed due to friction
over the surface of the vane, then V1 = V2, so
𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑀𝑀̇𝑉𝑉1 (12)
is the maximum possible value of force on the hemispherical cup (acting upwards). This is just
twice the force on the flat plate. For Equations (10) and (12), note that 𝑀𝑀̇𝑉𝑉1is the rate of momentum
flux into the control volume.

Figure 1. Schematic of vane and control volume.

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Equipment

The Impact of a Jet apparatus is designed for use with the Hydraulic Bench. The latter provides
the necessary water supply and flow measurement facility. The hydraulic bench contains water
which is pumped to the Impact of a Jet apparatus located on the benchtop.

Figure 2 shows the arrangement in which the hydraulic bench water supply is led to a vertical pipe
terminating in a tapered nozzle. This produces a jet of water which impinges on the vane in the
form of a Flat Plate or Hemispherical Cup. The nozzle and vane are contained within a transparent
cylinder; at the base of the cylinder there is an outlet by which the flow may be directed to the
measuring tank for flow rate measurements.

Figure 2. Impact of Jet Apparatus.

As indicated in Figure 2, the vane is supported by a pivoted beam, which carries a jockey weight
and is restrained by a light spring. The weigh beam has initially been set to a balanced position
(as indicated by the tally suspended from it) by placing the jockey weight at its zero position and
then adjusting the knurled nut above the spring. Any force generated by impact of the jet on the
vane may now be measured by moving the jockey weight along the weigh beam until the tally
shows that the weigh beam has been restored to its original balanced position. Alternatively, the

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force generated may be measured by first fixing the position of the jockey weight, following by
adjusting the water flow rate until the weigh beam is at the balanced position.

Warning! This bench is HEAVY! Use the correct procedure for handling 225 kg when moving
this apparatus.

Materials: Stopwatch

Experimental Procedure

1. Level the apparatus and set the weigh beam to the balanced position (as indicated by the tally)
with the jockey weight at its zero position.
2. Set the jockey weight at the 70mm position.
3. Turn on the pump by pressing the black ON button by the side of the hydraulic bench. Then
turn the gate valve counter clockwise (clockwise to reduce water flow rate) to admit water
through the bench supply valve.
4. Adjust the water flow rate until the weigh beam is restored to the balanced position. When the
weigh beam is at the balanced position, the top plate will be aligned at the centre of the two
notches on the tally.
5. Measure the water flow rate. (See section on Flow rate measurement.)
6. Repeat the experiment with the jockey weight at 6 other equally spaced positions (e.g. 60mm,
50mm, 40mm, 30mm, 20mm, and 10mm).
7. Turn off the pump by pressing the red OFF button. Remove the flat plate and install the
hemispherical cup. Repeat the experiment with the hemispherical cup with the jockey weight at
7 different positions (e.g. 130mm, 120mm, 100mm, 80mm, 60mm, 40mm, and 20mm).

Flow rate measurement

The level indicator fitted to the side of the sump tank allows for flow rate measurement. The
measurement technique is simply to record the time taken to “collect” a given amount of water in
the volumetric tank (with the drain valve in place). Divide the value of the water collected by the
time taken to obtain the volumetric flow rate. For improved accuracy at greater flow rates, measure
a larger volume but do not go beyond 25L (time taken should be more than 60s). Ensure that the
water level is below the 0 mark before readings are taken.
1. Drain water in the volumetric tank by lifting the drain valve so as to allow water to return to the
sump tank.
2. Set the drain valve in place. Water will start to accumulate in the volumetric tank.
3. Start the stop watch when the water level reaches the 0 mark.
4. Stop the stop watch when the water level reaches an appropriate mark.

Record All the Data Properly for your Lab Report and Calculations.

Reference
Robert W. Fox, Alan T. McDonald and Philip J. Pritchard “Introduction to Fluid Mechanics”, 6th
Edition, John Wiley & Sons 2004 (Chapter 4).

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Calculations:
Density of water, ρ = 10³ kg/m³
Diameter of nozzle, D = 10 mm
Cross-sectional area of nozzle, A0 = 78.5 mm²
Mass of jockey weight, m = 0.6 kg
Distance from centre of vane to pivot of weigh beam, d = 0.15 m
Height of vane above tip of nozzle, s = 35 mm

When the jockey weight is moved a distance y from its zero position, the corresponding force Kx
on the vane is obtained, by taking moments about the pivot, as:
Kxd = mgy (13)
2
where g is the acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.8 m/s ). The speed of the jet at exit from the nozzle
is equal to:
V0 = C / (tA0) (14)
The velocity V1 with which the jet strikes the vane is less than the velocity V0 at exit from the
nozzle because of the deceleration due to gravity and may be calculated from the expression:
V12 = V02 – 2gs (15)

Questions

1. Plot Kx versus 𝑀𝑀̇𝑉𝑉1 (N) for both the flat plate and hemispherical cup.
a) Obtain the gradients, y-intercepts and coefficient of determination r2 for each vane through
a least squares fit procedure (if you are using Excel please refer to Appendix for procedure).
Comment on the agreement between your experimental results and the theoretical values
given by Equations (10) and (12).
b) Comment on the significance of any experimental errors.

2. What suggestions have you for improving the experiment?

3. You are designing a power generator to harness as much energy as possible from a jet of water.
Which type of vane would you use as the basis of your design? Give reasons for your answer.

4. For a given jet, if the flow rate is doubled, what is the effect on the force on a vane? Explain.

Formal Report (Only for students submitting the Formal report)

The Formal report format should be:

a) Aim (one line)
b) Principles (keep to about half a page).
c) Experimental Procedure (including equipment and materials used)
d) Results and Discussion (include Questions 1 and 2 of the Log Sheet in this section)
e) Conclusions
f) Answers to all questions and additional questions

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Additional Questions for students submitting the Formal report:

5. What would be the effect on the calculated value of the efficiency of the following systematic
errors of measurement?
a) Jockey weight in error by 1 g;
b) Distance from centre of vane to pivot of lever in error by 1 mm.

6. It has been assumed that the velocity in the jet is uniform over its cross section. How would
the momentum flow in the jet be affected if this were not so? Consider, for example, a jet of
cross sectional area A in which the velocity is 0.5V1 over half the area and 1.5V1 over the
other half. The mass flow rate is the same as if the velocity were V1 over the whole, namely
𝑀𝑀̇ = 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉1 𝐴𝐴1
Show that the rate of momentum flux in the jet is 1.25 𝑀𝑀̇𝑉𝑉1 i.e. 25% greater than if the
velocity were uniform over the jet.

7. What would be the effect on the calculated force on the flat plate if the jet were to leave the
plate not absolutely horizontal, but inclined upwards at an angle of 1°?

Appendix

Using linear regression (least squares fit) in Excel to obtain the best fit straight line:

1) First create the 2 columns showing the X and Y values in Excel worksheet.
A B
1 X Y
2 1 0.3
3 2 1.2
4 3 2.7
5 4 4.5
6 5 6.3
7 6 8.1
8 7 8.6
9 8 9.1
10 9 9.3
11 10 9.8
2) In any empty cell e.g. C1, type the following and press ENTER:
=linest(B2:B11, A2:A11, true, true)

3) Select a 5 by 5 array of cells with cell C1 at the top left of this array.

4) Press the F2 key once.

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5) Press CONTROL-SHIFT-ENTER and you will see these values appear:
1.141212 -0.28667 #N/A #N/A #N/A
0.106058 0.658073 #N/A #N/A #N/A
0.935371 0.96332 #N/A #N/A #N/A
115.7833 8 #N/A #N/A #N/A
107.4451 7.423879 #N/A #N/A #N/A
The following illustration shows the order in which the regression statistics are returned:

The values of mn, mn-1, …, m2, m1 and b are best fit values for an nth order polynomial of the form
y = m1x1 + m2x2 + … + mnxn + b. In our case of a straight line, the gradient is m1 = 1.141 and the
y-intercept is b = -0.287.
The value of r2 is called the coefficient of determination. It compares estimated and actual
y-values, and ranges in value from 0 to 1. If it is 1, there is a perfect correlation in the sample —
there is no difference between the estimated y-value and the actual y-value. At the other extreme,
if the coefficient of determination is 0, the regression equation is not helpful in predicting a y-value.
Generally r2 should be 0.99 or more to be considered good correlation.

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 Experiment: Measurement of Viscosity

Objectives:

1. Use of rheometer to measure viscosity.

2. Obtain viscosity data from shear stress – strain rate curve.
3. Application of linear least squares fitting procedure to analyse data.

Principles:

This experiment uses the Searle setup (Figure 1) to measure the viscosity of fluids. The Searle
setup consists of two concentric cylinders: the inner rotating cylinder called the bob and the outer
fixed one called the cup. The test fluid is placed in the very narrow gap between the two cylinders.
The shear stress τ can be obtained by fixing the value of the deformation rate D.
For a power-law fluid, the relation between D and τ is as follows:
𝜏𝜏 = 𝑘𝑘𝐷𝐷𝑛𝑛 (1)
where k is the consistency index and n is the flow behaviour index. For a Newtonian fluid, n = 1
and k = µ where µ is the absolute viscosity of the fluid. The values of k and n can be obtained by
rewriting equation (1):
ln 𝜏𝜏 = ln 𝑘𝑘 + 𝑛𝑛 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 (2)
and plotting the graph of ln 𝜏𝜏 versus ln D.

In this experiment you will be measuring the viscosity of a liquid detergent (use values of D at 10,
20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 and 100 s-1).

Figure 1. Section of a Searle viscometer

r
ω Outer
Inner O θ cylinder
cylinder
r2 r1

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 Figure 2 shows the graph of shear stress t versus
deformation rate D for various fluids. If n is less
than 1, the fluid is a shear thinning or pseudoplastic
fluid. A shear thickening or dilatant fluid has a
value of n greater than 1.

Figure 2

Materials

General laboratory equipment:

Beaker

Consumables and reagents:

Test fluid (liquid detergent)

Experimental Procedure

1. Pour 2ml of detergent into the cup. Avoid introducing air bubbles as this will introduce
inaccuracies.
2. Attach the bob onto the viscometer.
3. Attach the cup onto the viscometer.
4. At the bottom of the touchscreen, click "Method". Select "For students(speed scan from
10-100)"
5. Click "Start" to begin your measurements. The viscometer will automatically measure the
shear stress at different deformation rates from 10 to 100.
6. After the measurement, you can view and collect your resultsby clicking "Measured Data".
Scroll to the bottom to go find your saved data.
7. Click "Home" button to go back to the main interface.

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Alternatively, you can perform the measurements by manually fixing the deformation rates. If you
would like to perform measurements manually, please follow the instructions below.

1. Pour 2ml of detergent into the cup. Avoid introducing air bubbles as this will introduce
inaccuracies.
2. Attach the bob onto the viscometer.
3. Attach the cup onto the viscometer.
4. At the bottom of the touchscreen, click "method". Select "For students (60 secs run time)".
Click "Quick Settings", input your deformation rate eg 10 via the "Set Value". Press "Ok"
then click "Start" button. The viscometer will measure the shear stress at the desired
deformation rate for 60 seconds.
5. View and collect results by clicking "Measured Data". Scroll to the bottom to find your
saved data. Click "Home" button to go back to the main interface.
6. Continue the experiment by doing another deformation rate value by repeating steps 4 and 5.
Please perform experiment with D values of 10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80,90 and 100.

Questions
1. Plot ln τ versus ln D. Obtain the gradients, y-intercepts and coefficient of determination r2.

2. What kind of flow behaviour does the fluid exhibit?

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