Nenia Joyce C.

Dado EDUC 1A

BSED-1

What are the elements of research?

1. Variables

The purpose of all research is to describe and explain variance in the world. Variance is simply the difference;
that is, variation that occurs naturally in the world or change that we create as a result of a manipulation.
Variables are names that are given to the variance we wish to explain.

Definition: A variable is either a result of some force or it is the force that causes a change in another
variable. In experiments, these are called dependent and independent variables respectively.

2. Associations and Cause and Effect

Definition: The term association means that two or more things are related or connected to one
another.

The term association means that two or more things are related or connected to one another like height and
weight, cholesterol level and heart failure or exercise and weight loss. Associations can be positive or negative
(the positive and negative associations do not necessarily mean that the association is ‘good’ or ‘bad’).
Positive associations suggest that when one variable is increased, the value of another variable increases (e.g.,
as height increases, so does weight; as cholesterol level increases, so does the risk of heart failure). Negative
associations mean that when a variable is increased, the value of another variable decreases (e.g., exercise is
introduced (or increased) and weight decreases). Associations can be found in experimental or descriptive
studies. Finding significant associations, either during descriptive or experimental studies, may lead to the
development of programs or treatments to remedy a particular problem.

3. Sampling

Sampling is the process of choosing participants for a research study. Sampling involves choosing a small
group of participants that will represent a larger group. Sampling is used because it is difficult or impractical
to include all members of a group (e.g., all Latina women in the United States; all male college athletes).
However, research projects are designed to ensure that enough participants are recruited to generate useful
information that can be generalized to the group represented.

Definition: Sampling is defined as the method by which some members of a larger group are selected.
The usual goal is sample those members so that they are representative of the group as a whole.

4. Random Selection

Random selection is a form of sampling where a representative group of research participants is selected from
a larger group by chance. This can be done by identifying all of the possible candidates for study participation
(e.g., people attending the County fair on a Tuesday) and randomly choosing a subset to participate (e.g.,
selecting every 10th person who comes through the gate). This allows for each person to have an equal chance
of participating in the study.
Allowing each person in the group an equal chance to participate increases the chance that the smaller group
possesses characteristics similar to the larger group. This produces findings that are more likely to be
representative of and applicable to the larger group. Therefore, it is extremely important to adhere to this
procedure if it is included in the research design. Ignoring or altering random selection procedures
compromises the research design and subsequent results. For example, friends or relatives may be easier or
more convenient to recruit into a research study, but selecting these individuals would not reflect a random
selection of all of the possible participants. Similarly, it would be wrong to select only individuals who may
potentially benefit from study participation rather than randomly selecting from the entire group of individuals
being studied. Ignoring random selection procedures when they are called for in the research design reduces
the quality of the information collected and decreases the usefulness of the study findings.

Definition: Random selection is the process of selecting a smaller group of individuals from a larger
group to be participants in a study. Every person has an equal chance of being selected, which allows
each of the individuals in the group the same chance of participating.

5. Random Assignment

Random assignment is a procedure used in experiments to create multiple study groups that include
participants with similar characteristics so that the groups are equivalent at the beginning of the study. The
procedure involves assigning individuals to an experimental treatment or program at random, or by chance
(like the flip of a coin). This means that each individual has an equal chance of being assigned to either group.
Usually in studies that involve random assignment, participants will receive a new treatment or program, will
receive nothing at all or will receive an existing treatment. When using random assignment, neither the
researcher nor the participant can choose the group to which the participant is assigned.

Definition: Random assignment is a procedure used in experiments to create study groups with similar
characteristics so that the groups are equivalent at the beginning of the study.

6. Blinding

Blinding is a technique used to decrease bias on the part of the researcher or the participant. In some studies,
the participant is not told to which group they have been assigned. This is called single blinding. There is
another level of blinding called double blinding where neither the researcher nor the participant know which
group the participant is in until this information is revealed at the end of the study. Blinding can reduce the
temptation to ignore random assignment procedures and can reduce any expectations about the potential
effectiveness of the treatment or program since group assignment remains unknown by the participant, the
researcher or both the participant and researcher. The results are more likely to provide information about the
true effect of the treatment or program being tested when blinding is used.

Definition: Blinding is a technique used to decrease bias on the part of the researcher or the participant
where the participant, or both the researcher and the participant are not told to which group they have
been assigned.
What are some research designs?

1. Case Study

-A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the
subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in
various fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

2. Correlational Study

- A correlational study is a particular kind of scientific study that can be applied to a variety of different
disciplines. It is a study that observes the possible relationship between naturally occurring variables. In this
context, a variable is anything that can change in a scientific study. For example, people can be either smokers
or non-smokers; they can have very different weights from one another; they have different ages. All of these
are examples of variables, and they are also naturally occurring variables (variables that have not been
manipulated by the people running an experiment).

The correlational study definition that is commonly understood in fields, such as psychology, biology, and
sociology, is a research design that tries to determine whether or not there is any relationship between
variables; it does not seek to determine how that relationship works.

3. Experimental Study

-Experimental research is a study that strictly adheres to a scientific research design. It includes a hypothesis,
a variable that can be manipulated by the researcher, and variables that can be measured, calculated and
compared. Most importantly, experimental research is completed in a controlled environment.

4. Naturalistic Observation

-In naturalistic observations, you study your research subjects in their own environments to explore their
behaviors without any outside influence or control. It’s a research method used in field studies.

Traditionally, naturalistic observation studies have been used by animal researchers, psychologists,
ethnographers, and anthropologists. Naturalistic observations are helpful as a hypothesis-generating approach,
because you gather rich information that can inspire further research.

5. Longitudinal Study

- A longitudinal study is a research conducted over an extended period of time. It is mostly used in medical
research and other areas like psychology or sociology.

When using this method, a longitudinal survey can pay off with actionable insights when you have the time to
engage in a long-term research project.

Longitudinal studies often use surveys to collect data that is either qualitative or quantitative. Additionally, in
a longitudinal study, a survey creator does not interfere with survey participants. Instead, the survey creator
distributes questionnaires over time to observe changes in participants, behaviors, or attitudes.

Many medical studies are longitudinal; researchers note and collect data from the same subjects over what can
be many years.

6. Cross-sectional
-A cross-sectional study is a type of research design in which you collect data from many different individuals
at a single point in time. In cross-sectional research, you observe variables without influencing them.

Cross-sectional studies are also unique because researchers are able to look at numerous characteristics at
once.

7. Sequential Study

-Sequential research designs include elements of both longitudinal and cross-sectional research designs.
Similar to longitudinal designs, sequential research features participants who are followed over time; similar
to cross-sectional designs, sequential research includes participants of different ages. This research design is
also distinct from those that have been discussed previously in that individuals of different ages are enrolled
into a study at various points in time to examine age-related changes, development within the same
individuals as they age, and to account for the possibility of cohort and/or time of measurement effects.

8. Action Research

Action research refers to a wide variety of evaluative, investigative, and analytical research methods designed
to diagnose problems or weaknesses—whether organizational, academic, or instructional and help educators
develop practical solutions to address them quickly and efficiently. Action research may also be applied to
programs or educational techniques that are not necessarily experiencing any problems, but that educators
simply want to learn more about and improve. The general goal is to create a simple, practical, repeatable
process of iterative learning, evaluation, and improvement that leads to increasingly better results for schools,
teachers, or programs.

What are the data gatherings?

1. Observation

- Observation, as the name implies, is a way of collecting data through observing. This data collection method
is classified as a participatory study, because the researcher has to immerse herself in the setting where her
respondents are, while taking notes and/or recording. Observation data collection method may involve
watching, listening, reading, touching, and recording behavior and characteristics of phenomena.

Observation as a data collection method can be structured or unstructured. In structured or systematic

observation, data collection is conducted using specific variables and according to a pre-defined schedule.
Unstructured observation, on the other hand, is conducted in an open and free manner in a sense that there
would be no pre-determined variables or objectives.

Moreover, this data collection method can be divided into overt or covert categories. In overt observation
research subjects are aware that they are being observed. In covert observation, on the other hand, the
observer is concealed and sample group members are not aware that they are being observed. Covert
observation is considered to be more effective because in this case sample group members are likely to behave
naturally with positive implications on the authenticity of research findings.

2. Psychological Measure
-Physiological measurement involves the direct or indirect observation of variables attributable to normative
functioning of systems and subsystems in the human body. The tools and techniques of this method are
varied, but all are based on empirical observation. The variables observed are derived from the measureable
properties and functions of the biological systems and subsystems. In humans, this includes phenomena such
as heart rate, blood pressure, cortical activity, and biochemical markers. In isolation, such variables are not
particularly informative to communication scholars. However, when paired with the social, behavioral, and
psychological factors associated with communication, they can offer profound insights into human perception
and behavior.

3. Standardize

-Standardization refers to methods used in gathering and treating subjects for a specific study. In order to
compare the results of one group to the results of a second group, we must assure that each group receives the
same opportunities to succeed. Standardized tests, for instance, painstakingly assure that each student
receives the same questions in the same order and is given the same amount of time, the same resources, and
the same type of testing environment. Without standardization, we could never adequately compare groups.

4. Interviews & Questionnaires

- Asking questions can provide measurement of many concepts and variables important to transportation
research. Transportation practitioners ask questions frequently as part of assessment and evaluation. The
important thing to remember when choosing this method is that it must be the most appropriate one to
measure the variables as you have defined them. Whether you use the interview or questionnaire method, it
must be because your operational definition calls for the subject’s self-report. If it does not, or if there is
reason to believe that the person cannot give a valid response then these methods are not appropriate.

The major difference between questionnaires and interviews is the presence of an interviewer. In
questionnaires, responses are limited to answers to predetermine questions. In interviews, since the
interviewer is present with the subject, there is an opportunity to collect nonverbal data as well and to clarify
the meaning of questions if the subjects do not understand.

5. Life-History Records

-The life-history method of qualitative research is an alternative to empirical methods for identifying and
documenting health patterns of individuals and groups. It allows the nurse researcher to explore a person's
micro historical (individual) experiences within a macro historical (history of the time) framework. Life-
history information challenges the nurse to understand an individual's current attitudes and behaviors and how
they may have been influenced by initial decisions made at another time and in another place.