Roquette Tb2 Aircraft Design 1 Version 1

PATTS
COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
LOMBOS AVENUE., SAN ISIDRO
PARANAQUE CITY
DESIGN CONCEPT
AND
PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE SUBJECT
AENG 511L - 3
AIRCRAFT DESIGN I
DESIGNER:
ROQUE, RALPH ANDRE C.
OCTOBER 2017
1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
TO GOD BE THE GLORY !
I would like to acknowledge the omnipotent, omnipresent and omniscient
Almighty Being, in His loving presence, for He provided us the strength and
knowledge to be able to accomplish the task assigned to us.
To PATTS College of Aeronautics and the BS Aeronautical Engineering
Department, for enabling students to perform basic aircraft design through its
curriculum.
To Engr. Aiven Dela Rosa, for guiding his students in every design activity.
He instilled the values of persistence to students to be able to accomplish task
in a given time frame. Enabling his students to become punctual and goal-
oriented individuals.
To my parents, for keeping up the morale of striving to become better each
day, upholding the values of patience and perseverance
R, R.A.C.
i 2
DEDICATION
This output is dedicated to the designer’s family, to their relatives and to
their friends.
ii 3
APPROVAL SHEET
THIS COMPILATION OF ACTIVITIES OF THE DESIGN CONCEPT &
PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS FOR THE SUBJECT AIRCRAFT DESIGN 1
PRESENTED & SUBMITTED BY ROQUE, RALPH ANDRE C. IS HEREBY
ACCEPTED AS PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
SUBJECT AENG 511L-3 AIRCRAFT DESIGN 1 IN THE AERONAUTICAL
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF PATTS COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS WITH A
GRADE OF ________
ENGR. AIVEN C. DELA ROSA

INSTRUCTOR
iii 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i
DEDICATION ii
APPROVAL Iii
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY NO.1- DESIGN CONCEPT 1
ACTIVITY NO.2- INITIAL SPECIFICATION ESTIMATE 6
ACTIVITY NO.3- AIRFOIL SELECTION 29
ACTIVITY NO.4- WEIGHT ESTIMATE 64
ACTIVITY NO.5- CENTROIDS COMPUTATION 83
ACTIVITY NO.6- CENTER OF GRAVITY AND C.G. 140
ENVELOPE
ACTIVITY NO.7- LANDING GEAR DESIGN 155
ACTIVITY NO.8A- INITIAL ESTIMATE FOR POLAR DRAG 169
EQUATION
ACTIVITY NO.8B- AIRCRAFT 3 VIEWS 204
ACTIVITY NO.9A- POWER PERFORMANCE- POWER 206
REQUIRED AT SEA LEVEL AND ALTITUDES
ACTIVITY NO.9B- POWER PERFORMANCE- POWER 215
AVAILABLE AT SEA LEVEL AND ALTITUDES
ACTIVITY NO.10A- CLIMB PERFORMANCE AND 241
CEILINGS: CLIMB PERFORMANCE AND SPEED –RATE
OF CLIMB
ACTIVITY NO.10B- CLIMB PERFORMANCE AND 256
CEILINGS: CEILINGS AND TIME TO CLIMB
ACTIVITY NO.11- TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS 279
ACTIVITY NO.12- LANDING PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS 301
ACTIVITY NO.13- RANGE AND ENDURANCE 320
SUMMARY OF GRADES 330
APPENDICES
I. LIST OF FIGURES
II. CURRICULUM VITAE
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NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
GROUP NO.: __________________________ INSTRUCTOR: ________________________
Activity No. 1
TITLE: Conceptual Design
OBJECTIVES:
To determine the type and category of the designed aircraft.
To determine the regulation requirements of the designed aircraft.
To set the preliminary specification of the design aircraft.
PROCEDURES:
1.1) Introduce your designed aircraft. (Construct a conceptual sketch)
1.2) Determine the regulatory requirement.
1.3) Aircraft Specification
1.3.1) Airframe
1.3.2) Powerplant
1.3.3) System
1.3.4) Performance
CONCLUSION:
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REFERENCES:
Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach

Daniel P. Raymer
2
Sketch :
ROQUETTE-TB2
2
Objectives:
 To determine the type of the designed aircraft
 To determine the regulation requirements of the designed aircraft
 To set the preliminary specifications of the designed aircraft
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
Aircraft Specifications
Specifications III F300 Sport ADAM A500 ROQUETTE-TB2
Airframe
Seating Capacity 2 6 2
Length 25.90ft (7.89m) 36.67ft (11.18m) 26.6ft (8.11m)
Wingspan 31.5ft (9.60m) 44ft (13.41m) 32.15ft (9.80m)
Wing Area 141.6 sq. ft 165 sq. ft. (15.33m2) 138 sq. ft
(13.15m2) (12.82m2)
Height 9.35ft (2.86m) 9.5ft (2.90m) 8.50 ft (2.60m)
Empty Weight 1,897lb (860kg) 3,380lb (1,533kg) 1,897lb (860kg)
Fuel Weight 1,277.71lb 1,501lb (681kg) 1,277.71lb
(579.56kg) (579.56kg)
Max. Takeoff 3,090lb (1,402kg) 6,300lb (2,857kg) 3,090lb (1,402kg)
Weight
Propeller 6.23ft (1.9m) 6.3ft (1.93m) 6.23ft (1.9m)
Diameter
Wing Low Wing, Low Wing, Unswept, Low Wing,
Configuration Tapered Dihedral Tapered Planform,
Planform, Dihedral
Dihedral
Tail Conventional, Boom-Mounted, Boom-Mounted,
Configuration Swept Fin with Swept Fins and Swept Fins and
Long Dorsal Fillet High-set Tailplane High-set Tailplane
Powerplant 224 kW (300 hp) Two 261kW (350hp) 213 kW (285hp)
Textron Teledyne Continental Teledyne
Lycoming IO-540 TSIO-55-E Flat-Six Continental IO-
Flat-six piston piston engine 520-C Flat-six
engine piston engine
System
Flight Controls Stick Yoke Yoke
Primary 2 x Elevator 1 x Elevator 1 x Elevator
1 x Rudder 2 x Rudder 2 x Rudder
Secondary 5 x Trim Tabs 3 x Trim Tab 3 x Trim Tab
2 x Ailerons 2 x Ailerons 2 x Aileron
2 x Flaps 2 x Flaps 2 x Flaps
3
Avionics Digital and Digital (Dual Garmin Digital
Analog GNS 530
Combination GPS/NAV/COM/ILS)
Performance
Cruising Speed 174kt (322km/h; 230kt (426km/h; 174kt (310km/h;
200mph) @ 75% 265mph) @ 75% 200mph) @ 75%
power power power
Maximum Speed 205kt (380km/h; 240kt (463km/h; 205kt (380km/h;
236mph) 288mph) 236mph)
Range 1,190 nautical 1,050 nautical miles 1,190 nautical
miles @ 75% @ 75% power miles @ 75%
power 30min. power 30min.
reserves reserves
Endurance 6 hours @ 75% 5 hours @ 75% 6 hours @ 75%
power 30min. power power 30min.
reserves reserves
Service Ceiling 21,000ft 25,000ft (7,620m) 21,000ft (6,400m)
(6,400m)
Rate of Climb 1,580 ft/min 400ft/min 1,580 ft/min
(482m/min) (122m/min) (482m/min)
4
Conclusion :
The Roquette-TB2 is a two seater, normal, private type aircraft. The
design has the features of light aircraft that can be utilized for leisure or
transport. The aircraft is based on the design of two aircrafts which are within
the design requirements of FAR part 23. The preliminary specifications of
Roquette-TB2 is within the limitations set by FAR.
5
NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
Activity No. 2
TITLE: Initial Specification Estimate
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the initial specification of your designed aircraft.
PROCEDURE:
2.1) Determine you aircraft weight.
2.1.1) Gross Weight (W0)
2.1.2) Empty Weight (We)
2.2) Determine your (L/D)max ratio.
2.3) Determine your aircraft sizing.
2.3.1) Wing
2.3.2) Fuselage
2.3.3) Tail
2.3.4) Propeller
CONCLUSION:
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______________________________________________________________________________
REFERENCES:

Daniel P. Raymer
8
Initial Specification Estimate
Objective
 To determine the initial specification of your aircraft
2.1 Determine Aircraft Weight
2.1.1 Fuel Weight (𝑾𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 )
𝑾𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 = 𝑪 𝒙 𝑬 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟓
Where:
𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = Fuel Weight
C = Specific Fuel Consumption

E = Aircraft’s Endurance = 6hrs
For 𝐶,
𝑪𝒃𝒉𝒑 𝑽
𝑪=
𝟓𝟓𝟎𝜼𝒑
Where:
𝐶𝑏ℎ𝑝 = Taken from Table 2.3 = Propeller Specific Fuel Consumption
𝑉 = Taken from Design Concept = Cruising Speed

𝜂𝑝 = Taken from table 2.3
6
For 𝐶𝑏ℎ𝑝 and 𝜂𝑝 , refer to Table 2.3
(0.4) (293.45 𝑓𝑡/𝑠)

𝐶=
550(0.8)
𝐶 = 0.27 𝑥 375 ℎ𝑝
𝑪 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝒍𝒃⁄𝒉
For 𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 ,
𝑙𝑏
𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = (101.25 ) (6 ℎ)(1.5)
ℎ𝑟
𝑾𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 = 𝟗𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝒍𝒃
2.1.2 Gross Weight (𝑾𝒐 )
𝑾𝒐 = 𝑾𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘 + 𝑾𝒑𝒂𝒚𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 + 𝑾𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 + 𝑾𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒕𝒚
Where:
𝑊𝑜 = Gross weight
𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 = Weight of Crew = 170 lbs. each
𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = Weight of passengers, baggage and weight of oil
𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = Weight of fuel
7
𝑊𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 = Empty weight of the aircraft
For 𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 ,
𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 = 170 𝑙𝑏 𝑥 1
𝑾𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘 = 𝟏𝟕𝟎 𝒍𝒃
For 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 ,
𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 + 𝑊𝑏𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒
Where:
𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = Weight of payload
𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 = Weight of passengers = 170 lbs. each
𝑊𝑏𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = Baggage Weight = 40 lbs. each

passenger/crew
For 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 ,
𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 170 𝑥 1
𝑾𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓𝒔 = 𝟏𝟕𝟎 𝒍𝒃
For 𝑊𝑏𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 ,
𝑊𝑏𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 40 𝑙𝑏 𝑥 2
𝑾𝒃𝒂𝒈𝒈𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝟖𝟎 𝒍𝒃
8
Substitute the values,
𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 + 𝑊𝑏𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 170 𝑙𝑏 + 80 𝑙𝑏
𝑾𝒑𝒂𝒚𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝒍𝒃
For 𝑊𝑜 ,
𝑊𝑜 = 𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 + 𝑊𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦
𝑊𝑒
𝑊𝑜 = 𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 + ( )
𝑊𝑔
𝑊𝑒
𝑊𝑜 − ( ) = 𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑊𝑔
𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

𝑊𝑜 =
𝑊
1 − (𝑊𝑒 )
𝑔
Where:
𝑊𝑒
= Empty Weight Fraction
𝑊𝑔
𝑊𝑒
For (refer to Table 2.1),
𝑊𝑔
9
𝑊𝑒
= 𝐴𝑊𝑜𝑐 𝐾𝑣𝑠
𝑊𝑔
𝑊𝑒
= (2.36)(3,090 𝑙𝑏)(−0.18) (1.00)
𝑊𝑔
𝑾𝒆
= 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔
𝑾𝒈
Substitute the values,
170 𝑙𝑏 + 250 𝑙𝑏 + 911.25 𝑙𝑏

𝑊𝑜 =
1 − 0.56
𝑾𝒐 = 𝟑𝟎𝟐𝟓. 𝟓𝟕 𝒍𝒃
2.1.3 Empty Weight (𝑾𝒆 )
From the formula of 𝑊𝑜 ,

𝑊𝑜 = 𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 + 𝑊𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦
𝑊𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 = 𝑊𝑜 − (𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 )
10
𝑊𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 = 3025.57 𝑙𝑏 − (170 𝑙𝑏 + 250 𝑙𝑏 + 911.25 𝑙𝑏)
𝑾𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒕𝒚 = 𝟏, 𝟔𝟗𝟒. 𝟑𝟐 𝒍𝒃
2.2 Determine Maximum Lift-to-Drag Ratio, (𝑳⁄𝑫)

𝑴𝑨𝑿
 Aspect Ratio,
𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑻
𝑺𝑹𝑬𝑭
= 𝟒. 𝟒𝟓
From Fig. 2.2,

𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑻
= 𝟒. 𝟒𝟓
𝑺𝑹𝑬𝑭
11
For aspect ratio, A,
Where :
A = Aspect Ratio
b = Wing Span = 32.15 ft
S = Wing area
b1 = Root Chord
b2 = Tip Chord
h = Semi-Wing Span = 16.075 ft
𝑏2 𝑏2
𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = =
𝑆 1
2[ (𝑏1 + 𝑏2 ) 𝑥 ℎ]
2
(32.15𝑓𝑡)2
𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
1
2[(2 (6.00 𝑓𝑡 + 2.58 𝑓𝑡) (16.075 𝑓𝑡)]
𝑨 = 𝟕. 𝟒𝟗
12
For Wetted Area Ratio,
𝑏2 𝐴
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = =
𝑆𝑊𝐸𝑇 𝑆
( 𝑆𝑊𝐸𝑇 )
𝑅𝐸𝐹
𝑏2 7.49
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = =
𝑆𝑊𝐸𝑇 (4.45)
𝑆𝑅𝐸𝐹
𝒃𝟐
𝑾𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 = = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟖
𝑺𝑾𝑬𝑻
𝑳⁄
𝑫𝑴𝑨𝑿 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟗𝟓
According to Fig. 2.3,
𝑳⁄
𝑫𝑴𝑨𝑿 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟗𝟓
13
2.3 Determine Aircraft Sizing
2.3.1)Wing
 Wing Span
From Activity No.1,
Wing Span = 32.15 ft (9.80 m)
14
 Reference Wing Area, 𝑺𝒓𝒆𝒇
From the formula of Aspect Ratio:

𝒃𝟐
𝑨=
𝑺
Where:
A = Computed Aspect Ratio of the Wing = 7.49
b = Wing Span
S = Wing area
𝑏2
𝑆=
𝐴
(32.15𝑓𝑡)2
𝑆=
7.49
𝑺 = 𝑺𝒓𝒆𝒇 = 𝟏𝟑𝟖 𝒇𝒕𝟐
15
 Taper Ratio, 𝝀
From Fig. 2.4,

𝐶𝑇𝑖𝑝
λ=
𝐶𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡
𝑪𝑻𝑰𝑷 = Tip Chord of the Wing

𝑪𝑹𝑶𝑶𝑻 = Root Chord of the Wing
𝝀 = Taper Ratio of the Wing
2.58𝑓𝑡
λ=
6.00 𝑓𝑡
𝛌 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑
16
 Mean Aerodynamic Chord, 𝒄̅
 Through geometric solving of MAC,
𝒄̅ = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟐𝒇𝒕
 Distance from MAC, 𝒚

̅
From the Figure above,
̅ = 𝟔. 𝟗𝟕𝒇𝒕
𝒚
17
2.3.2 Fuselage
 Fuselage Length, 𝑳𝒇𝒖𝒔
Refer on Table 2.5,
𝑳𝒇𝒖𝒔 = 𝒂𝑾𝒄𝒐
Where:
a = Taken from table 2.5
𝑊𝑜 = Gross Weight Computed
c = Taken from table 2.5
𝐿𝑓𝑢𝑠 = (4.37)(3025.57 𝑙𝑏)0.23
𝑳𝒇𝒖𝒔 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟔𝟏 𝒇𝒕
18
2.3.3)Tail
 Horizontal Tail Length, 𝑳𝑯𝑻
Geometrically solved though Autocad,
For the MAC of Horizontal tail,

𝒄̅ = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟎 𝒇𝒕
For the location of MAC of Horizontal tail,

̅ = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟗 𝒇𝒕
𝒚
19
LHT, approximated as the distance from the tail quarter-chord (25 % of
the mean chord length measured back from the leading edge of the mean
chord) to the wing quarter chord,
𝑳𝑯𝑻 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟓𝟐𝟕 𝒇𝒕
20
 Horizontal Tail Area, 𝑺𝑯𝑻
From Equation 2.8,
𝑪𝑯𝑻 𝒄̅𝑺𝑾
𝑺𝑯𝑻 =
𝑳𝑯𝑻
Where:
𝑺𝑯𝑻 = Horizontal Tail Area
𝑪𝑯𝑻 = Taken from Table 2.7
𝒄̅ = MAC of the Wing = 4.52 ft
𝑺𝑾 = Computed Area of the Wing = 138 ft2
𝑳𝑯𝑻 = Computed Horizontal Tail Length
21
(0.70)(4.52 𝑓𝑡)(138 𝑓𝑡 2 )
𝑆𝐻𝑇 =
17.527 𝑓𝑡
𝑺𝑯𝑻 = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟗𝟏 𝒇𝒕𝟐
𝑪𝑻𝑰𝑷
𝝀=
𝑪𝑹𝑶𝑶𝑻
Where:
𝑪𝑻𝑰𝑷 = Tip Chord of Horizontal Tail
𝑪𝑹𝑶𝑶𝑻 = Root Chord of Horizontal Tail
𝝀 = Taper Ratio of Horizontal Tail
2.20 𝑓𝑡
𝜆=
2.20 𝑓𝑡
𝝀= 𝟏
For the Aspect Ratio of Horizontal tail (Refer to Table 2.6),
𝒃𝟐
𝑨=
𝑺𝑯𝑻
Where:
A = Aspect Ratio of the Horizontal Tail
22
b = Horizontal Tail Span = 10.38 ft
𝑆𝐻𝑇 = Horizontal Tail Area = 24.91 𝑓𝑡 2
(10.38 𝑓𝑡)2
𝐴=
24.91 𝑓𝑡 2
𝑨 = 𝟒. 𝟑𝟑
 Horizontal Tail Span, 𝒃𝑯𝑻
𝒃𝑯𝑻 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟑𝟖 𝒇𝒕
23
Vertical Tail Length, 𝑳𝑽𝑻
Geometrically solved through Autocad,
For the MAC of Vertical tail,

𝒄̅ = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟕𝟏𝒇𝒕
For the location of MAC of Vertical tail,

̅ = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟐 𝒇𝒕
𝒚
24
𝑳𝑽𝑻 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟎𝟒𝟐 𝒇𝒕
]
 Vertical Tail Area, 𝑺𝑽𝑻
From Eq. 2.7,

𝑪𝑽𝑻 𝒃𝑾 𝑺𝑾
𝑺𝑽𝑻 =
𝑳𝑽𝑻
Where:
𝑆𝑉𝑇 = Vertical Tail Area
𝐶𝑉𝑇 = Taken from Table 2.7
𝑏𝑊 = Wing Span = 32.15 ft
𝑆𝑊 = Computed Wing Area = 138 ft2
𝐿𝑉𝑇 = Vertical Tail Length
(0.04)(32.15𝑓𝑡)(138𝑓𝑡 2 )
𝑆𝑉𝑇 =
16.042 𝑓𝑡
𝑺𝑽𝑻 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟔 𝒇𝒕
25
For the Taper Ratio of Horizontal tail (Refer to Table 2.6),
𝑪𝑻𝑰𝑷
𝝀=
𝑪𝑹𝑶𝑶𝑻
Where:
𝑪𝑻𝑰𝑷 = Tip Chord of Vertical Tail
𝑪𝑹𝑶𝑶𝑻 = Root Chord of Vertical Tail
𝝀 = Taper Ratio of Vertical Tail
2.147 𝑓𝑡
𝜆=
4.005 𝑓𝑡
𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒
For the Aspect Ratio of Horizontal tail (Refer to Table 2.6),
𝒃𝟐
𝑨=
𝑺𝑽𝑻
Where:
A = Aspect Ratio of the Vertical Tail
b = Vertical Tail Span = 4.686 ft
𝑆𝑉𝑇 = Vertical Tail Area = 11.06 𝑓𝑡 2
(4.686𝑓𝑡)2
𝐴=
11.06 𝑓𝑡 2
𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟗
26
 Vertical Tail Span, 𝒃𝑽𝑻
𝒃𝑽𝑻 = 𝟒. 𝟔𝟖𝟔 𝒇𝒕
2.3.4)Propeller Diameter
Refer to Eq. 2.9,
4
𝑑 = 22 √𝐻𝑃
𝑑 = 22 4√375 ℎ𝑝
𝑑 = 96.81 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
27
Conclusion:
The estimate of the initial specification of the aircraft was
determined based on the historical values of designed aircrafts and the assumed
values on previous activity. The corrected computation of aircraft weights, lift to
drag ratio and aircraft sizing was accomplished. Necessary adjustments were
made through Autocad to meet the limitations provided by previous aircraft data.
28
NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
Activity No. 3:
TITLE: Wing Configuration
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the appropriate airfoil for your designed aircraft.
To determine the airfoil characteristics of your designed aircraft.
PROCEDURE:
3.1) Select an airfoil for your designed aircraft. (*airfoil profile, explain)
3.2) Compute for the corrected airfoil characteristics.
CONCLUSION:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
11
Airfoil Selection
Objectives:
 To determine the appropriate airfoil for your designed aircraft
 To determine the airfoil characteristics of your designed aircraft

EXPLANATION OF TABLE:
Column
No.
① 𝑪𝑳 = Read from graph
② 𝜶𝟔 = Read from graph
③ ∆𝜶𝒊 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟐𝟒 𝒌 𝑪𝑳
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒌= − = −
(𝑨𝒆)𝑫 (𝑨𝒆)𝟔 (𝟕. 𝟒𝟗)(𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟎𝟔) (𝟔. 𝟎)(𝟎. 𝟗𝟎)
𝒌 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟓𝟕
(𝟏𝟖. 𝟐𝟒)(−𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟓𝟕)(①)
∆𝜶𝒊 =
④ 𝜶𝑫 = 𝜶𝟔 + ∆𝜶𝒊 = (②) + (③)
⑤ CD6 = Read from graph
⑥ ∆𝑪 Di = 𝟐
𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟖𝒌𝑪𝑳 = (𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟖)(−𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟓𝟕)(①)2
⑦ CDD = (⑤) + (⑥)
⑧ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶𝑫 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬(④)
⑨ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶𝑫 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(④)
⑩ 𝑪𝑳 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶𝑫 = (①) 𝒙 (⑧)
⑪ CDD𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶𝑫 = (⑦) 𝒙 (⑨)
⑫ 𝑪𝑵 = 𝑪𝑳 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶𝑫 + CDD𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶𝑫 = (⑩) + (⑪)
⑬ 𝑪𝑳 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶𝑫 = (①) 𝒙 (⑨)
29
Column
No.
⑭ CDD𝐬𝐢 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶𝑫 = (⑦) 𝒙 (⑧)
⑮ 𝑪𝑪 = CDD𝐬𝐢 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶𝑫 – 𝑪𝑳 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶𝑫 = (⑭) − (⑬)

⑯ C.P. = Read from graph
⑰ Cmc = (𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 − 𝑪. 𝑷. ) 𝒙 𝑪𝑵 = [𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 − (⑯)] 𝒙 (⑫)

4
⑱ Cma.c. = ⑰ + [(𝐚. 𝐜. −𝟎. 𝟐𝟓) 𝒙 ⑫]

𝟐
Where: 𝒂. 𝒄. = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟒(𝒕⁄𝒄)
For NACA 6515:

𝒂. 𝒄. = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟒(𝟎. 𝟏𝟓)𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟏
⑰ + [(𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓) 𝒙 ⑫] = ⑰ + [(−𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟗) 𝒙 ⑫]
For NACA 4518:

𝒂. 𝒄. = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟒(𝟎. 𝟏𝟖)𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟕
⑰ + [(𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟕 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓) 𝒙 ⑫] = ⑰ + [(−𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟑) 𝒙 ⑫]
For NACA 6318:

𝒂. 𝒄. = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟒(𝟎. 𝟏𝟖)𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟕
⑰ + [(𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟕 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓) 𝒙 ⑫] = ⑰ + [(−𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟑) 𝒙 ⑫]
⑲ CDi = (⑥) (⑥) (⑥)

= =
𝒌𝑨𝑫 (−𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟓𝟕)(𝟕. 𝟒𝟗) (−𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟏)
⑳ CDo = CDD – CDi = (⑦) − (⑲)
30
3.1) Select 3 Airfoils for Your Aircraft
NACA 6515 Airfoil Profile
CLmax = 1.67
31
For Aspect Ratio 7.49,
32
NACA 6515
① ② ③ ④ ⑤ ⑥ ⑦
CL α6 Δαᵢ αᴅ CD6 ΔCᴅᵢ CDᴅ
– deg. deg deg - - -
0.00 -5.74 0.0000 -5.7383 0.0129 0.0000 0.0129
0.10 -4.69 -0.0612 -4.7533 0.0133 -0.0001 0.0132
0.20 -3.20 -0.1225 -3.3241 0.0145 -0.0004 0.0141
0.30 -1.89 -0.1837 -2.0705 0.0168 -0.0010 0.0158
0.40 -0.35 -0.2449 -0.5995 0.0211 -0.0017 0.0194
0.50 1.01 -0.3062 0.7069 0.0274 -0.0027 0.0247
0.60 2.31 -0.3674 1.9466 0.0330 -0.0038 0.0291
0.70 3.91 -0.4286 3.4801 0.0411 -0.0052 0.0359
0.80 5.29 -0.4899 4.8005 0.0505 -0.0068 0.0437
0.90 6.88 -0.5511 6.3320 0.0624 -0.0086 0.0537
1.00 8.42 -0.6123 7.8103 0.0752 -0.0107 0.0645
1.10 9.69 -0.6736 9.0155 0.0870 -0.0129 0.0741
1.20 11.46 -0.7348 10.7250 0.1030 -0.0154 0.0877
1.30 13.16 -0.7960 12.3640 0.1217 -0.0180 0.1037
1.40 14.88 -0.8573 14.0230 0.1413 -0.0209 0.1203
1.50 16.80 -0.9185 15.8809 0.1664 -0.0240 0.1424
1.60 19.49 -0.9797 18.5107 0.2052 -0.0273 0.1779
1.67 23.39 -1.0226 22.3711 0.2732 -0.0298 0.2434
33
NACA 6515
⑧ ⑨ ⑩ ⑪ ⑫ ⑬ ⑭
Cosαᴅ Sinαᴅ CιCosαᴅ CᴅₒSinαᴅ CN CιSinαᴅ CDᴅCosαᴅ
- - - - - - -
0.9950 -0.1000 0.0000 -0.0013 -0.0013 0.0000 0.0129
0.9966 -0.0829 0.0997 -0.0011 0.0986 -0.0083 0.0132
0.9983 -0.0580 0.1997 -0.0008 0.1988 -0.0116 0.0141
0.9993 -0.0361 0.2998 -0.0006 0.2992 -0.0108 0.0158
0.9999 -0.0105 0.4000 -0.0002 0.3998 -0.0042 0.0194
0.9999 0.0123 0.5000 0.0003 0.5003 0.0062 0.0247
0.9994 0.0340 0.5997 0.0010 0.6006 0.0204 0.0291
0.9982 0.0607 0.6987 0.0022 0.7009 0.0425 0.0358
0.9965 0.0837 0.7972 0.0037 0.8008 0.0669 0.0435
0.9939 0.1103 0.8945 0.0059 0.9004 0.0993 0.0534
0.9907 0.1359 0.9907 0.0088 0.9995 0.1359 0.0639
0.9876 0.1567 1.0864 0.0116 1.0980 0.1724 0.0731
0.9825 0.1861 1.1790 0.0163 1.1954 0.2233 0.0861
0.9768 0.2141 1.2698 0.0222 1.2921 0.2784 0.1013
0.9702 0.2423 1.3583 0.0292 1.3874 0.3392 0.1168
0.9618 0.2736 1.4427 0.0390 1.4817 0.4105 0.1370
0.9483 0.3175 1.5172 0.0565 1.5737 0.5080 0.1687
0.9247 0.3806 1.5443 0.0926 1.6369 0.6356 0.2251
34
NACA 6515
⑮ ⑯ ⑰ ⑱ ⑲ ⑳
Cc C.P. Cmc/4 Cma.c. CDi CDo
- % - - - -
0.0129 - - - 0.0000 0.0129
0.0215 - - - 0.0004 0.0128
0.0257 - - - 0.0017 0.0124
0.0267 73.86 -0.1462 -0.1489 0.0038 0.0120
0.0236 60.26 -0.1410 -0.1446 0.0068 0.0126
0.0185 53.13 -0.1407 -0.1452 0.0106 0.0141
0.0087 48.40 -0.1406 -0.1460 0.0153 0.0138
-0.0067 45.43 -0.1432 -0.1495 0.0208 0.0151
-0.0235 42.84 -0.1429 -0.1501 0.0272 0.0165
-0.0459 40.29 -0.1377 -0.1458 0.0344 0.0193
-0.0719 38.69 -0.1369 -0.1459 0.0425 0.0221
-0.0992 37.24 -0.1344 -0.1443 0.0514 0.0227
-0.1372 36.02 -0.1317 -0.1424 0.0611 0.0265
-0.1771 35.02 -0.1294 -0.1410 0.0718 0.0319
-0.2225 34.01 -0.1250 -0.1375 0.0832 0.0371
-0.2735 33.63 -0.1279 -0.1413 0.0955 0.0469
-0.3393 33.09 -0.1273 -0.1415 0.1087 0.0692
-0.4105 33.45 -0.1383 -0.1531 0.1184 0.1250
35
Lift - Drag Curve
NACA 6515
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
CD
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
CD=0.0194
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
CL
CL =0.4000
Graph Scale:
CL/CD = 0.4000 = 20.62 0.05 CD = 20.1mm
0.0194
0.5 CL = 30.15mm
36
Corrected Airfoil Characteristics Curve NACA 6515
CO-EFFICIENT OF LIFT, CL
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80
2.0000 80.0000
70.0000
1.5000
60.0000
1.0000 50.0000
40.0000
0.5000
30.0000
0.0000 20.0000
10.0000
-0.5000
0.0000
-1.0000 -10.0000
aD C.P. CD CN Cc Cm c/4 Cmac CDi CDo
37
CLmax = 1.54
38
NACA 4518
① ② ③ ④ ⑤ ⑥ ⑦
0.00 -3.90 0.0000 -3.9020 0.0134 0.0000 0.0134
0.10 -2.44 -0.0612 -2.5011 0.0140 -0.0001 0.0139
0.20 -1.14 -0.1225 -1.2610 0.0155 -0.0004 0.0150
0.30 0.18 -0.1837 -0.0036 0.0183 -0.0010 0.0173
0.40 1.71 -0.2449 1.4606 0.0235 -0.0017 0.0217
0.50 3.18 -0.3062 2.8708 0.0283 -0.0027 0.0256
0.60 4.53 -0.3674 4.1620 0.0354 -0.0038 0.0315
0.70 6.01 -0.4286 5.5812 0.0430 -0.0052 0.0378
0.80 7.31 -0.4899 6.8242 0.0516 -0.0068 0.0448
0.90 8.81 -0.5511 8.2620 0.0637 -0.0086 0.0551
1.00 10.32 -0.6123 9.7092 0.0755 -0.0107 0.0648
1.10 11.91 -0.6736 11.2340 0.0900 -0.0129 0.0771
1.20 13.51 -0.7348 12.7705 0.1052 -0.0154 0.0898
1.30 15.28 -0.7960 14.4851 0.1251 -0.0180 0.1071
1.40 17.11 -0.8573 16.2482 0.1457 -0.0209 0.1248
1.50 19.69 -0.9185 18.7764 0.1812 -0.0240 0.1572
1.54 22.72 -0.9430 21.7796 0.2436 -0.0253 0.2183
39
NACA 4518
⑧ ⑨ ⑩ ⑪ ⑫ ⑬ ⑭
- - - - - - -
0.9977 -0.0680 0.0000 -0.0009 -0.0009 0.0000 0.0134
0.9990 -0.0436 0.0999 -0.0006 0.0993 -0.0044 0.0139
0.9998 -0.0220 0.2000 -0.0003 0.1996 -0.0044 0.0150
1.0000 -0.0001 0.3000 0.0000 0.3000 0.0000 0.0173
0.9997 0.0255 0.3999 0.0006 0.4004 0.0102 0.0217
0.9987 0.0501 0.4994 0.0013 0.5007 0.0250 0.0256
0.9974 0.0726 0.5984 0.0023 0.6007 0.0435 0.0314
0.9953 0.0973 0.6967 0.0037 0.7004 0.0681 0.0376
0.9929 0.1188 0.7943 0.0053 0.7997 0.0951 0.0444
0.9896 0.1437 0.8907 0.0079 0.8986 0.1293 0.0545
0.9857 0.1686 0.9857 0.0109 0.9966 0.1686 0.0639
0.9808 0.1948 1.0789 0.0150 1.0939 0.2143 0.0756
0.9753 0.2210 1.1703 0.0198 1.1902 0.2653 0.0876
0.9682 0.2501 1.2587 0.0268 1.2855 0.3252 0.1037
0.9601 0.2798 1.3441 0.0349 1.3790 0.3917 0.1198
0.9468 0.3219 1.4202 0.0506 1.4708 0.4828 0.1488
0.9286 0.3710 1.4301 0.0810 1.5111 0.5714 0.2027
40
NACA 4518
⑮ ⑯ ⑰ ⑱ ⑲ ⑳
- % - - - -
0.0134 - - - 0.0000 0.0134
0.0182 0.00 0.0248 0.0235 0.0004 0.0135
0.0194 70.21 -0.0902 -0.0928 0.0017 0.0133
0.0173 56.06 -0.0932 -0.0971 0.0038 0.0135
0.0115 47.37 -0.0896 -0.0948 0.0068 0.0150
0.0006 42.35 -0.0869 -0.0933 0.0106 0.0150
-0.0121 38.91 -0.0836 -0.0913 0.0153 0.0162
-0.0305 36.84 -0.0829 -0.0920 0.0208 0.0170
-0.0506 35.38 -0.0830 -0.0934 0.0272 0.0176
-0.0748 34.00 -0.0809 -0.0925 0.0344 0.0207
-0.1048 32.87 -0.0785 -0.0914 0.0425 0.0223
-0.1387 32.23 -0.0791 -0.0933 0.0514 0.0257
-0.1777 31.83 -0.0813 -0.0968 0.0611 0.0286
-0.2215 30.74 -0.0738 -0.0904 0.0718 0.0353
-0.2719 30.73 -0.0790 -0.0969 0.0832 0.0416
-0.3340 30.82 -0.0856 -0.1046 0.0955 0.0616
-0.3687 30.69 -0.0860 -0.1056 0.1007 0.1176
41
Lift - Drag Curve
NACA 4518
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
CD
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
CD=0.0263
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
CL
CL =0.5138
Graph Scale:
CL/CD = 0.5138= 19.54 0.05 CD = 20.1mm
0.0263
0.5 CL = 30.15mm
42
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80
80.0000 2.0000
70.0000
1.5000
60.0000
50.0000
1.0000
40.0000
30.0000
0.5000
20.0000
10.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80
-10.0000 -0.5000
COEFFICIENT OF LIFT, CL
43
CLmax = 1.45
44
NACA 6318
① ② ③ ④ ⑤ ⑥ ⑦
0.00 -5.08 0.0000 -5.0764 0.0129 0.0000 0.0129
0.10 -3.72 -0.0612 -3.7803 0.0128 -0.0001 0.0127
0.20 -2.28 -0.1225 -2.4009 0.0154 -0.0004 0.0150
0.30 -0.95 -0.1837 -1.1378 0.0182 -0.0010 0.0172
0.40 0.47 -0.2449 0.2226 0.0229 -0.0017 0.0212
0.50 1.83 -0.3062 1.5272 0.0284 -0.0027 0.0257
0.60 3.23 -0.3674 2.8647 0.0341 -0.0038 0.0303
0.70 4.52 -0.4286 4.0867 0.0423 -0.0052 0.0371
0.80 6.02 -0.4899 5.5313 0.0517 -0.0068 0.0448
0.90 7.47 -0.5511 6.9169 0.0622 -0.0086 0.0536
1.00 8.90 -0.6123 8.2909 0.0744 -0.0107 0.0637
1.10 10.55 -0.6736 9.8754 0.0885 -0.0129 0.0756
1.20 12.04 -0.7348 11.3052 0.1043 -0.0154 0.0889
1.30 13.74 -0.7960 12.9459 0.1227 -0.0180 0.1046
1.40 15.53 -0.8573 14.6734 0.1461 -0.0209 0.1251
1.45 18.50 -0.8879 17.6164 0.2058 -0.0224 0.1834
45
NACA 6318
⑧ ⑨ ⑩ ⑪ ⑫ ⑬ ⑭
- - - - - - -
0.9961 -0.0885 0.0000 -0.0011 -0.0011 0.0000 0.0129
0.9978 -0.0659 0.0998 -0.0008 0.0989 -0.0066 0.0126
0.9991 -0.0419 0.1998 -0.0006 0.1992 -0.0084 0.0150
0.9998 -0.0199 0.2999 -0.0003 0.2996 -0.0060 0.0172
1.0000 0.0039 0.4000 0.0001 0.4001 0.0016 0.0212
0.9996 0.0267 0.4998 0.0007 0.5005 0.0133 0.0257
0.9988 0.0500 0.5993 0.0015 0.6008 0.0300 0.0303
0.9975 0.0713 0.6982 0.0026 0.7009 0.0499 0.0370
0.9953 0.0964 0.7963 0.0043 0.8006 0.0771 0.0446
0.9927 0.1204 0.8934 0.0065 0.8999 0.1084 0.0532
0.9895 0.1442 0.9895 0.0092 0.9987 0.1442 0.0630
0.9852 0.1715 1.0837 0.0130 1.0967 0.1887 0.0745
0.9806 0.1960 1.1767 0.0174 1.1942 0.2352 0.0872
0.9746 0.2240 1.2670 0.0234 1.2904 0.2912 0.1020
0.9674 0.2533 1.3543 0.0317 1.3860 0.3546 0.1211
0.9531 0.3026 1.3820 0.0555 1.4375 0.4388 0.1748
46
NACA 6318
⑮ ⑯ ⑰ ⑱ ⑲ ⑳
- % - - - -
0.0129 - - - 0.0000 0.0129
0.0192 - - - 0.0004 0.0122
0.0233 - - - 0.0017 0.0133
0.0232 56.56 -0.0946 -0.0973 0.0038 0.0134
0.0196 46.90 -0.0876 -0.0912 0.0068 0.0144
0.0124 42.36 -0.0869 -0.0914 0.0106 0.0151
0.0003 39.44 -0.0868 -0.0922 0.0153 0.0150
-0.0129 37.50 -0.0876 -0.0939 0.0208 0.0163
-0.0325 35.76 -0.0861 -0.0933 0.0272 0.0177
-0.0552 34.77 -0.0879 -0.0960 0.0344 0.0192
-0.0812 33.35 -0.0834 -0.0924 0.0425 0.0212
-0.1142 32.53 -0.0825 -0.0924 0.0514 0.0242
-0.1480 31.76 -0.0807 -0.0915 0.0611 0.0278
-0.1893 31.25 -0.0807 -0.0923 0.0718 0.0329
-0.2336 31.40 -0.0887 -0.1011 0.0832 0.0419
-0.2640 31.67 -0.0958 -0.1088 0.0893 0.0941
47
Lift - Drag Curve
NACA 6318
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
CD
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
CD=0.0129
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
CL
CL =0.5807
0.5807 Graph Scale:

CL/CD = =45.0155 0.05 CD = 20.1mm
0.0129
0.5 CL = 30.15mm
48
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60

60.0000 1.6000
1.4000
50.0000
1.2000
40.0000
1.0000
0.8000
30.0000
0.6000
20.0000
0.4000
0.2000
10.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60
-0.2000
-10.0000 -0.4000
COEFFICIENT OF LIFT, CL
49
Interpolation of values for (α) αngle of attack at CL/CD max and Cmac
NACA 4518
Taken from Lift-Drag Curve Graph at CL = 0.4292,
CL 𝜶D Cmac
0.50 2.8708 -0.0933
0.5138 𝜶 Cmac
0.60 4.1620 -0.0913
For angle of attack (α),
(𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝟑𝟖 − 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎)(𝟒. 𝟏𝟔𝟐𝟎 − 𝟐. 𝟖𝟕𝟎𝟖)

𝜶= + 𝟐. 𝟖𝟕𝟖
(𝟎. 𝟔𝟎 − 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎)
α = 3.0562
For Cmac,
(𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝟑𝟖 − 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎) [(−𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟏𝟑 − (−𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟑𝟑)]

𝑪𝒎𝒂𝒄 = + (−𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟑𝟑)
(𝟎. 𝟔𝟎 − 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎)
Cmac = - 0.0910
50
NACA 6318
Taken from Lift-Drag Curve Graph at CL = 0.4292,
CL 𝜶D Cmac
0.50 1.5272 -0.0914
0.5807 𝜶 Cmac
0.60 2.8647 -0.0922
For angle of attack (α),
(𝟎. 𝟓𝟖𝟎𝟕 − 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎)[(𝟐. 𝟖𝟔𝟒𝟕 − 𝟏. 𝟓𝟐𝟕𝟐]

𝜶= + (𝟏. 𝟓𝟐𝟕𝟐)
(𝟎. 𝟔𝟎 − 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎)
α = 2.6066
For Cmac,
(𝟎. 𝟓𝟖𝟎𝟕 − 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎) [(−𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟐𝟐 − (−𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟏𝟒)]

𝑪𝒎𝒂𝒄 = + (−𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟏𝟒)
(𝟎. 𝟔𝟎 − 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎)
Cmac = - 0.0921
51
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
Airfoil RN CLMAX CDMIN 𝑪𝑳 𝑪𝑳 CMAC a.c.

( ) 𝜶@( )
𝑪𝑫 𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑪𝑫 𝒎𝒂𝒙
NACA
3,100,000 1.67 0.0129 20.62 -0.5995 -0.1446 0.241
6515
NACA
3,130,000 1.54 0.0134 19.54 3.0562 -0.0910 0.237
4518
NACA
3,080,000 1.45 0.0129 45.0155 2.6066 - 0.0921 0.237
6318
JUSTIFICATION
The Roquette-TB2 is a normal transport and touring aircraft. It has a twin-boom

mounted tail. And, it costs additional weight compared to the conventional
cruciform tail design thus, a thin airfoil must be considered. But the twin-boom
empennage would put more stress on the wing. So, the airfoil thickness should
capable of supporting the load of the booms attached. In addition, the endurance
of six hours, with its corresponding fuel capacity should be taken into
consideration. A compromise between the thickest and thinnest of the three
airfoils would be NACA 6318. With thickness to chord ratio of 18, it would be the
airfoil selected for the aircraft.
52
AIRFOIL CONSTRUCTION
WINGS
NACA 6318
For Root Chord (Cr) ,
GIVEN COMPUTED SCALED

X Zupper Zlower X Zupper Zlower
0 - 0 0.000 - 0.000 0.000 #VALUE! 0.000
1.25 4.76 -1.57 0.075 0.286 -0.094 0.004 0.014 -0.005
2.5 6.16 -2.26 0.150 0.369 -0.136 0.007 0.018 -0.007
5 8.19 -2.99 0.300 0.491 -0.179 0.015 0.025 -0.009
7.5 9.75 -3.30 0.450 0.585 -0.198 0.022 0.029 -0.010
10 11.00 -3.44 0.600 0.660 -0.206 0.030 0.033 -0.010
15 12.87 -3.40 0.900 0.772 -0.204 0.045 0.039 -0.010
20 14.06 -3.25 1.200 0.843 -0.195 0.060 0.042 -0.010
25 14.74 -3.10 1.500 0.884 -0.186 0.075 0.044 -0.009
30 15.00 -3.00 1.799 0.900 -0.180 0.090 0.045 -0.009
40 14.59 -2.82 2.399 0.875 -0.169 0.120 0.044 -0.008
50 13.51 -2.41 2.999 0.810 -0.145 0.150 0.041 -0.007
60 11.84 -1.90 3.599 0.710 -0.114 0.180 0.036 -0.006
70 9.64 -1.40 4.199 0.578 -0.084 0.210 0.029 -0.004
80 7.00 -0.95 4.798 0.420 -0.057 0.240 0.021 -0.003
90 3.84 -0.55 5.398 0.230 -0.033 0.270 0.012 -0.002
95 2.10 -0.36 5.698 0.126 -0.022 0.285 0.006 -0.001
100 0.19 -0.19 5.998 0.011 -0.011 0.300 0.001 -0.001
100 - 0 5.998 - 0.000 0.300 - 0.000
L.E. Radius : 3.56
L.E. Radius : 3.56 L.E. Radius : 3.56
Slope of Radius
Slope of Radius through the Slope of Radius through
through the end of
end of chord: 6/15 the end of chord: 6/15
chord: 6/15
LE RADIUS 3.56 LE RADIUS 0.2135 LE RADIUS 0.0107
SLOPE OF SLOPE OF
0.40 SLOPE OF RADIUS 0.40 0.4
RADIUS RADIUS
53
WINGS
NACA 6318
For Mean Aerodynamic Chord 𝒄̅ ,

0 - 0 0.000 - 0.000 0.000 - 0.000
1.25 4.76 -1.57 0.057 0.215 -0.071 0.003 0.011 -0.004
2.5 6.16 -2.26 0.113 0.278 -0.102 0.006 0.014 -0.005
5 8.19 -2.99 0.226 0.370 -0.135 0.011 0.019 -0.007
7.5 9.75 -3.30 0.339 0.441 -0.149 0.017 0.022 -0.007
10 11.00 -3.44 0.452 0.497 -0.155 0.023 0.025 -0.008
15 12.87 -3.40 0.678 0.582 -0.154 0.034 0.029 -0.008
20 14.06 -3.25 0.904 0.636 -0.147 0.045 0.032 -0.007
25 14.74 -3.10 1.130 0.666 -0.140 0.057 0.033 -0.007
30 15.00 -3.00 1.356 0.678 -0.136 0.068 0.034 -0.007
40 14.59 -2.82 1.808 0.659 -0.127 0.090 0.033 -0.006
50 13.51 -2.41 2.260 0.611 -0.109 0.113 0.031 -0.005
60 11.84 -1.90 2.712 0.535 -0.086 0.136 0.027 -0.004
70 9.64 -1.40 3.164 0.436 -0.063 0.158 0.022 -0.003
80 7.00 -0.95 3.616 0.316 -0.043 0.181 0.016 -0.002
90 3.84 -0.55 4.068 0.174 -0.025 0.203 0.009 -0.001
95 2.10 -0.36 4.294 0.095 -0.016 0.215 0.005 -0.001
100 0.19 -0.19 4.520 0.009 -0.009 0.226 0.000 0.000
100 - 0 4.520 - 0.000 0.226 - 0.000
L.E. Radius : 3.56
Slope of Radius
through the end of
chord: 6/15
SLOPE OF SLOPE OF
RADIUS RADIUS
54
WINGS
NACA 6318
For Tip Chord (Cr) ,

0 - 0 0.000 - 0.000 0.000 - 0.000
1.25 4.76 -1.57 0.032 0.123 -0.041 0.002 0.006 -0.002
2.5 6.16 -2.26 0.065 0.159 -0.058 0.003 0.008 -0.003
5 8.19 -2.99 0.129 0.211 -0.077 0.006 0.011 -0.004
7.5 9.75 -3.30 0.194 0.252 -0.085 0.010 0.013 -0.004
10 11.00 -3.44 0.258 0.284 -0.089 0.013 0.014 -0.004
15 12.87 -3.40 0.387 0.332 -0.088 0.019 0.017 -0.004
20 14.06 -3.25 0.516 0.363 -0.084 0.026 0.018 -0.004
25 14.74 -3.10 0.645 0.380 -0.080 0.032 0.019 -0.004
30 15.00 -3.00 0.774 0.387 -0.077 0.039 0.019 -0.004
40 14.59 -2.82 1.032 0.376 -0.073 0.052 0.019 -0.004
50 13.51 -2.41 1.290 0.349 -0.062 0.065 0.017 -0.003
60 11.84 -1.90 1.548 0.305 -0.049 0.077 0.015 -0.002
70 9.64 -1.40 1.806 0.249 -0.036 0.090 0.012 -0.002
80 7.00 -0.95 2.064 0.181 -0.025 0.103 0.009 -0.001
90 3.84 -0.55 2.322 0.099 -0.014 0.116 0.005 -0.001
95 2.10 -0.36 2.451 0.054 -0.009 0.123 0.003 0.000
100 0.19 -0.19 2.580 0.005 -0.005 0.129 0.000 0.000
100 - 0 2.580 - 0.000 0.129 - 0.000
L.E. Radius : 3.56
Slope of Radius
through the end of
chord: 6/15
SLOPE OF SLOPE OF
RADIUS RADIUS
55
Airfoils of the Wing
Scale 1:20
Root Chord = 6.00 ft
91.4939
M.A.C = 4.52 ft
Tip Chord = 2.58 ft
39.2798
56
VERTICAL STABILIZER
NACA 0015
For Root Chord (Cr) ,
COMPUTED SCALED
GIVEN
Cr = 3.9 ft 1:20
x z z X Zupper Zlower X Zupper Zlower
c ( ) ( )
c upper c lower
0 - 0 0.000 - 0.000 0.000 - 0.000
1.25 2.37 -2.37 0.049 0.092 -0.092 0.002 0.005 -0.005
2.5 3.27 -3.27 0.098 0.127 -0.127 0.005 0.006 -0.006
5 4.44 -4.44 0.195 0.173 -0.173 0.010 0.009 -0.009
7.5 5.25 -5.25 0.293 0.205 -0.205 0.015 0.010 -0.010
10 5.85 -5.58 0.390 0.228 -0.218 0.020 0.011 -0.011
15 6.68 -6.68 0.585 0.261 -0.261 0.029 0.013 -0.013
20 7.17 -7.17 0.780 0.280 -0.280 0.039 0.014 -0.014
25 7.43 -7.43 0.975 0.290 -0.290 0.049 0.014 -0.014
30 7.50 -7.50 1.170 0.293 -0.293 0.059 0.015 -0.015
40 7.25 -7.25 1.560 0.283 -0.283 0.078 0.014 -0.014
50 6.62 -6.62 1.950 0.258 -0.258 0.098 0.013 -0.013
60 5.70 -5.70 2.340 0.222 -0.222 0.117 0.011 -0.011
70 4.58 -4.58 2.730 0.179 -0.179 0.137 0.009 -0.009
80 3.28 -3.28 3.120 0.128 -0.128 0.156 0.006 -0.006
90 1.81 -1.81 3.510 0.071 -0.071 0.176 0.004 -0.004
95 1.01 -1.01 3.705 0.039 -0.039 0.185 0.002 -0.002
100 0.16 -0.16 3.900 0.006 -0.006 0.195 0.000 0.000
100 - 0 3.900 - 0.000 0.195 - 0.000
57
VERTICAL STABILIZER
NACA 0015
For Mean Aerodynamic Chord 𝒄̅ ,
COMPUTED SCALED
GIVEN
c̅ = 3.13 ft. 1:20
c ( ) ( )
c upper c lower
0 - 0 0.000 - 0.000 0.000 - 0.000
1.25 2.37 -2.37 0.039 0.074 -0.074 0.002 0.004 -0.004
2.5 3.27 -3.27 0.078 0.102 -0.102 0.004 0.005 -0.005
5 4.44 -4.44 0.157 0.139 -0.139 0.008 0.007 -0.007
7.5 5.25 -5.25 0.235 0.164 -0.164 0.012 0.008 -0.008
10 5.85 -5.58 0.313 0.183 -0.175 0.016 0.009 -0.009
15 6.68 -6.68 0.470 0.209 -0.209 0.023 0.010 -0.010
20 7.17 -7.17 0.626 0.224 -0.224 0.031 0.011 -0.011
25 7.43 -7.43 0.783 0.232 -0.232 0.039 0.012 -0.012
30 7.50 -7.50 0.939 0.235 -0.235 0.047 0.012 -0.012
40 7.25 -7.25 1.252 0.227 -0.227 0.063 0.011 -0.011
50 6.62 -6.62 1.565 0.207 -0.207 0.078 0.010 -0.010
60 5.70 -5.70 1.878 0.179 -0.179 0.094 0.009 -0.009
70 4.58 -4.58 2.191 0.143 -0.143 0.110 0.007 -0.007
80 3.28 -3.28 2.504 0.103 -0.103 0.125 0.005 -0.005
90 1.81 -1.81 2.817 0.057 -0.057 0.141 0.003 -0.003
95 1.01 -1.01 2.974 0.032 -0.032 0.149 0.002 -0.002
100 0.16 -0.16 3.130 0.005 -0.005 0.157 0.000 0.000
100 - 0 3.130 - 0.000 0.157 - 0.000
58
VERTICAL STABILIZER
NACA 0015
For Tip Chord (Cr) ,
COMPUTED SCALED
GIVEN
Cr = 2.20 ft 1:20
c ( ) ( )
c upper c lower
0 - 0 0.000 - 0.000 0.000 - 0.000
1.25 2.37 -2.37 0.028 0.052 -0.052 0.001 0.003 -0.003
2.5 3.27 -3.27 0.055 0.072 -0.072 0.003 0.004 -0.004
5 4.44 -4.44 0.110 0.098 -0.098 0.006 0.005 -0.005
7.5 5.25 -5.25 0.165 0.116 -0.116 0.008 0.006 -0.006
10 5.85 -5.58 0.220 0.129 -0.123 0.011 0.006 -0.006
15 6.68 -6.68 0.330 0.147 -0.147 0.017 0.007 -0.007
20 7.17 -7.17 0.440 0.158 -0.158 0.022 0.008 -0.008
25 7.43 -7.43 0.550 0.163 -0.163 0.028 0.008 -0.008
30 7.50 -7.50 0.660 0.165 -0.165 0.033 0.008 -0.008
40 7.25 -7.25 0.880 0.160 -0.160 0.044 0.008 -0.008
50 6.62 -6.62 1.100 0.146 -0.146 0.055 0.007 -0.007
60 5.70 -5.70 1.320 0.125 -0.125 0.066 0.006 -0.006
70 4.58 -4.58 1.540 0.101 -0.101 0.077 0.005 -0.005
80 3.28 -3.28 1.760 0.072 -0.072 0.088 0.004 -0.004
90 1.81 -1.81 1.980 0.040 -0.040 0.099 0.002 -0.002
95 1.01 -1.01 2.090 0.022 -0.022 0.105 0.001 -0.001
100 0.16 -0.16 2.200 0.003 -0.003 0.110 0.000 0.000
100 - 0 2.200 - 0.000 0.110 - 0.000
59
Airfoil for the Vertical Stabilizer
Scale 1:20
Root Chord = 3.90 ft
M.A.C = 3.13 ft
Tip Chord = 2.20 ft
60
HORIZONTAL STABILIZER
NACA 0015
COMPUTED SCALED
GIVEN
c = 2.20 ft 1:20
c ( ) ( )
c upper c lower
0 - 0 0.000 - 0.000 0.000 ##### 0.000
1.25 2.37 -2.37 0.028 0.052 -0.052 0.001 0.003 -0.003
2.5 3.27 -3.27 0.055 0.072 -0.072 0.003 0.004 -0.004
5 4.44 -4.44 0.110 0.098 -0.098 0.006 0.005 -0.005
7.5 5.25 -5.25 0.165 0.116 -0.116 0.008 0.006 -0.006
10 5.85 -5.58 0.220 0.129 -0.123 0.011 0.006 -0.006
15 6.68 -6.68 0.330 0.147 -0.147 0.017 0.007 -0.007
20 7.17 -7.17 0.440 0.158 -0.158 0.022 0.008 -0.008
25 7.43 -7.43 0.550 0.163 -0.163 0.028 0.008 -0.008
30 7.50 -7.50 0.660 0.165 -0.165 0.033 0.008 -0.008
40 7.25 -7.25 0.880 0.160 -0.160 0.044 0.008 -0.008
50 6.62 -6.62 1.100 0.146 -0.146 0.055 0.007 -0.007
60 5.70 -5.70 1.320 0.125 -0.125 0.066 0.006 -0.006
70 4.58 -4.58 1.540 0.101 -0.101 0.077 0.005 -0.005
80 3.28 -3.28 1.760 0.072 -0.072 0.088 0.004 -0.004
90 1.81 -1.81 1.980 0.040 -0.040 0.099 0.002 -0.002
95 1.01 -1.01 2.090 0.022 -0.022 0.105 0.001 -0.001
100 0.16 -0.16 2.200 0.003 -0.003 0.110 0.000 0.000
100 - 0 2.200 - 0.000 0.110 - 0.000
SLOPE OF SLOPE OF
RADIUS RADIUS
61
Airfoil for the Horizontal Stabilizer
2.20 ft
62
Conclusion:
Based on the comparative analysis of the three pre-selected airfoils, NACA

6515 meets the mission requirements of my airplane design. The analysis
provided an overview of the different airfoil characteristics. The application of
Prandtl’s lift line theory, the corrected airfoil characteristics wherein, I adjusted
the values of the airfoil based on my aircraft’s aspect ratio and the given aspect
ratio provided by NACA (National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics). As well
as, the airfoil for the horizontal and vertical stabilizer was also determined. And,
through the use of AUTOCAD and JAVAFOIL software, the plotting of the scaled
airfoils was accomplished.
63
NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
Activity No. 4:
TITLE: Weight Estimate
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the estimated weight of each parts and component.
PROCEDURE:
4.1) Compute for each parts and components of your designed aircraft.
4.2) Tabulate and group this parts and components.
4.3) Compute the empty weight and gross weight.
CONCLUSION:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
REFERENCES:

Daniel P. Raymer
19
Weight Estimate
Objectives
 To determine the estimated weight of each part and component of the

designed aircraft
Weights Equations Terminology
A = Aspect ratio
𝐵𝑤 = Wing span, ft.
D = Fuselage structural depth, ft.
𝐻𝑡 ⁄𝐻𝑣 = 0.0 for conventional tail; 1.0 for “T” tail
L = Fuselage structural length, ft. (excluding radome, tail cap)
𝐿𝑚 = Length of main gear, in.
𝐿𝑛 = Length of nose gear, in.
𝐿𝑡 = Tail length; wing quarter-MAC to tail quarter-MAC, ft.
𝑁𝑒𝑛 = Number of engines
𝑁𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 = Number of gear
𝑁𝑙 = Ultimate landing load factor; Ngear x 1.5
𝑁𝑡 = Number of fuel tanks
𝑁𝑧 = Ultimate load factor; 1.5 limit load factor
q = Dynamic pressure at cruise, 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡2
𝑆𝑓 = Fuselage wetted area, ft2
𝑆ℎ𝑡 = Horizontal tail area, ft2
𝑆𝑣𝑡 = Vertical tail area, ft2
𝑆𝑤 = Trapezoidal wing area, ft2
𝑉𝑖 = Integral tanks volume, gal
𝑉𝑝𝑟 = Volume of pressurized section, ft3
𝑉𝑡 = Total fuel volume, gal
𝑊𝑑𝑔 = Design gross weight, lb
𝑊𝑒𝑛 = Engine weight, each, lb
𝑊𝑓𝑤 = Weight of fuel in wing, lb
𝑊𝑙 = Landing design gross weight, lb
𝑊𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = Weight penalty due to pressurization, = 11.9 + (Vpr x Pdelta)0.271 ,
where Pdelta = cabin pressure differential, psi (typically 8 psi)
Ʌ = Wing sweep at 25% MAC
64
For Weight of Upper Wing,
For Swept Angle, Λ = 0.1899 deg
For Fuel tank of upper wing,
Fuel Tank will assume shape of tapered wing,
For NACA 6318, fuel tank is located in the upper chord line,
65
−𝟎.𝟑
𝟎.𝟕𝟓𝟖 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟓 𝑨 𝟎.𝟔 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟔 𝟎.𝟎𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒕⁄𝒄 𝟎.𝟒𝟗
𝑾𝑾𝑼 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟔𝑺𝒓𝒆𝒇 𝑾𝒇𝒘 ( ) 𝒒 𝝀 ( ) (𝑵𝒛 𝑾𝒅𝒈 )
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 ᴧ 𝒄𝒐𝒔ᴧ
Where:
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓 Taken from Activity No.2 138 ft2

𝑊𝑓𝑤 Desired fuel weight on upper wing 911.25 lb
A Taken from Activity No. 2 7.49
Λ From geometric measurement, 0.1899 deg
𝑞 1
𝜌𝑣 2
1
= (2) (0.002377
slug
) (69.4 s )2
ft 5.72 lb/ft2
2 𝑓𝑡 3
λ Taper ratio (Taken from Activity No. 2) 2.33
𝑡⁄ Thickness to chord ratio (Taken from Airfoil Profile Activity 3) 0.15
𝑐
𝑁𝑧 Taken from table 4.1 = 1.5 x 3.8 5.7
Ultimate load factor; 1.5 limit load factor
𝑊𝑑𝑔 Taken from Activity No. 2 3025.57
Solution :
2 )0.758 (911.25 0.0035

7.49 0.6
𝑙𝑏 0.006
𝑊𝑊𝑈 = 0.036(138 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏) [ ] (5.72 2 ) (2.33)0.04
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (0.1899°) 𝑓𝑡
−0.3
100(0.15)
𝑥 [ ] (5.7 𝑥 3025.57 𝑙𝑏)0.49
𝑐𝑜𝑠(0.1899°)
𝑾𝑾𝑼 = 𝟐𝟖𝟓. 𝟔𝟏 𝒍𝒃
66
For Weight of Horizontal Tail,
−𝟎.𝟏𝟐 𝟎.𝟎𝟒𝟑
𝟎.𝟒𝟏𝟒 𝟎.𝟏𝟔𝟖 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒕⁄𝒄 𝑨
𝑾𝒉𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟔(𝑵𝒛 𝑾𝒅𝒈 ) 𝒒 𝑺𝒉𝒕 𝟎.𝟖𝟗𝟔
( ) ( ) 𝛌𝒉𝒕 −𝟎.𝟎𝟐
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝚲 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝚲𝒉𝒕
Where:
𝑁𝑧 Taken from table 4.1 = 1.5 x 3.8 5.7

𝑊𝑑𝑔 𝑊𝑜 = Taken from Activity No. 2 3025.57 lb
𝑞 1
𝜌𝑣 2
1
= (2) (0.002377
slug ft
) (69.4 s )2 5.72 lb/ft2
2 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑆ℎ𝑡 Taken from Activity No. 2, Horizontal tail area, ft2 24.9 ft2
t/c Thickness to chord ratio (Taken from Airfoil Profile 0015) 0.15
𝛬ℎ𝑡 From geometric measurement 0 deg
𝜆ℎ𝑡 Taken from Activity No. 2 1
Solution:
0.414
lb 0.168
𝑊ℎ𝑡 = (0.016)(3.75 𝑥 3025.57 𝑙𝑏) (5.72 2 ) (24.9 𝑓𝑡 2 )0.896
𝑓𝑡
−0.12
(100)(0.15) 4.33 0.043
𝑥 [ ] [ ] (1)−0.02
𝑐𝑜𝑠(0.1899°) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (0°)
𝑾𝒉𝒕 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟔𝟗 𝒍𝒃
67
For Weight of Vertical Tail,
For Swept Angle,
𝑾𝒗𝒕 =
−𝟎.𝟒𝟗 𝟎.𝟑𝟓𝟕
𝑯𝒕 𝟎.𝟑𝟕𝟔 𝟎.𝟏𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒕⁄𝒄 𝑨
𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟑 (𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟐 ) (𝑵𝒛 𝑾𝒅𝒈 ) 𝒒 𝑺𝒗𝒕 𝟎.𝟖𝟕𝟑 ( ) ( 𝟐
) 𝛌𝒗𝒕 𝟎.𝟎𝟑𝟗
𝑯𝒗 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝚲𝒗𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝚲𝒗𝒕
Where:
𝑁𝑧 Taken from table 4.1 = 1.5 x 2.5, 3.75

𝑞 1
𝜌𝑣 2
1
= (2) (0.002377
slug ft
) (69.4 s )2 5.72 lb/ft2
2 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑆𝑣𝑡 Taken from Activity No. 2 22.12 ft2
t/c Thickness to chord ratio (Taken from Airfoil Profile 0015) 0.15
𝛬𝑣𝑡 From geometric measurement 30 deg
𝜆𝑣𝑡 Taken from Activity No. 2 0.54
Ht/Hv 0.0 for conventional tail; 1.0 for “T” tail 0
68
Solution :
𝑊𝑣𝑡 = (0.073)[1 + (0.2)(0.0)]

−0.49
0.376
lb 0.122 (100)(0.15) 1.99 0.357
(5.7 𝑥 3025.57 𝑙𝑏) (5.72 2 ) (22.12 𝑓𝑡 2 )0.873 [ ] [ ] (0.54)0.039
𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠(30°) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (30°)
𝑾𝒗𝒕 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟎𝟔 𝒍𝒃
For Weight of Fuselage,
For Fuselage Wetted Area,
Solved through Autocad,
For Area of Main Fuselage,
0.00010739𝑓𝑡 2
2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 2,072,204.7118 mm 𝑥 ( )
10 𝑚𝑚2
Areatop = 44.61 ft2
69
2
0.00010739𝑓𝑡 2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 5,204,740.0614 mm 𝑥 ( )
10 𝑚𝑚2
Areaside= 56.02 ft2
For Area of twin-boom fuselage,
2
0.00010739𝑓𝑡 2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 1,764,966.25 mm 𝑥 ( )
10 𝑚𝑚2
Areatop = 37.99 ft2 x 2 = 75.98 ft2
70
0.00010739𝑓𝑡 2
2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 949303.6577 mm 𝑥 ( )
10 𝑚𝑚2
Areaside= 10.20 ft2 x 2 = 20.40 ft2
𝟎.𝟏𝟕𝟕 −𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟐
𝑾𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟐𝑺𝒇 𝟏.𝟎𝟖𝟔 (𝑵𝒛 𝑾𝒅𝒈 ) 𝑳𝒕 −𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟏 (𝑳⁄𝑫) 𝒒𝟎.𝟐𝟒𝟏 + Wpress
Where:
𝑆𝑓 Area solved through Autocad, 171.08 ft2

𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒑+𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆
Fuselage Wetted area, 𝑺𝒘𝒆𝒕 ≅ 𝟑. 𝟒( )
𝟐
𝑁𝑧 Taken from table 4.1 = 1.5 x 2.5, 5.7
𝐿𝑡 Taken from Activity No. 2, Lvt 16.042 ft
𝐿⁄ Taken from Activity No. 2 14.95
𝐷
𝑞 1
𝜌𝑣 2
1
= (2) (0.002377
slug ft
) (69.4 s )2 5.72 lb/ft2
2 𝑓𝑡 3
Wpress 𝑉𝑝𝑟 0.271 73.02 lb
W𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 11.9 ( )
𝑃𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑎
Where:
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑥 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 44.61 𝑓𝑡 2 𝑥 56.02𝑓𝑡 2
V𝑝𝑟 = 3.4 ( ) = 3.4 ( )
4 𝑥 𝐿𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒 4 𝑥 21.03 𝑓𝑡
V𝑝𝑟 = 101.01 𝑓𝑡
71
𝑙𝑏
𝑃𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑎 = 𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 8
𝑖𝑛2
𝑆𝑓 For Twin-Boom fuselage 163.9 ft2
Area solved through Autocad,
𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒑+𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆
Fuselage Wetted area, 𝑺𝒘𝒆𝒕 ≅ 𝟑. 𝟒( )
𝟐
Solution:
𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 0.052(171.08𝑓𝑡 2 + 163.9𝑓𝑡 2 )1.086 (5.7 𝑥 3025.57 𝑙𝑏)0.177
𝑙𝑏 0.241
𝑥 (16.042 𝑓𝑡)−0.051 (14.95)−0.072 (5.72 ) + 73.02𝑙𝑏
𝑓𝑡 2
𝑾𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝟐𝟒𝟖. 𝟔𝟑 𝒍𝒃
For Weight of Main Landing Gear,
𝑾𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒈𝒆𝒂𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟓 (𝑵𝟏 𝑾𝟏 )𝟎.𝟕𝟔𝟖 (𝑳𝒎 )𝟎.𝟒𝟎𝟗
72
Where:
𝑁1 𝑁𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 x 1.5 = From Table 4.4 4.5
𝑊1 𝑊𝑑𝑔 x 0.95 = 3025.57lb x 0.95 2874.29 lb

𝐿𝑚 From geometric measurement 3.073 ft
𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 0.095 [(4.5)(2874.29 𝑙𝑏)]0.768 (3.073 𝑓𝑡)0.409
𝑾𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒈𝒆𝒂𝒓 = 𝟐𝟏𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 𝒍𝒃
For Weight of Nose Landing Gear,
𝑾𝒏𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒈𝒆𝒂𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓(𝑵𝟏 𝑾𝟏 )𝟎.𝟓𝟔𝟔 (𝑳𝒏 )𝟎.𝟖𝟒𝟓
73
Where:
𝑁1 𝑁𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 x 1.5 = From Table 4.4 4.5

𝑊1 𝑊𝑑𝑔 x 0.95 = 3025.57lb x 0.95 2874.29 lb
𝐿𝑛 From geometric measurement 3.439 ft
Solution:
𝑊𝑛𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 0.125[(4.5)(2874.29 𝑙𝑏)]0.566 (3.439 𝑓𝑡)0.845
𝑾𝒏𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒈𝒆𝒂𝒓 = 𝟕𝟓. 𝟒𝟏 𝒍𝒃
For Weight of Installed Engine,
𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆 (𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍) = 𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅− 𝑾𝒐𝒊𝒍
Where:
𝑊𝑒𝑛 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 2.575𝑊𝑒𝑛 0.922 𝑁𝑒𝑛 769.49
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 2.575(484)0.922 (1)
𝑊𝑒𝑛 Engine Weight 484 lb

𝑁𝑒𝑛 Number of Engines 1
𝑊𝑜𝑖𝑙 Oil to Fuel Ratio 1:25 45.56 lb
Density of Aviation Gas = 6lb/gal
Density of Oil = 7.5lb/gal
𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 7.5 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑔𝑎𝑙
𝑊𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑥
6 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑔𝑎𝑙 25
911.25 𝑙𝑏 7.5 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑔𝑎𝑙
𝑊𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑥
6 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑔𝑎𝑙 25
Solution :
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙) = 769.49 𝑙𝑏 − 45.56 𝑙𝑏
𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆 (𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍) = 𝟕𝟐𝟑. 𝟗𝟐𝟕𝟓 𝒍𝒃
74
For Weight of Fuel System,
𝟎.𝟑𝟔𝟑
𝟎.𝟕𝟐𝟔 𝟏
𝑾𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟗𝑽𝒕 ( ) 𝑵𝒕 𝟎.𝟐𝟒𝟐 𝑵𝒆𝒏 𝟎.𝟏𝟓𝟕
𝟏 + 𝑽𝒊 ⁄ 𝑽𝒕
Where:
𝑉𝑡 Total fuel volume 151.87 gal

𝑉𝑖 Integral tanks volume 151.87 gal
𝑁𝑡 Number of tanks 3
For 𝑉𝑡 ,
Solved Through Autocad,
0.000264172 𝑔𝑎𝑙
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 (𝑉𝑡) = 574,890,449.2381 mm3 𝑥 ( )
1000 𝑚𝑚3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 (𝑉𝑡) = 151.87 𝑔𝑎𝑙
Solution :
0.726
1 0.363
𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 2.49(151.87 𝑔𝑎𝑙) ( ) (3)0.242 (1)0.157
1+ 1
𝑾𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 = 𝟗𝟔. 𝟖𝟔 𝒍𝒃
75
For Weight of Flight Controls,
𝟎.𝟖𝟎
𝑾𝒇𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟑𝑳𝟏.𝟓𝟑𝟔 𝑩𝒘 𝟎.𝟑𝟕𝟏 (𝑵𝒛 𝑾𝒅𝒈 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 )
Where:
L Taken from Activity No. 2, Fuselage structural length, ft. 21.030 ft

(excluding radome, tail cap)
From Main fuselage to tip of boom fuselage
𝐵𝑤 Taken from Activity No. 1, Wingspan, ft. 32.15 ft
For L,
Solution:
𝑊𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑠 = 0.053(21.030 𝑓𝑡)1.536 (32.15 𝑓𝑡)0.371 [(5.7 𝑥 3025.57 𝑙𝑏)𝑥 10−4 ]0.80
𝑾𝒇𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒔 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟗𝟔 𝒍𝒃
76
For Weight of Hydraulics,
𝑾𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒖𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝑾𝒅𝒈
Where:
𝑊𝑑𝑔 Taken from Activity No. 2 3025.57
𝑊ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑠 = 0.001(3025.57 𝑙𝑏)
𝑾𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒖𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒔 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟑 𝒍𝒃
For Weight of Avionics,
Where:
𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑠 Taken from Table 4.3 Avionics Weights 0.03

𝑊𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦
𝑊𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 Taken from Activity No. 2 1694.32 lb
𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑠
𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑠 = 𝑊𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑥
𝑊𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦
𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑠 = 1694.32 𝑙𝑏 𝑥 0.03
𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑠 = 50.83 𝑙𝑏
77
For Weight of Electrical System,
𝟎.𝟓𝟏
𝑾𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝟕(𝑾𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 + 𝑾𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒔 )
𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 12.57 (96.86 𝑙𝑏 + 50.83 𝑙𝑏)0.51
𝑾𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎. 𝟓𝟖 𝒍𝒃
For Weight of Furnishings,
𝑾𝒇𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒊𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟖𝟐𝑾𝒅𝒈 − 𝟔𝟓
Where:
𝑊𝑑𝑔 Taken from Activity No. 2 3025.57 lb

𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 0.0582(3025.57 𝑙𝑏) − 65
𝑾𝒇𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒊𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟗 𝒍𝒃
For Structural Group,
Refer to Table 4.5 for the computation of Estimated Weight
78
Where:
𝑾𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 = 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒙 𝑭𝒖𝒅𝒈𝒆 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
Structural Group
Description Computed Fudge Factor Estimated Weight
- lb - lb
Upper Wing 285.61 0.85 242.77
Horizontal Tail 16.69 0.83 13.85
Vertical Tail 18.06 0.83 14.99
Fuselage 248.63 0.9 223.77
Main Landing Gear 216.25 0.95 205.44
Nose Landing Gear 75.41 0.95 71.64
TOTAL 772.46
For Useful Load Groups,

Values are taken from Activity No. 2
Where:
𝑊𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑡 = 1 x 170 lb = 170 lb
𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 1 x 170 lb = 170 lb
𝑊𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 45.56 lb
𝑊𝑏𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 2 x 40 lb = 80 lb
𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 911.25 lb
Useful Load Group

Description Computed Estimated Weight
- lb lb
Pilot 170 170
Passenger 170 170
Oil 45.56 45.56
Baggage 40 80
Fuel 911.25 911.25
Total 1376.81
79
For Powerplant & Propulsion Group,
Powerplant & Propulsion Group

- lb lb
Installed Engine w/o oil 723.93 723.93
Fuel System 96.86 96.86
Total 820.79
For Equipment/System Group,
Equipment/System Group
- lb lb
Flight Controls 31.96 31.96
Hydraulics 3.03 3.03
Avionics 50.83 50.83
Electrical System 160.58 160.58
Furnishings 111.09 111.09
Total 357.49
For Gross Weight,
Structural Group 772.46 lb

Powerplant & Propulsion Group 820.79 lb
Equipment/System Group 357.49 lb
Useful Load Group 1376.81 lb
Gross Weight 3327.55 lb
80
For Empty Weight,
Structural Group 772.46 lb

Powerplant & Propulsion Group 820.79 lb
Equipment/System Group 357.49 lb
Empty Weight 1950.74 lb
81
Conclusion:
The weight estimate of each part and component of the designed aircraft
was determined through the statistical group weights method. The goal of the
activity was to be able to compute for the gross weight near the value computed
in the previous activity. Through adjustments of the ultimate load factors, the
length of main and nose landing gear the computed gross weight in this activity
has minimal difference to the previously computed gross weight.
82
NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
Activity No. 5:
TITLE: Centroid
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the centroid of the designed aircraft.
To determine the relation of the centroid of one parts/components to others.
PROCEDURE:
5.1) Determine the datum line of your designed aircraft.
5.2) Compute and illustrate the centroid
5.2.1) Wing Group
5.2.2) Fuselage Group
5.2.3) Horizontal Tail Group
5.2.4) Vertical Tail Group
5.2.5) Powerplant Group
5.2.6) Aircraft System And Furnishing Group
5.2.7) Useful Load Group
CONCLUSION:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
REFERENCES:

Daniel P. Raymer
22
`
Centroids Computation
Objectives
 To determine the centroids of the designated aircraft and its parts or

components
 To determine the relation of the centroid of on parts or components to
others
Formula for Centroids:
83
`
1. Propeller and Spinner Group
Portion Area, A ARM,x ARM, y Ax Ay

ft2 ft ft ft3 ft3
Propeller 0.94 1.00 4.62 0.94 4.34
Spinner 0.98 0.78 4.62 0.76 4.50
Ʃ 1.91 1.70 8.84
𝜮𝑨𝒙 1.70 𝑓𝑡 3
𝒙′ = = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟗 𝐟𝐭. 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐝𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑨 1.91 𝑓𝑡 2
𝜮𝑨𝒚 8.84 𝑓𝑡 3
𝒚′ = = = 𝟒. 𝟔𝟐 𝐟𝐭. 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑨 1.91 𝑓𝑡 2
84
CENTROID OF PROPELLER
SCALE 1:40
CENTROID OF COMPONENT/PART
1407.2870mm [4.62ft]
305.4553mm [1.00ft]
85
CENTROID OF SPINNER
SCALE 1:40
1407.2870mm [4.62ft]
237.4354mm [0.78ft]
86
CENTROID OF PROPELLER AND SPINNER GROUP
SCALE 1:40
CENTROID OF Propeller and Spinner Group
1407.2900mm [4.62ft]
270.3800mm [0.89ft]
87
`
2. Engine Group
Engine Group
ft 2 ft ft ft3 ft3
Engine 4.96 3.15 4.43 15.63 21.98
Cowling 8.74 3.37 4.43 29.47 38.73
Oil Tank and System 0.27 5.32 3.44 1.45 0.94
Ʃ 13.98 46.55 61.65
′
𝜮𝑨𝒙 46.55 𝑓𝑡 3
𝒙 = = = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 𝐟𝐭. 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐝𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑨 13.98𝑓𝑡 2
′
𝜮𝑨𝒚 61.65 𝑓𝑡 3
𝒚 = = = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟏 𝐟𝐭. 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑨 13.98 𝑓𝑡 2
88
CENTROID OF ENGINE
SCALE 1:40
1349.7599mm [4.43ft]
959.9687mm [3.15ft]
89
CENTROID OF COWLING
SCALE 1:40
1350.1548mm [4.43ft]
1027.2647mm [3.37ft]
90
CENTROID OF OIL TANK AND SYSTEM
SCALE 1:40
1101.2843mm [3.61ft]
1474.3754mm [4.84ft]
91
CENTROID OF ENGINE GROUP
SCALE 1:40
CENTROID OF ENGINE GROUP
1341.8600mm [4.40ft]
1019.2500mm [3.34ft]
92
`
3. Fuselage Group
Fuselage Group
ft2 ft ft ft3 ft3
Main Fuselage 37.98 13.05 4.51 495.49 171.41
Twin Boom Fuselage 10.22 16.61 3.56 169.74 36.36
Canopy 14.07 9.72 6.03 136.85 84.89
Instruments and Radio 1.50 6.17 5.19 9.28 7.80
Battery, Lights and 0.48 20.44 5.55 9.84 2.67

Electrical System
Seats 3.87 10.98 4.59 42.49 17.74
Pilot and Passengers 5.44 9.94 4.86 54.03 26.45
Baggage 1.68 9.46 3.16 15.86 5.30
Ʃ 75.24 933.58 352.62
𝜮𝑨𝒙 933.58 𝑓𝑡 3
𝒙′ = = = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟒𝟏 𝐟𝐭. 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐝𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑨 75.24 𝑓𝑡 2
𝜮𝑨𝒚 352.62𝑓𝑡 3
𝒚′ = = = 𝟒. 𝟔𝟗 𝐟𝐭. 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑨 75.24 𝑓𝑡 2
93
CENTROID OF MAIN FUSELAGE
SCALE 1:40
1375.5842mm [4.51ft]
3976.3956mm [13.05ft]
94
CENTROID OF TWIN BOOM FUSELAGE
SCALE 1:40
947.2770mm [3.11ft]
5135.9388mm [16.85ft]
95
SCALE 1:40
1375.5842mm [4.51ft]
3976.3956mm [13.05ft]
96
SCALE 1:40
947.2770mm [3.11ft]
5135.9388mm [16.85ft]
97
CENTROID OF CANOPY
SCALE 1:40
1838.6439mm [6.03ft]
2964.0572mm [9.72ft]
98
CENTROID OF INSTRUMENTS AND RADIO
SCALE 1:40
1590.2453mm [5.22ft]
1797.5347mm [5.90ft]
99
CENTROID OF Battery, Lights and Electrical System
SCALE 1:40
1155.1313mm [3.79ft]
4095.6100mm [13.44ft]
100
CENTROID OF SEATS
SCALE 1:40
2181.3213mm [7.16ft]
3281.3687mm [10.77ft]
101
CENTROID OF PILOT AND PASSENGER
SCALE 1:40
1482.6850mm [4.86ft]
3028.9183mm [9.94ft]
102
SCALE 1:40
1375.5842mm [4.51ft]
3976.3956mm [13.05ft]
103
SCALE 1:40
947.2770mm [3.11ft]
5135.9388mm [16.85ft]
104
SCALE 1:40
1375.5842mm [4.51ft]
3976.3956mm [13.05ft]
105
SCALE 1:40
947.2770mm [3.11ft]
5135.9388mm [16.85ft]
106
CENTROID OF CANOPY
SCALE 1:40
1838.6439mm [6.03ft]
2964.0572mm [9.72ft]
107
CENTROID OF INSTRUMENTS AND RADIO
SCALE 1:40
1590.2453mm [5.22ft]
1797.5347mm [5.90ft]
108
CENTROID OF Battery, Lights and Electrical System
SCALE 1:40
1155.1313mm [3.79ft]
4095.6100mm [13.44ft]
109
CENTROID OF SEATS
SCALE 1:40
2181.3213mm [7.16ft]
3281.3687mm [10.77ft]
110
CENTROID OF PILOT AND PASSENGER
SCALE 1:40
1482.6850mm [4.86ft]
3028.9183mm [9.94ft]
111
CENTROID OF BAGGAGE
SCALE 1:40
1201.6131mm [3.94ft]
4477.3596mm [14.69ft]
112
CENTROID OF FUSELAGE GROUP
SCALE 1:40
CENTROID OF FUSELAGE
1414.8400mm [4.64ft]
3803.6800mm [12.48ft]
113
`
4. Wing Group
Wing Group
ft2 ft ft ft3 ft3
Wing 6.47 9.07 3.61 58.67 23.32
Flaps, Ailerons and 1.50 10.71 3.83 16.02 5.73
Trims Tabs including
Control
Fuel Tank and System 3.11 9.12 3.36 28.34 10.45
Ʃ 11.07 103.03 39.50
′
𝜮𝑨𝒙 103.03 𝑓𝑡 3
𝒙 = = = 𝟗. 𝟑𝟏 𝐟𝐭. 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐝𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑨 11.07 𝑓𝑡 2
′
𝜮𝑨𝒚 39.50 𝑓𝑡 3
𝒚 = = = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟕 𝐟𝐭. 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑨 11.07 𝑓𝑡 2
Flaps, Aileron and Trim tabs,

Area, A
including control
ft2
Flaps 3.58
Aileron 1.17
Trim Tabs (FROM AUTOCAD) 0.03
Controls (FROM AUTOCAD) 0.07
Ʃ 4.84
114
`
Computations for Flaps and Aileron Area,

For Aileron Area @ Right Side View,
𝐴𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎@ 𝑅.𝑆.𝑉 = 𝐴𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑅. 𝑆. 𝑉. 𝐴𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐴𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎@ 𝑅.𝑆.𝑉 = 1.13 𝑓𝑡 𝑥 1.0310𝑓𝑡

𝐴𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 @ 𝑅.𝑆.𝑉. = 1.1650 𝑓𝑡 2
For Aileron Width,

Since aileron width is parallel to aircraft centerline, computed
aileron width is same as actual right side view aileron width,
𝐴𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝒄̅
Where:
̅ (𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 2) = 4.52 𝑓𝑡
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝐴𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 (𝑐)
𝐴𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 0.25(4.52𝑓𝑡)
𝐴𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟑 𝒇𝒕
For Aileron Length, (one side)

𝒃
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓
𝟐
Where:
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 (𝑏) (𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 2) = 32.15 𝑓𝑡
(𝟑𝟐. 𝟏𝟓 𝒇𝒕)
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓 𝒙
𝟐
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝟓. 𝟔𝟐𝟔𝟑 𝒇𝒕 (𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆)
115
`
To compute the actual aileron length at top view of tapered wing,
Angle measure from trailing edge of the wing,

𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
cos 9° =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
cos 9°
5.6263 𝑓𝑡
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ @ 𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝑉𝑖𝑒𝑤 =
cos 9°
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ @ 𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝑉𝑖𝑒𝑤 = 5.6964 𝑓𝑡
116
`
For Right Side View Aileron Length,
For Right Side View Length, the dihedral wing configuration at front view
and tapered at right side view must be considered to get the area for
right side view centroids computation,
Right Side View
𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑉𝑖𝑒𝑤𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑅. 𝑆. 𝑉. 𝐴𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
cos( 𝑇𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 @ 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑉𝑖𝑒𝑤)
Where :
Computed 𝐴𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 5.6263 𝑓𝑡
Dihedral Angle = 6 degrees (Taken from AutoCAD)

Taper Angle @ Right side View = 55 degrees (Taken from AutoCAD)
𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑉𝑖𝑒𝑤𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = [ 𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝑫𝒊𝒉𝒆𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆) ]𝒙 ( 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 )
tan(6°)𝑥 5.6263 𝑓𝑡
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑉𝑖𝑒𝑤𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
cos(55°)
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑅. 𝑆. 𝑉. 𝐴𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 1.0310 𝑓𝑡
117
`
For Total Area of Flaps at Right Side View,
𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐴𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝒙 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑅. 𝑆. 𝑉. 𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 1.13 𝑓𝑡 𝒙 3.1644 𝑓𝑡

𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 @ 𝑅.𝑆.𝑉. = 3.5758 𝑓𝑡 2
For Computed Flaps Length, (both sides)
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 0.66 𝑏𝑤 − 𝐹𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
Where:
𝑏𝑤 = 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 = 32.15 𝑓𝑡
FuselageWidth =
Measured from Three views (Autocad) = 3.95 ft
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 0.66(32.15 𝑓𝑡) − 3.95𝑓𝑡
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 17.2690 𝑓𝑡
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ @ 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 8.6345 𝑓𝑡
118
`
For Right Side View Flaps Length,
For Right Side View Length, the dihedral wing configuration at front view
and tapered at right side view must be considered to get the area for
right side view centroids computation,
𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑉𝑖𝑒𝑤𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑅. 𝑆. 𝑉. 𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
cos( 𝑇𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 @ 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑉𝑖𝑒𝑤)
Where :
17.2690𝑓𝑡
Computed 𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ @ 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 =
2
Dihedral Angle = 6 degrees (Taken from AutoCAD)

Taper Angle @ Right side View = 55 degrees (Taken from AutoCAD)
𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑉𝑖𝑒𝑤𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = [ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝐷𝑖ℎ𝑒𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒) ]𝑥 ( 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ )
tan(6°)𝑥 17.2690 𝑓𝑡
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑉𝑖𝑒𝑤𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
cos(55°)
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑅. 𝑆. 𝑉. 𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 3.1644 𝑓𝑡
119
CENTROID OF WING
SCALE 1:40
1109.0216mm [3.64ft]
2861.3073mm [9.39ft]
120
CENTROID OF Flaps, Ailerons and Trims Tabs including Control
SCALE 1:40
1144.4663mm [3.75ft]
3405.6615mm [11.17ft]
121
CENTROID OF FUEL TANK AND SYSTEM
SCALE 1:40
1081.8833mm [3.55ft]
2825.7385mm [9.27ft]
122
CENTROID OF WING GROUP
SCALE 1:40
CENTROID OF WING GROUP
1114.8900mm [3.66ft]
3038.0700mm [9.97ft]
123
`
5. Horizontal Tail Group
Horizontal Tail Group

ft2 ft ft ft3 ft3
Horizontal Stabilizer 0.49 26.33 8.92 12.87 4.36
Elevator (s) 0.25 26.74 8.93 6.73 2.25
Trim Tabs 0.07 27.18 8.93 1.86 0.61
Ʃ 0.81 21.46 7.22
𝜮𝑨𝒙 21.46𝑓𝑡 3
𝒙′ = = = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟓𝟑 𝐟𝐭. 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐝𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑨 0.81𝑓𝑡 2
𝜮𝑨𝒚 7.22𝑓𝑡 3
𝒚′ = = = 𝟖. 𝟗𝟑 𝐟𝐭. 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑨 0.81 𝑓𝑡 2
For Elevator Area,

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 @ 𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝑉𝑖𝑒𝑤 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓 𝑺𝑯𝑻
Where :
SHT = Taken from Activity 2 = 24.9 ft2
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 @ 𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝑉𝑖𝑒𝑤 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓 (𝟐𝟒. 𝟗 𝒇𝒕𝟐 )
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎@ 𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝑉𝑖𝑒𝑤 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟎𝟓 𝒇𝒕𝟐
124
CENTROID OF HORIZONTAL STABILIZER
SCALE 1:40
2573.7849mm [8.44ft]
8024.2893mm [26.33ft]
125
CENTROID OF ELEVATOR
SCALE 1:40
2574.7239mm [8.45ft]
8240.9195mm [27.04ft]
126
CENTROID OF TRIM TABS
SCALE 1:40
2573.7849mm [8.44ft]
8330.6073mm [27.33ft]
127
CENTROID OF HORIZONTAL TAIL GROUP
SCALE 1:40
CENTROID OF HORIZONTAL TAIL GROUP
2573.9600mm [8.44ft]
8078.0800mm [26.50ft]
128
`
6. Vertical Tail Group
Vertical Tail Group

ft2 ft ft ft3 ft3
Vertical Fin 8.58 24.55 6.47 210.54 55.52
Rudder 6.08 25.98 6.37 158.04 38.77
Ʃ 14.66 368.58 94.29
′
𝜮𝑨𝒙 368.58 𝑓𝑡 3
𝒙 = = = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟏𝟒 𝐟𝐭. 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐝𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑨 14.66𝑓𝑡 2
𝜮𝑨𝒚 94.29𝑓𝑡 3
𝒚′ = = = 𝟔. 𝟒𝟑 𝐟𝐭. 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑨 14.66 𝑓𝑡 2
For Rudder Area,

𝑅𝑢𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑟𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓 𝑺𝑽𝑻
Where :
SVT = Taken from Activity 2 = 11.06 ft2
𝑅𝑢𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑟𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓(𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟔 𝒇𝒕𝟐 )
𝑅𝑢𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑟𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟖𝟑 𝒇𝒕𝟐
129
CENTROID OF VERTICAL FIN
SCALE 1:40
1812.2110mm [5.95ft]
7661.4300mm [25.14ft]
130
CENTROID OF RUDDER
SCALE 1:40
1787.6180mm [5.86ft]
7979.8353mm [26.18ft]
131
CENTROID OF VERTICAL TAIL GROUP
SCALE 1:40
CENTROID OF VERTICAL TAIL GROUP
1802.0110mm [5.91ft]
7781.3900mm [25.53ft]
132
`
7. Landing Gear Group
Landing Gear Group

ft2 ft ft ft3 ft3
Main Landing Gear 2.45 9.50 1.13 23.24 2.76
Nose Landing Gear 2.19 2.26 1.28 4.94 2.81
Ʃ 4.63 28.18 5.57
𝜮𝑨𝒙 28.18 𝑓𝑡 3
𝒙′ = = = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟖 𝐟𝐭. 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐝𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑨 4.63 𝑓𝑡 2
𝜮𝑨𝒚 5.57 𝑓𝑡 3
𝒚′ = = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟎 𝐟𝐭. 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑨 4.63 𝑓𝑡 2
133
CENTROID OF MAIN LANDING GEAR
SCALE 1:40
274.2216mm [0.90ft]
3450.6463mm [11.32ft]
134
CENTROID OF NOSE LANDING GEAR
SCALE 1:40
345.0785mm [1.13ft]
1078.7861mm [3.54ft]
135
CENTROID OF LANDING GEAR GROUP
SCALE 1:40
CENTROID OF LANDING GEAR GROUP
307.6800mm [1.01ft]
2330.7100mm [7.65ft]
136
`
8. Centroid of the Whole Aircraft
Centroid of Whole Aircraft

ft2 ft ft ft3 ft3
Propeller and Spinner 1.91 0.89 4.62 1.70 8.84
Engine Group 13.98 3.33 4.41 46.56 61.65

Fuselage Group 75.24 12.41 4.69 933.60 352.62
Wing Group 11.07 9.31 3.57 103.03 39.50
Horizontal Tail Group 0.81 26.53 8.93 21.46 7.22
Vertical Tail Group 14.66 25.14 6.43 368.58 94.29
Landing Gear Group 4.63 6.08 1.20 28.18 5.58
Ʃ 122.30 1501.41 560.86
′
𝜮𝑨𝒙 1501.41𝑓𝑡 3
𝒙 = = = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝟕 𝐟𝐭. 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐝𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑨 122.30 𝑓𝑡 2
′
𝜮𝑨𝒚 560.86 𝑓𝑡 3
𝒚 = = = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟗 𝐟𝐭. 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑨 122.30 𝑓𝑡 2
137
CENTROID OF WHOLE AIRCRAFT
SCALE 1:40
CENTROID OF WHOLE AIRCRAFT
1370.6390mm [4.50ft]
3831.5100mm [12.57ft]
8415.2664mm [27.61ft]
138
`
Conclusion :
The centroids of the designated aircraft “Roquette-TB2” was determined

through the “mass properties” command of AUTOCAD 2015. Given the area of
the Right Side View of the aircraft the relation of the centroid of each
components to the whole aircraft centroid was defined.
Note :
Updates were made in this particular activity to comply to the limits of Activity
number 7 – Landing Gear Design. The values in the tables presented in this
activity is updated. However, the figures shown were no longer updated.
The following part/component was repositioned or modified :
 Oil and Tank System  Fuel Tank and System

 Twin Boom Fuselage  Horizontal Stabilizer
 Instruments and Radio  Vertical Fin
 Battery, Lights and Electrical  Rudder
System  Main and Nose Landing Gear
 Seats
 Pilot and Passengers
 Baggage
 Wing
 Flaps, ailerons and Trim Tabs
Including control
139
NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
Activity no. 6
TITLE: Center of Gravity and C.G. Envelope
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the c.g. position of your designed aircraft.
To set the c.g. limits of your designed aircraft.
To construct the c.g. envelope of your designed aircraft.
PROCEDURE:
6.1) Compute the c.g. position of each group.
6.2) Compute for the max aft and max fore c.g. position.
6.3) Set the c.g. envelope of the designed aircraft.
CONCLUSION:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
REFERENCES:

Daniel P. Raymer
25
Basic Airplane C.G. Position
ITEM DESIGNATION WEIGHT, HORIZONTAL Wx VERTICAL Wy
W ARM, X ARM, Y
- - lbs ft ft lb ft ft lb
1 WING 242.77 9.07 2202.73 3.61 875.34
2 FUSELAGE 223.77 12.88 2882.16 4.7 1051.72
3 HORIZONTAL 13.85 26.53 367.46 8.93 123.63
TAIL
4 VERTICAL TAIL 14.99 25.14 376.89 6.43 96.42
5 COWLING 36.20 3.37 121.99 4.43 160.34
6 FLAPS & 31.96 10.71 342.4 3.83 122.43
AILERON
INCLUDING
CONTROLS
7 LANDING GEAR 280.11 6.08 1704.03 1.20 336.81
8 FUEL TANK & 96.86 9.12 883.49 3.36 325.87
SYSTEMS
9 INSTRUMENTS 50.83 6.17 313.79 5.19 263.87
AND RADIO
10 BATTERY LIGHTS 160.58 20.44 3281.63 5.55 890.46
AND
ELECTRICAL
SYSTEM
11 SEATS AND 111.09 10.98 1220.24 4.59 509.53
HARNESSES
12 ENGINE 600.86 3.15 1892.41 4.43 2660.82
13 PROPELLER AND 86.87 0.89 77.2 4.62 401.16
SPINNER
ƩW = 1950.74 15666.42 3.61 7818.40
𝜮𝑾𝒙 15666.42 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏
̅=
𝒙 = = 𝟖. 𝟎𝟑 𝐟𝐭. 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐝𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑾 1950.74𝑙𝑏
𝜮𝑾𝒚 7818.40 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏
̅=
𝒚 = = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟏 𝐟𝐭. 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑾 1950.74 𝑙𝑏
140
BASIC AIRPLANE C.G.
SCALE 1:40
BASIC AIRPLANE C.G.
1204.2000mm [3.95ft]
x = 2549.8000mm [8.37ft]
30% M.A.C. = 413.3088mm [1.36ft]
xo= 2326.0447mm [7.63ft]
141
Most Aft C.G. Position
W ARM, X ARM, Y
1 BASIC 1950.74 8.03 15666.42 4.01 7818.4
AIRPLANE
2 BAGGAGE 120 9.46 1134.7 3.16 378.8
3 PILOT 170 8.56 1455.2 4.83 821.1
4 PASSENGER 170 11.76 1999.2 4.96 843.2
5 1/2 FUEL 455.625 9.99 4551.69 3.16 1439.78
Ʃ ƩW = 2866.3625 ƩWx = 24807.21 ƩWy = 11301.28
𝜮𝑾𝒙 24807.21 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏
̅=
𝒙 = = 𝟖. 𝟔𝟓 𝐟𝐭. 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐝𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑾 2866.3625 𝑙𝑏
𝜮𝑾𝒚 11301.28 𝑙𝑏
̅=
𝒚 = = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟒 𝐟𝐭. 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑾 2866.3625 𝑙𝑏
̅ − 𝐱𝐨
𝒙
𝐝(%) =
𝐌𝐀𝐂
8.65 − 7.30 ft
d(%) = x 100%
4.517 ft
𝐝(%) = 29.9859 %
142
MOST AFT C.G.
SCALE 1:40
MOST AFT C.G.
x = 2740.9000mm [8.99ft]
30.11 % of M.A.C.
y = 1210.2000mm [3.97ft]
30% M.A.C. = 413.3088mm [1.36ft]

xo= 2326.0447mm [7.63ft]
143
Most Forward C.G. Position
W ARM, X ARM, Y
1 BASIC 1950.7375 8.03 15666.42 4.01 7818.4
AIRPLANE
2 LIGHT PILOT 120 8.56 1027.2 4.83 579.6
3 OIL 45.5625 5.32 242.56 3.44 156.66
Ʃ ƩW = 2116.63 ƩWx = 16936.20 ƩWy = 8554.66
𝜮𝑾𝒙 16936.20 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏
̅=
𝒙 = = 𝟖. 𝟎𝟎 𝐟𝐭. 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐝𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑾 2116.63 𝑙𝑏
𝜮𝑾𝒚 8554.66 𝑙𝑏
̅=
𝒚 = = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟒 𝐟𝐭. 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑾 2116.63 𝑙𝑏
̅ − 𝐱𝐨
𝒙
𝐝(%) =
𝐌𝐀𝐂
8.00 − 7.30 ft
d(%) = x 100%
4.517 ft
𝐝(%) = 15.5546 %
144
MOST FORWARD C.G.
SCALE 1:40
MOST FORWARD C.G.
x = 2532.9000mm [8.31ft]
15. 02 % of M.A.C.
y = 1216.5000mm [3.99ft]
x = 2549.8000mm [8.37ft]
30% M.A.C. = 413.3088mm [1.36ft]
xo= 2326.0447mm [7.63ft]
15% M.A.C. = 206.6500mm [0.68ft]
145
Gross Weight C.G. Position
W ARM, X ARM, Y
1 BASIC 1950.74 8.03 15666.42 4.01 7818.4
AIRPLANE
2 PILOT 170 8.56 1455.2 4.83 821.1
3 PASSENGER 170 11.76 1999.2 4.96 843.2
4 BAGGAGE 80 9.46 756.47 3.16 252.53
5 FUEL (FULL) 911.25 9.12 8311.83 3.36 3065.73
6 OIL 45.56 5.32 242.56 3.44 156.66
Ʃ ƩW = 3327.55 ƩWx = 28431.70 ƩWy = 12957.60
𝜮𝑾𝒙 28431.70 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏
̅=
𝒙 = = 𝟖. 𝟓𝟒 𝐟𝐭. 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐝𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑾 3327.55 𝑙𝑏
𝜮𝑾𝒚 12957.60 𝑙𝑏
̅=
𝒚 = = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟗 𝐟𝐭. 𝐭𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞
𝜮𝑾 3327.55 𝑙𝑏
̅ − 𝐱𝐨
𝒙
𝐝(%) =
𝐌𝐀𝐂
8.54 − 7.30 ft
d(%) = x 100%
4.517 ft
𝐝(%) = 27.5448 %
146
GROSS WEIGHT C.G.
SCALE 1:40
GROSS WEIGHT C.G.
x = 2696.5000mm [8.85ft]
26.90 % of M.A.C.
y = 1192.6000mm [3.91ft]
30% M.A.C. = 413.3088mm [1.36ft]

xo= 2326.0447mm [7.63ft]
147
BASIC AIRPLANE C.G.
MOST AFT C.G.
MOST FORWARD C.G.
GROSS WEIGHT C.G.
x = 2696.5000mm [8.85ft]
SCALE 1:40
x = 2740.9000mm [8.99ft]
x = 2532.9000mm [8.31ft]
y = 1192.6000mm [3.91ft]
x = 2549.8000mm [8.37ft]
y = 1216.5000mm [3.99ft]
30% M.A.C. = 413.3088mm [1.36ft]
xo= 2326.0447mm [7.63ft]
y =1204.2000mm [3.95ft]
y = 1210.2000mm [3.97ft]
148
30,000
27,000
24,000
21,000
18,000
15,000
12,000
9000
6000
3000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
%MAC
Legend:
MOST AFT C.G.

MOST FORWARD C.G. Graph Scale:
5 % MAC = 11.746 mm
GROSS WEIGHT C.G. 3000 ft lb= 11.746 mm
149
CENTROID OF FUSELAGE
SCALE 1:40
1369.7097mm [4.49ft]
4044.0184mm [13.27ft]
150
CENTROID OF 1/2 FUEL TANK AND SYSTEM
SCALE 1:40
1085.8778mm [3.56ft]
3038.6446mm [9.97ft]
151
CENTROID OF PASSENGER
SCALE 1:40
1481.7460mm [4.86ft]
3854.2527mm [12.65ft]
152
CENTROID OF PILOT
SCALE 1:40
1471.9279mm [4.83ft]
2601.4649mm [8.53ft]
153
Conclusion :
The basic airplane, most aft, most forward and gross weight C.G. was
determined by making the necessary adjustments in the previous activities. The
C.G. position of each group was computed by the summation of forces in the x
and y axis with reference to the datum line at spinner tip and ground line.
Note :
Due to the changes in activity 5, the center of gravity and C.G. envelope was
also changed. The values shown in the tables are updated as adjustments were
made to comply to the limitations of Activity No. 7 Landing Gear Design.
However, the figures presented were no longer updated.
The changes in the values of the C.G. envelope was only minimal. About 0.1-
11% change was made.
Refer to conclusion page of Activity 5 – Centroids Computation for the figures

that were repositioned or modified.
154
NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
Activity no. 7
TITLE: Landing Gear Design
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the appropiate design of your landing gear.
To determine the right postion of the landing gear to maintain its stability.
To determine the correct tire load of your aircraft.
PROCEDURE:
7.1) Determine the landing gear layout of your designed aircraft.
7.2) Arrange the position of landing gear to maintain its stability. (wheel base
& wheel track)
7.3) Compute the max and min load of the tires and choose the correct tire for
the given load.
CONCLUSION:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
REFERENCES:

Daniel P. Raymer
28
Landing Gear Design
Landing Gear Arrangement of the Aircraft,
Fig 6.1 Landing gear arrangement
155
SCALE 1:40
CHO
RD L
INE
GROSS WEIGHT C.G.
156
SCALE 1:40
H @ G.W. C.G. = 1177,85 [3,864ft]
GROSS WEIGHT C.G.
2604,9 [8,546ft]
157
From Fig. 6.1,
The aircraft has a tricycle type landing gear arrangement.
Wheel Load Geometry,
Given:
W = Designed Gross Weight = From Activity No. 5 = 3225.41 = lb
H = Height of Most Forward C.G. = 4.077 ft
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 32.174 ft⁄s 2
B = From Wheel Load Geometry = 7.35 ft
Na = From Wheel Load Geometry = 6.51 ft
Nf = From Wheel Load Geometry = 5.83 ft
Mf = From Wheel Load Geometry = 1.52 ft
Ma = From Wheel Load Geometry = 0.84 ft
Limits:
𝐌𝐚
𝐁
= Should be greater than 0.05
𝐌𝐚 0.84 ft
𝐁
= (7.35 ft) = 0.11
𝐌𝐟
𝐁
= Should be less than 0.2
𝐌𝐟 1.52 ft
𝐁
= (7.35 ft) = 0.20
For Max Static Load (Using Eq. 6.1),

𝐍𝐚
𝐌𝐚𝐱 𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝 = 𝐖
𝐁
6.51 ft
Max Static Load = (3225.41 lb) ( )
7.35 ft
𝐌𝐚𝐱 𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝 = 𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟔. 𝟑𝟓𝟑 𝐥𝐛
𝐌𝐟
(𝐌𝐚𝐱 𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝)𝐧𝐨𝐬𝐞 = 𝐖
𝐁
1.52 ft
(Max Static Load)nose = (3225.41 lb) ( )
7.35 ft
(𝐌𝐚𝐱 𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝)𝐧𝐨𝐬𝐞 = 𝟔𝟔𝟖. 𝟑𝟒 𝐥𝐛
158
𝐌𝐚
𝐌𝐢𝐧 𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝 = 𝐖
𝐁
0.841 ft
Min Static Load = (3225.41 lb) ( )
7.35 ft
𝐌𝐢𝐧 𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝 = 𝟑𝟔𝟗. 𝟎𝟔 𝐥𝐛
𝟏𝟎𝐇𝐖
(𝐃𝐲𝐧𝐚𝐦𝐢𝐜 𝐁𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝)𝐧𝐨𝐬𝐞 =
𝐠𝐁
10(4.077)(3225.41 lb)
(Dynamic Braking Load)nose =
(32.174 ft⁄s 2 )(7.35 ft)
(𝐃𝐲𝐧𝐚𝐦𝐢𝐜 𝐁𝐫𝐚𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝)𝐧𝐨𝐬𝐞 = 𝟓𝟓𝟔. 𝟎𝟕 𝐥𝐛
Tire Sizing,
Wheel Loading
Main Wheels
For Max static load of main wheels,

𝐌𝐚𝐱 𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝
𝐖𝐌𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐞𝐥 =
𝐍𝐨. 𝐨𝐟 𝐓𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐬
𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟔. 𝟑𝟓𝟑 lb
W𝐌𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐞𝐥 =
2
𝐖𝐌𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐞𝐥 = 𝟏𝟒𝟐𝟖. 𝟏𝟖 𝐥𝐛
159
Tire Data of Main Wheels
From Table 6.4
Size = 5.00-4.00
Inflation Pressure = 95 psi
Tire Width = 5.05 in
Tire Diameter = 13.25 in
Rolling Radius = 5.2
Wheel Diameter = 4.0
WEIGHT CARRIED BY THE DESIGNED TIRE, WW
Main Wheels
𝐖𝐖 = 𝐏𝐀 𝐏
Where:
P= Inflation Pressure = 95 psi
AP = Footprint Area
For Footprint Area
𝐝
𝐀 𝐏 = 𝟐. 𝟑√𝐰𝐝( − 𝐑 𝐫 )
𝟐
13.25 in
AP = 2.3√(5.05 in)(4.0in) ( − 5.2in)
2
160
𝐀 𝐏 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟕𝟑 𝒊𝒏𝟐
WW =(95 psi)(14.73 in2)
𝐖𝐖 = 𝟏𝟑𝟗𝟗. 𝟑𝟓 𝐥𝐛
Nose Wheels
For Max Load Nose Wheel,

(𝐃𝐲𝐧𝐚𝐦𝐢𝐜 𝐁𝐫𝐚𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝 + 𝐌𝐚𝐱 𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝)𝐧𝐨𝐬𝐞
𝐖𝐍𝐨𝐬𝐞 𝐖𝐡𝐞𝐞𝐥 =
𝟏. 𝟒 𝐱 (𝐍𝐨. 𝐨𝐟 𝐓𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐬)
(556.07 lb + 668.34 lb)nose
W𝐍𝐨𝐬𝐞 𝐖𝐡𝐞𝐞𝐥 =
1.4 x (1)
𝐖𝐍𝐨𝐬𝐞 𝐖𝐡𝐞𝐞𝐥 = 𝟖𝟕𝟒. 𝟓𝟖 𝐥𝐛
Tire Data of Nose Wheel

From Table 6.4
Size = 5.00-4
Inflation Pressure = 55 psi
Tire Width = 5.05 in
161
Tire Diameter = 13.25 in
Rolling Radius = 5.2
Wheel Diameter = 4.0
WEIGHT CARRIED BY THE DESIGNED TIRE, WW
Nose Wheels
Where:
P= Inflation Pressure = 55 psi
AP = Footprint Area
For Footprint Area,
𝐝
𝐀 𝐏 = 𝟐. 𝟑√𝐰𝐝( − 𝐑 𝐫 )
𝟐
13.25 in
AP = 2.3√(5.05 in)(4.0 in) ( − 5.2in)
2
𝑨𝑷 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟕𝟑 𝒊𝒏𝟐
WW =(55 psi)(14.73 in2)
𝐖𝐖 = 𝟖𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟖 𝐥𝐛
162
Stroke and Diameter of Shock Absorber,
163
For Oleo Strut
𝐕𝐕𝐄𝐑𝐓𝐈𝐂𝐀𝐋 𝟐 𝛈𝐓
S= − 𝐒𝐓
𝟐𝐠𝛈𝐍𝐆𝐄𝐀𝐑 𝛈
Where:
S = Stroke
VVertical = 10 ft/s
g = 32.174 ft/s2
ŋ = Taken from Table 6.2 = 0.65
Ngear = Taken from table 6.3 = 3
ŋT = Tire efficiency, taken from Table 6.2 = 0.47
d 13.25 in 1ft
ST = 2−𝑅𝑟 = ( −5.2 in)x12in = 0.12 ft
2
Rr = Taken from Table 6.4
(10ft⁄s)2 (0.47)
S = 2(32.174ft⁄s2 )(0.65)(3) − (0.65)
(0.12 ft)
Stroke= 0.71
Stroke = 0.71 ft
The total length of the oleo including the stroke distance and the fixed portion
of the oleo will be approximately 2.5 times the stroke.
Length of Oleo = (0.71 ft)(2.5)
Length of Oleo = 1.78 ft
164
SCALE 1:40
MOST AFT C.G.

MOST FORWARD C.G.
NF = 1775,89 [5,826ft]
MF = 464,3 [1,523ft]
H = 1242,6 [4,077ft]
NA = 1983,99 [6,509ft]
MA = 256,2 [0,841ft]
b = 2240,19 [7,350ft]
165
SCALE 1:40
GROSS WEIGHT C.G.
H @ G.W. C.G.1177,85 [3,864ft] 539,5 [1,770 ft]
4128,94 [13,546ft]
166
SCALE 1:40
MOST AFT C.G.

MOST FORWARD C.G.
Strut Travel
STATIC GROUND LINE
Wheel Base = 2240,19 [7,350ft]
167
Conclusion :
The appropriate landing gear design for the aircraft was determined based on the data
provided on the reference “Aicraft Design: A Conceptual Approach” by Raymer. Tire
data, landing gear designs, shock absorber efficiency and load factor data were
presented. The correct tire load was computed in compliance to the limits given for the
main and nose landing gear.
Note :
Adjustments were made in this activity to comply to the desired limits for the
landing gear design. Thus, the initial values in activity no. 5 and 6 were affected.
168
NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
Activity No. 8
TITLE: Initial Estimate For Polar Drag Equation
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the polar drag equation for the designed aircraft.
PROCEDURE:
8.1) Determine the polar drag equation.
Clean Configuration
CDπ Aπ CDπ Aπ
PART DESCRIPTION
-
WING USUAL ROUGNESS
0.004 -0.010
t/c = 0.10 -0.20
FUSELAGE SMALL PLANE,
0.09 – 0.20
NOSE ENGINE
V. TAIL USUAL ROUGNESS
0.006 – 0.008
t/c = 0.10 -0.20
H. TAIL USUAL ROUGNESS
0.006 – 0.008
t/c = 0.10 -0.20
NOSE WHELL AND STRUT 0.5 – 0.8
LANDING TWO WELL_FAIRED
0.15 – 0.30
GEAR WHEELS W/ PANTS
WHEEL AND STRUT 0.30 -0.50
ΣCDπ Aπ
𝛴𝐶𝐷 𝜋𝐴𝜋 1.15𝛴𝐶𝐷 𝜋𝐴𝜋

𝐶𝐷0 = =
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓
8.2) Solve for Airplane Efficiency Factor
1 1 1
= + 𝛥( )
𝑒 𝑒𝑤𝑓𝑢 𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒
Where:
𝑒𝑤𝑓𝑢 = Efficiency Factor of the Wing with Flaps Up.
1
𝛥 (𝑒 ) = From Fig. 14.2.
𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒
31
NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
8.3) Equation:
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 + , (Clean)
𝜋𝐴𝑒
8.4) Dirty Configuration
Flaps = 60% span deflected 30°
8.5) Solve for the Aircraft Efficiency Factor
𝑒𝑤𝑓𝑑 = 𝑒𝑤𝑓𝑢 (1 + 𝐾𝑓 )
𝐾𝑓 = 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
( = 0.13 − 0.15 𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑓 = 30°)
𝐶𝐿 2
8.6) 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 + , (Dirty)
𝜋𝐴𝑒
CONCLUSION:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
REFERENCES:

Daniel P. Raymer
32
Initial Estimate for Polar Drag Equation
𝐂𝐋 𝟐
𝐂𝐃 = 𝐂𝐃𝐨 +
𝛑𝐀𝐞
Where :
1.15f ftotal 1.15 ∑(Cf 𝐹 𝑄 𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡 + 𝛴𝑀𝑖𝑠𝑐) ∑(Cf 𝐹 𝑄 𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡 + 𝛴𝑀𝑖𝑠𝑐)TOTAL
CDo = = = =
Sref Sref Sref Sref
The total f for an airplane is approximately the sum of the component

parts plus 5 or 10 percent to allow for mutual interference between the
components; an additional 5 or 10 percent allowance may be well made for
small protuberances such as handles, hinges, and cover plates.
An approximate rule for estimating e for a complete airplane is given by

the equation:
Flaps Up
1 1 1
=℮ + ∑ [△ (e) ] flaps up
℮ wfu parts
or
1 1 1
= +△ ( )
℮ ℮wfu e fuselage
169
Flaps Down
1 1 1
= +△ ( )
℮ ℮wfd e fuselage
Where :
℮𝑤𝑓𝑑 = ℮𝑤𝑓𝑢 (1 + kf)
kf = correction factor (0.13 − 0.15 at δ𝑓 = 30○ )
1
The values of implied by Fig. 9:23 include (a) a planform shape
℮
correction factor, given by the theoretical factor 1 to 8, (b) an airfoil thickness
ratios, and (c) a correction to practical wing construction for high aspect ratio
involving non optimum span wise lift distribution and resulting in the
“recommended practice” lines of Fig 9:23.
1
The principal incremental value of △ (e) is due to the fuselage (and
parts
1
nacelles, if any). Date for estimating △ (e) are still rather incomplete but
fuselage
may be reasonably be assumed to be proportional to the ratio of fuselage
frontal area to the wing area as implied by the plot of Fig. 14:2, which should
be noted as limited to the rather unusual case of zero wind incidence.
170
171
172
For Wings,
For Friction Co-efficient Cf,
Assume 15% Laminar and 85% Turbulent
Cf (Laminar) + Cf (Turbulent) = Cf (Wings)
Cf (Wings) = 6.86 x 10−5 + 0.002624
𝐂𝐟 (𝐖𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟔𝟗
For Laminar,
1.328
Cf =
√R
Use, R = 8,431,301.05
1.328
Cf =
√8,431,301.05
Cf (Laminar) = 0.000457352 x 0.15
Cf (Laminar) = 6.86 x 10−5
For Turbulent,
0.455
Cf =
(log10 R)2.58
Use , R = 8,431,301.05
Since, R = 8,431,301.05 < R cut−off = 15,915,250.97
0.455
Cf =
(log10 8,431,301.05)2.58
Cf (Turbulent) = 0.003087334x 0.85
Cf (Turbulent) = 0.00262
173
Where :
For R,
ρVl
R=
μ
ρ, density at Standard Sea Level Condition 0.002377 slug/ft3
V, Cruising Speed (taken from Activity No. 1) 293.453 ft/s
μ, co-efficient of dynamic viscosity at Standard Sea 3.737 x 10-7
Level Condition
l, Characteristics Length (Length of Mean Aerodynamic 4.517 ft
Chord)
slug ft
(0.002377 )(293.453 s )(4.517 ft)
R= ft3
(3.737 𝑥10−7 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 ⁄ (𝑓𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐) )
R = 8,431,301.05
For Rcut-off,
l 1.053
R cut−off = 38.2 ( )
k
Chord)
k, (taken from table 12.4) 2.08 x 10-5
Table 12.4
Surface k (ft)
Camouflage paint on
3.33 x 10-5
aluminum
Smooth Paint 2.08 x 10-5
Production Sheet Metal 1.33 x 10-5
Polished Sheet Metal 0.50 x 10-5
Smooth Molded Composite 0.17 x 10-5
4.517 ft 1.053
R cut−off = 38.2 ( )
2.08 x 10−5
R cut−off = 15,915,250.97
174
For Form Factor FF,
0.6 t t 4
FFWing = [1 + ( ) + 100 ( ) ] [1.34M 0.18 (cosΛ m )0.28 ]
(x/c)m c c
Where :
(x/c)mac , percentage of the chord where maximum thickness is 0.30
located
Length of MAC = 4.517 ft

Location of Maximum Thickness = 1.356 ft
𝑥 1.356ft
(𝑐 ) = 4.517ft = 0.30
𝑚𝑎𝑐
t/c, thickness to chord ratio of airfoil (Taken from Activity No. 3) 0.18
NACA 6318
175
Λm, swept angle of Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) 0.4217
M, Mach number (Assumed 0.15) 0.15
0.6
FFWing = [1 + (0.18) + 100(0.18)4 ] [1.34(0.15)0.18 (cos 0.4217°)0.28 ]
(0.30)
𝐅𝐅𝐖𝐢𝐧𝐠 = 1.39517
For Component Interference Factor Q,

Select Range 1.1-1.4 for Unfilleted Low Wing
Qwing‘1= 1.1
For Swet,
Since, t/c > 0.05
𝑡
SWet = 𝑆𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 [1.977 + 0.52 ( )]
𝑐
𝑆𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 , True Planform Area for the whole wing 115.642 ft2
176
NACA 6318
SWet = 115.642 𝑓𝑡 2 [1.977 + 0.52 (0.18)]
‘1 𝟒𝟒𝟗 𝒇𝒕𝟐
𝐒𝐖𝐞𝐭 = 𝟐𝟑𝟗.
For Fuselage,
For Friction Coefficient Cf ,
For Turbulent,
0.455
Cf =
(log10 R)2.58
Since, R = 46,503,749.03 < R cut−off = 96,097,327.39
177
Use, R = 46,503,749.03
0.455
Cf (Fuselage) =
(log10 46,503,749.03)2.58
Cf(Fuselage)‘1= 0.00236
Where :
For R,
ρVl
R=
μ
ρ, density at Standard Sea Level Condition 0.002377
slug/ft3
μ, co-efficient of dynamic viscosity at Standard Sea Level Condition 3.737 x 10-7
l, Characteristics Length (Length of Fuselage) 24.914 ft
slug ft
(0.002377 )(293.453 s )(24.914 ft)
R= ft3
(3.737 𝑥10−7 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 ⁄ (𝑓𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐) )
R = 46,503,749.03
178
For Rcut-off,
l 1.053
R cut−off = 38.21 ( )
k
Table 12.4
Surface k (ft)
Camouflage paint on
3.33 x 10-5
aluminum
24.914 ft 1.053
R cut−off = 38.21 ( )
2.08 x 10−5
R cut−off = 96,097,327.39
For Form Factor FF,

60 f
FFfuselage = (1 + 3
+ )
f 400
60 5.594
FFfuselage = (1 + 3
+ )
5.594 400
𝐅𝐅𝐟𝐮𝐬𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐠𝐞 =‘1 𝟏. 𝟑𝟓𝟔𝟔𝟓
179
Where :
l l
f= =
d
√(4 ) 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥
π
Amax, frontal area of fuselage 15.576 ft2
l 24.914 ft
f= =
d
√(4) 15.576 𝑓𝑡 2
π
f = 5.5944
180
The fuselage has negligible interference factor (Q = 1.0) in most cases
QFuselage
‘1 = 1.0
For Swet,
Taken from Activity 4,
Swet = 334.98 ft2
For Vertical Tail,

Cf (Laminar) + Cf (Turbulent) = Cf (Vertical Tail)
Cf (Vertical Tail) = 8.19 x 10−5 + 0.00278
𝐂𝐟 (𝐕𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐓𝐚𝐢𝐥) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟔
For Laminar,
1.328
Cf =
√R
Use, R = 5,918,896.53
1.328
Cf =
√5,918,896.53
Cf (Laminar) = 0.00054 x 0.15
Cf (Laminar) = 8.19 x 10−5
For Turbulent,
181
0.455
Cf =
(log10 R)2.58
Use , R = 5,918,896.53
Since, R = 5,918,896.53 < R cut−off = 10,965,185.64
0.455
Cf =
(log10 5,918,896.53)2.58
Cf (Turbulent) = 0.00327 x 0.85
Where :
For R,
ρVl
R=
μ
Level Condition
Chord)
slug ft
(0.002377 )(293.453 s )(3.171 ft)
R= ft3
(3.737 𝑥10−7 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 ⁄ (𝑓𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐) )
R = 5,918,896.53
For Rcut-off,
l 1.053
R cut−off = 38.2 ( )
k
182
Chord)
Table 12.4
Surface k (ft)
Camouflage paint on
3.33 x 10-5
aluminum
3.171 ft 1.053
R cut−off = 38.2 ( )
2.08 x 10−5
R cut−off = 10,965,185.64
For Form Factor FF,
0.6 t t 4
FFWing = [1 + ( ) + 100 ( ) ] [1.34M 0.18 (cosΛ m )0.28 ]
(x/c)m c c
Where :
located

𝑥 0.939 ft
(𝑐 ) = = 0.30
𝑚𝑎𝑐 3.13 ft
183
NACA 0015
Λm, swept angle of Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) 31.1214○
0.6
FFVertical Tail = [1 + (0.15) + 100(0.15)4 ] [1.34(0.15)0.18(cos 31.1214°)0.28 ]
(0.30)
FFVertical Tail = 1.23151
184
A Tail Surface with hinged rudder or elevator will have a form factor about 10%
higher than predicted due to the extra drag of the gap between the tail surface
and its control surface.
FFVertical Tail = 1.23151 x 1.1
𝐅𝐅𝐕𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐓𝐚𝐢𝐥 = 1.354665

For H-tail surface assumption, interference factor of 8% is given.
Qvertical tail = 1.08
For Swet,
Since, t/c > 0.05
𝑡
SWet = 𝑆𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 [1.977 + 0.52 ( )]
𝑐
𝑆𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 , True Planform Area for the vertical tail 29.495 ft2
NACA 0015
185
SWet = 29.495 𝑓𝑡 2 [1.977 + 0.52 (0.18)]
𝐒𝐖𝐞𝐭 = 𝟔𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟕 𝒇𝒕𝟐
For Horizontal Tail,

Cf (Laminar) + Cf (Turbulent) = Cf (Horizontal Tail)
Cf (Horizontal Tail) = 9.83 x 10−5 + 0.002956
𝐂𝐟 (Horizontal Tail) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟓
For Laminar,
1.328
Cf =
√R
Use, R = 4,106,456.12
1.328
Cf =
√4,106,456.12
Cf (Laminar) = 0.00066 x 0.15
Cf (Laminar) = 9.83 x 10−5
For Turbulent,
0.455
Cf =
(log10 R)2.58
Use , R = 4,106,456.12
Since, R = 4,106,456.12 < R cut−off = 7,461,522.09
186
0.455
Cf =
(log10 4,106,456.12)2.58
Cf (Turbulent) = 0.00348 x 0.85
Where :
For R,
ρVl
R=
μ
Level Condition
Chord)
slug ft
(0.002377 )(293.453 )(2.200 ft)
R= ft3 s
(3.737 𝑥10−7 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 ⁄ (𝑓𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐) )
R = 4,106,456.12
For Rcut-off,
l 1.053
R cut−off = 38.2 ( )
k

Chord)
187
Table 12.4
Surface k (ft)
Camouflage paint on
3.33 x 10-5
aluminum
2.200 ft 1.053
R cut−off = 38.2 ( )
2.08 x 10−5
R cut−off = 7,461,522.09
For Form Factor FF,
0.6 t t 4
FFWing = [1 + ( ) + 100 ( ) ] [1.34M 0.18 (cosΛ m )0.28 ]
(x/c)m c c
Where :
located

𝑥 0.660 ft
(𝑐 ) = = 0.30
𝑚𝑎𝑐 2.20 ft
188
NACA 0015
Λm, swept angle of Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) Rectangular Wing 0○
0.6
FFHorizontal Tail = [1 + (0.15) + 100(0.15)4 ] [1.34(0.15)0.18 (cos 0°)0.28 ]
(0.30)
FFHorizontal Tail = 1.28628

A Tail Surface with hinged rudder or elevator will have a form factor about 10%
higher than predicted due to the extra drag of the gap between the tail surface
and its control surface.
FFHorizontal Tail = 1.28628 x 1.1
𝐅𝐅Horizontal Tail = 1.41491

For H-tal surface assumption, interference factor of 8% is given.
Qhorizontal tail = 1.08
189
For Swet,
Since, t/c > 0.05
𝑡
SWet = 𝑆𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 [1.977 + 0.52 ( )]
𝑐
𝑆𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 , True Planform Area for the horizontal tail 22.829 ft2
NACA 0015
SWet = 22.829 𝑓𝑡 2 [1.977 + 0.52 (0.18)]
𝐒𝐖𝐞𝐭 = 𝟒𝟔. 𝟗𝟏𝟐𝟔𝟐 𝒇𝒕𝟐
190
For Miscellaneous,
For Landing Gear,
Drag Area-to-Frontal Area Ratio Table 12.5
k (ft)
Regular Wheel and Tire 0.25
Second Wheel and Tire Tandem 0.15
Streamlined Wheel and Tire 0.18
Wheel and tire with fairing 0.13
Streamlined Strut 0.05
Round Strut or Wire 0.30
Flat Spring Gear Leg 1.40
Fork, Bogey, Irregular fitting 1.0-1.4
For Main Landing Gear,

Tire,
D
= 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 − 𝑡𝑜 − 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑥 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
q
Regular Wheel and Tire (Table 12.5) 0.25
Frontal Area 0.89057 ft2
Frontal Area = 0.44529 x 2 = 0.89057 ft 2
191
D
= 0.25 𝑥 0.89057
q
𝐷
( ) = 0.22264
𝑞 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐺𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑖𝑟𝑒)
To account for mutual interference, it is suggested that the sum of the gear
component drags be multiplied by 1.2. Also, the total gear drag should be
increased by about 7% for a retractable landing gear which the gear wells are
left open when the gear is down.
Thus, multiply D/q value by 1.27 to account for 27% mutual interference
𝐷
( ) = 0.22264 𝑥 1.27
𝑞 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐺𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑖𝑟𝑒)
𝑫
( ) = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟐𝟕𝟔
𝒒 𝑴𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑳𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑮𝒆𝒂𝒓 (𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒊𝒓𝒆)
Strut,
D
q
Fork, Bogey, Irregular fitting (Table 12.5) 0.25
Frontal Area = 0.35616 x 2 = 0.71233 ft 2
192
D
= 1.00 𝑥 0.71233
q
𝐷
( ) = 0.71233
𝑞 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐺𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑡)
Multiply D/q value by 1.27 to account for 27% mutual interference
𝐷
( ) = 071233 𝑥 1.27
𝑞 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐺𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑡)
𝑫
(𝒒) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎𝟒𝟔𝟔
𝑴𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑳𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑮𝒆𝒂𝒓 (𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒕)
For Nose Landing Gear,

Tire,
D
q
Regular Wheel and Tire (Table 12.5) 0.25
193
D
= 0.25 𝑥 0.44529
q
𝐷
( ) = 0.11132
𝑞 𝑁𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐺𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑖𝑟𝑒)
𝐷
( ) = 0.11132 𝑥 1.27
𝑞 𝑁𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐺𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑖𝑟𝑒)
𝑫
( ) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟏𝟑𝟖
𝒒 𝑵𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝑳𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑮𝒆𝒂𝒓 (𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒊𝒓𝒆)
Strut,
D
q
Fork, Bogey, Irregular fitting (Table 12.5) 0.25
D
= 1.00 𝑥 0.71538
q
𝐷
( ) = 0.71538
𝑞 𝑁𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐺𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑡)
194
𝐷
( ) = 0.71538 𝑥 1.27
𝑞 𝑁𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐺𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑡)
𝑫
(𝒒) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎𝟖𝟓𝟑
𝑵𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝑳𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑮𝒆𝒂𝒓 (𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒕)
195
For Flaps,
The flap contribution to parasite draw is caused by the separated flow above
the flap, and can be estimated using Eq.12.37 for most types of flap. Note that
this is referenced to wing area. Typically, the flap deflection is about 60-70 deg
for landing and about 20-40 deg for takeoff. Light aircraft usually take-off with
no flaps.
𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑝 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛
𝛥𝐶𝐷𝑜𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑝 = 0.0023 𝛿𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑝
𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛
Flap Span 11.252 ft
3.287 ft + 2.339 ft = 5.626 ft x 2 = 11.252 ft
Wing Span, taken from activity No. 2 32.15 ft

δflap 60 deg
11.252 𝑓𝑡
𝛥𝐶𝐷𝑜𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑝 = 0.0023 60
32.15 𝑓𝑡
𝛥𝐶𝐷𝑜𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑝 = 0.04830
196
Clean Airplane Configuration (Cruise-Retracted Landing Gear)
Components
Part Cf FF Q Swet Cf FF Q Swet
Wing 0.00269 1.39517 1.10000 239.44854 0.98956
Fuselage 0.00237 1.35665 1.00000 334.98000 1.07918
Vertical Tail 0.00286 1.35466 1.08000 60.61137 0.25384
Horizontal Tail 0.00305 1.41491 1.08000 46.91262 0.21896
Σ Cf FF Q Swet 2.54154
Interference add 5% to f 0.12708
Roughness and Protuberances - Add 10 % to f 0.25415
Σ (Cf FF Q Swet + ΣMisc)total 2.92277
𝐂𝐋 𝟐
𝛑𝐀𝐞
Where:
1.15f ftotal 1.15Σ (Cf FF Q Swet + ΣMisc) Σ (Cf FF Q Swet + ΣMisc)total
CDo = = = =
Sref Sref Sref Sref
2.92277 ft 2
CDo =
138 ft 2
CDo = 0.02118
Flaps Up
1 1 1
= + Σ[△ ( ) ]
℮ ℮wfu e parts
In figure 9.23
℮wfu = 0.88060 @ A = 7.49
In figure 14.2
1
△( )Fuselage
e
SπFuselage = 1.82860 @ A=7.49
S
Hence,
1 SπFuselage
△ (e) = (1.82860)( S
)
Fuselage
197
15.57604 ft2
= (1.82860)(239.44854 ft2 )
1
△ (e) = 0.11895
Fuselage
Therefore,
1
e=
1 1
ewFu +△ ( e )Fuselage
1
e=
1
0.88060 + 0.11895
e = 0.79711
𝐂𝐋 𝟐
𝐂𝐃 = 𝐂𝐃𝐨 + 𝛑𝐀𝐞
CL 2
CD = 0.02118 +
(π)(7.49)(0.79711)
𝑪𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟏𝟖 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟑𝟐 𝑪𝑳 𝟐
198
Clean Airplane Configuration (Takeoff-Landing Gear Down)
Components
Wing 0.00269 1.39517 1.10000 239.44854 0.98956
Fuselage 0.00237 1.35665 1.00000 334.98000 1.07918
Vertical Tail 0.00286 1.35466 1.08000 60.61137 0.25384
Horizontal Tail 0.00305 1.41491 1.08000 46.91262 0.21896
Miscellaneous
Landing Gear Component Drag Area-to- Frontal D/q
Frontal Area Ratio Area
(fig 12.5)
Main Gear Wheel and Tire 0.25000 0.89057 0.28276
Strut 1.00000 0.71233 0.90466
Nose Gear Wheel and Tire 0.25000 0.44529 0.14138
Strut 1.00000 0.71538 0.90853
Σmisc 2.23732
Σ Cf FF Q Swet + Σ Misc 4.77887
𝐂𝐋 𝟐
𝛑𝐀𝐞
Where:
CDo = = = =
Sref Sref Sref Sref
5.49570 ft 2
CDo =
138 ft 2
CDo = 0.03982
Flaps Up
1 1 1
= + Σ[△ ( ) ]
℮ ℮wfu e parts
199
In figure 9.23
℮wfu = 0.88060 @ A = 7.49
In figure 14.2
1
△( )Fuselage
e
SπFuselage = 1.82860 @ A=7.49
S
Hence,
1 SπFuselage
△ (e) = (1.82860)( )
Fuselage S
15.57604 ft2
= (1.82860)( )
239.44854 ft2
1
△ (e) = 0.11895
Fuselage
Therefore,
1
e=
1 1
ewFu +△ ( e )Fuselage
1
e=
1
0.88060 + 0.11895
e = 0.79711
𝐂𝐋 𝟐
𝐂𝐃 = 𝐂𝐃𝐨 + 𝛑𝐀𝐞
CL 2
CD = 0.03982 +
(π)(7.49)(0.79711)
𝑪𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟗𝟖𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟑𝟐 𝑪𝑳 𝟐
200
Dirty Airplane Configuration (Landing-Landing Gear Down)
Components
Wing 0.00269 1.39517 1.10000 239.44854 0.98956
Fuselage 0.00237 1.35665 1.00000 334.98000 1.07918
Vertical Tail 0.00286 1.35466 1.08000 60.61137 0.25384
Horizontal Tail 0.00305 1.41491 1.08000 46.91262 0.21896
Miscellaneous
Landing Gear Component Drag Area-to- Frontal D/q
Frontal Area Ratio Area
(fig 12.5)
Main Gear Wheel and Tire 0.25000 0.89057 0.28276
Strut 1.00000 0.71233 0.90466
Nose Gear Wheel and Tire 0.25000 0.44529 0.14138
Strut 1.00000 0.71538 0.90853
Deflection ΔCDOflap Sref ΔCDOflapSref
Flaps 60.00000 0.04830 138.00000 6.66510
Σmisc 8.90243
Σ Cf FF Q Swet + Σ Misc 11.44397
𝐂𝐋 𝟐
𝛑𝐀𝐞
Where:
CDo = = = =
Sref Sref Sref Sref
13.16057 ft 2
CDo =
138 ft 2
CDo = 0.09537
201
Flaps Down
1 1 1
= +△( )
℮ ℮wfd e fuselage
Where :
℮wfd = ℮wfu (1 + 𝑘𝑓 )
kf = correction factor (0.13 -0.15 at δf = 30○)

In figure 9.23
℮wfu = 0.88060 @ A = 7.49
℮wfd = 0.88060 (1 + 0.14)
℮wfd = 1.00388
In figure 14.2
1
△( )Fuselage
e
SπFuselage = 1.82860 @ A=7.49
S
Hence,
1 SπFuselage
△ (e) = (1.82860)( )
Fuselage S
15.57604 ft2
= (1.82860)(239.44854 ft2 )
1
△ (e) = 0.11895
Fuselage
Therefore,
1
e=
1 1
+△ (
ewFd e )Fuselage
202
1
e=
1
1.00388 + 0.11895
e = 0.89680
𝐂𝐋 𝟐
𝛑𝐀𝐞
CL 2
CD = 0.09537 +
(π)(7.49)(0.89680)
𝑪𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟓𝟑𝟕 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟕𝟑𝟗 𝑪𝑳 𝟐
203
INSERT 3 VIEWS HERE
204
Conclusion :
The polar drag equation of the aircraft was determined under the following
configurations, clean, clean- landing gear down and dirty – landing gear down.
The large frontal area and unfilleted wing contributed to the increase in
parasite drag of the aircraft.
205
NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
Activity No. 9
TITLE: Power Performance
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the required power needed by your designed aircraft.
To set/choose the correct power supply for your designed aircraft.
PROCEDURE:
9.1) Compute the power required of your designed aircraft.
9.1.1) Solve for stalling speed.
9.1.2) Solve for the required power on sea level, 5000 ft, 10000 ft., 15000
ft, 20000 ft, 25000 ft @ speed from __________ to 200 mph. (in 5 mph
increments)
9.1.3) Graph the power required vs flight speed

THRUST HORSEPOWER REQUIRED, THPREQD
FLIGHT SPEED, V (mph)
34
NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
9.2) Compare the power available of your designed aircraft.
9.2.1) Solve for thrust horsepower available at level flight
𝑇𝐻𝑃𝐴𝑉 = 𝑇𝐻𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷 = 𝐵𝐻𝑃 × 𝜂𝑃
Where:
𝜂𝑃 = 75% − 85% (𝐴𝑆𝑆𝑈𝑀𝐸𝐷)
9.2.2) Solve the power available on the sea level, 5000 ft, 10000ft, 15000
ft, 20000 ft, 25000 ft @ speed from 50 mph to __________. (in 5 mph
increments)
9.2.3) Graph the power available vs flight speed

THRUST HORSEPOWER AVAILABLE, THPREQD
35
NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
CONCLUSION:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
REFERENCES:

Daniel P. Raymer
36
PATTS
PARANAQUE CITY
AENG 511L – 3
AIRCRAFT DESIGN I
ACTIVITY NO. 9a
POWER PERFORMANCE -
POWER REQUIRED AT SEA LEVEL AND ALTITUDES
DESIGNER:

Power Performance – Power Required at Sea Level and
Altitudes
Objective:
To determine the power required by your designed aircraft at given altitudes
Given:
A/C Name : Roquette-TB2

Powerplant : Continental GTSIO-520-D 6 cylinder
Gross Weight, GW : 3,327.55 lb
Wing Area, S : 138 ft2
CLmax : 1.45
Polar Drag Equation : CD = 0.02218 + 0.05332CL2 (Clean Airplane)
Altitudes, h : 5,000 ft, 10,000 ft., 15,000 ft., 20,000 ft., and
25,000 ft
For Minimum Speed or Stalling Speed,Vmin/Vs:
𝑾 𝟐 𝟏
𝑽𝑴𝑰𝑵 = √( ) ( ) ( )
𝑺 𝝆𝒐 𝑪𝑳𝑴𝑨𝑿
3327.55 𝑙𝑏 2 1
𝑉𝑀𝐼𝑁 = √( 2
)( 3
)( )
138 𝑓𝑡 0.002377 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔⁄𝑓𝑡 1.45
15
𝑉𝑀𝐼𝑁 = 118.287 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠 𝑥
22
𝑽𝑴𝑰𝑵 = 𝟖𝟎. 𝟔𝟓 𝒎𝒑𝒉
206
For CL,
𝟐𝑾
𝑪𝑳 =
𝝆𝒐 𝑽𝒐 𝟐 𝑺
2 𝑥 3327.55 𝑙𝑏
𝐶𝐿 =
22 2
(0.002377 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔⁄𝑓𝑡 3 ) (𝑉𝑜 𝑥 ) (138 𝑓𝑡 2 )
15
𝟗𝟒𝟑𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟖𝟕
𝑪𝑳 =
(𝑽𝒐 )𝟐
(Where 𝑉𝑜 is in mph)
For Density Ratio,

𝒂𝒉 𝟒.𝟐𝟔
𝝈 = (𝟏 + )
𝑇𝑜
Where:
σ = Density ratio
𝑎 = - 0.003566 ° 𝑅 ⁄𝑓𝑡
𝑇𝑜 = 519 °𝑅
ℎ = Any altitude above sea level up to tropopause in ft
Table No. 1
Altitude, h (ft) Density Ratio, o

Sea Level 1.000000
5,000 0.861635
10,000 0.738420
15,000 0.629165
20,000 0.532733
25,000 0.448040
207
Computations for Density Ratio :
For 𝜎 @ ℎ = 5000 𝑓𝑡.

4.26
°𝑅
𝜌 (−0.003566 ) (5000 𝑓𝑡. )
𝑓𝑡.
𝜎= = [1 + ]
𝜌𝑜 519 °𝑅
𝜎 = 0.861635
For 𝜎 @ ℎ = 10,000 𝑓𝑡.

4.26
°𝑅
𝜌 (−0.003566 ) (10000 𝑓𝑡. )
𝑓𝑡.
𝜎= = [1 + ]
𝜌𝑜 519 °𝑅
𝜎 = 0.738420
For 𝜎 @ ℎ = 15,000 𝑓𝑡.

4.26
°𝑅
𝜌 (−0.003566 ) (15000 𝑓𝑡. )
𝑓𝑡.
𝜎= = [1 + ]
𝜌𝑜 519 °𝑅
𝜎 = 0.629165
For 𝜎 @ ℎ = 20,000 𝑓𝑡.

4.26
°𝑅
𝜌 (−0.003566 ) (20000 𝑓𝑡. )
𝑓𝑡.
𝜎= = [1 + ]
𝜌𝑜 519 °𝑅
𝜎 = 0.532733
For 𝜎 @ ℎ = 15,000 𝑓𝑡.

4.26
°𝑅
𝜌 (−0.003566 ) (15000 𝑓𝑡. )
𝑓𝑡.
𝜎= = [1 + ]
𝜌𝑜 519 °𝑅
𝜎 = 0.448040
208
Explanation of Table No. 2:
Column
No.
① 𝑉𝑂 = 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑑
② 𝐶𝐿 = 9431.5587
①𝟐
③ 𝐶𝐷 = 0.02218 + 0.05332 ②𝟐
④ 𝑇𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷𝑜 = ③
𝑊( )
②
⑤ 𝑇𝐻𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷𝑜 = ④𝑥①
375
⑥ 𝑉 = ①
; ℎ = 5,000 𝑓𝑡.
√𝜎ℎ
⑦ 𝑇𝐻𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷 = ⑤
; ℎ = 5,000 𝑓𝑡.
√𝜎ℎ
⑧ 𝑉 = ①
; ℎ = 10,000 𝑓𝑡.
√𝜎ℎ
⑨ 𝑇𝐻𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷 = ⑤
; ℎ = 10,000 𝑓𝑡.
√𝜎ℎ
⑩ 𝑉 = ①
; ℎ = 15,000 𝑓𝑡.
√𝜎ℎ
⑪ 𝑇𝐻𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷 = ⑤
; ℎ = 15,000 𝑓𝑡.
√𝜎ℎ
⑫ 𝑉 = ①
; ℎ = 20,000 𝑓𝑡.
√𝜎ℎ
⑬ 𝑇𝐻𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷 = ⑤
; ℎ = 20,000 𝑓𝑡.
√𝜎ℎ
⑭ 𝑉 = \
①
; ℎ = 25,000 𝑓𝑡.
√𝜎ℎ
⑮ 𝑉 = ⑤
; ℎ = 25,000 𝑓𝑡.
√𝜎ℎ
209
SEA LEVEL
① ② ③ ④ ⑤
Vo CL CD TREQ'D THPREQ'D
mph - - lbs hp
70.00 1.92 0.22 378.09 70.58
80.00 1.47 0.14 309.27 65.98
80.65 1.45 0.13 305.85 65.78
90.00 1.16 0.09 267.10 64.10
100.00 0.94 0.07 242.05 64.55
110.00 0.78 0.05 228.70 67.09
120.00 0.65 0.04 223.80 71.62
130.00 0.56 0.04 225.29 78.10
140.00 0.48 0.03 231.83 86.55
150.00 0.42 0.03 242.49 97.00
160.00 0.37 0.03 256.65 109.51
170.00 0.33 0.03 273.85 124.14
180.00 0.29 0.03 293.75 141.00
190.00 0.26 0.02 316.10 160.16
200.00 0.24 0.02 340.73 181.72
210.00 0.21 0.02 367.47 205.78
220.00 0.19 0.02 396.23 232.46
230.00 0.18 0.02 426.92 261.84
240.00 0.16 0.02 459.46 294.05
210
5,000 ft 10,000 ft 15,000 ft
⑥ ⑦ ⑧ ⑨ ⑩ ⑪
V THPREQ'D V THPREQ'D V THPREQ'D
mph hp mph hp mph hp

75.41 76.03 81.46 82.13 88.25 88.98
86.18 71.08 93.10 76.78 100.86 83.18
86.89 70.86 93.85 76.55 101.68 82.93
96.96 69.06 104.73 74.60 113.46 80.82
107.73 69.54 116.37 75.11 126.07 81.37
118.50 72.27 128.01 78.07 138.68 84.58
129.28 77.15 139.65 83.34 151.29 90.29
140.05 84.14 151.28 90.89 163.89 98.46
150.82 93.24 162.92 100.72 176.50 109.11
161.60 104.50 174.56 112.88 189.11 122.29
172.37 117.97 186.20 127.43 201.71 138.06
183.14 133.74 197.83 144.47 214.32 156.51
193.91 151.90 209.47 164.08 226.93 177.76
204.69 172.54 221.11 186.38 239.54 201.91
215.46 195.77 232.74 211.47 252.14 229.10
226.23 221.69 244.38 239.48 264.75 259.44
237.01 250.43 256.02 270.51 277.36 293.06
247.78 282.08 267.66 304.71 289.96 330.11
258.55 316.78 279.29 342.19 302.57 370.72
211
20,000 ft 25,000 ft
⑫ ⑬ ⑭ ⑮
V THPREQ'D V THPREQ'D
mph hp mph hp
95.91 96.70 104.58 105.44
109.61 90.39 119.52 98.57
110.50 90.12 120.49 98.27
123.31 87.83 134.46 95.77
137.01 88.43 149.40 96.43
150.71 91.91 164.34 100.22
164.41 98.12 179.28 106.99
178.11 107.00 194.22 116.68
191.81 118.58 209.16 129.30
205.51 132.89 224.10 144.91
219.21 150.03 239.04 163.60
232.91 170.09 253.97 185.47
246.61 193.18 268.91 210.65
260.31 219.43 283.85 239.27
274.02 248.97 298.79 271.48
287.72 281.94 313.73 307.44
301.42 318.48 328.67 347.28
315.12 358.75 343.61 391.19
328.82 402.87 358.55 439.31
212
INSERT THPREQ,D vs Flight Speed Graph
213
Conclusion :
The power performance – power required at sea level at altitudes was

determined. The thrust horsepower required and flight speed curve was
constructed. As the altitude increases, density ratio decreases due to the
decrease in density. Thus, requiring more power from the engine to maintain
the given flight speed.
214
PATTS
PARANAQUE CITY
AENG 511L – 3
AIRCRAFT DESIGN I
ACTIVITY NO. 9b
POWER PERFORMANCE -
POWER AVAILABLE AT SEA LEVEL AND ALTITUDES
DESIGNER:

Power Performance - Power Available at Sea Level and
Altitudes
Objective :
 To determine the power available by your designed aircraft at given

altitudes
 To determine the data for the thrust horsepower available and velocity
curve
Power Available
The available power is given by the equation :
THPav = BHP x ɳp
Where:
BHP = shaft brake horsepower
ɳp = propeller efficiency
GIVEN:
𝐵𝐻𝑃 = 𝐵𝐻𝑃𝐷𝐸𝑆 = 375 hp

𝑁 = 𝑁𝐷𝐸𝑆 = 3,400 RPM
Ƞ𝑝 = 70 % (Assumed)
SOLUTION:
At level flight,
𝑇𝐻𝑃𝐴𝑉 = 𝑇𝐻𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑄′𝐷 = 𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑥 Ƞ𝑝
𝑇𝐻𝑃𝐴𝑉 = 𝑇𝐻𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑄′𝐷 = (375 𝐻𝑃)(0.70)
𝑻𝑯𝑷𝑨𝑽 = 𝑻𝑯𝑷𝑹𝑬𝑸′𝑫 = 𝟐𝟔𝟐. 𝟓 𝑯𝑷
Vo THPREQ'D
mph HP
230.00 261.84
VDES 262.5
240.00 294.05
215
𝑉𝐷𝐸𝑆 − 230 262.5 − 261.84
=
240 − 230 294.05 − 261.84
(262.5 − 261.84 )(240 − 230)

𝑉𝐷𝐸𝑆 = + 230
294.05 − 261.84
𝑽𝑫𝑬𝑺 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟒 𝒎𝒑𝒉
216
Flight Speed, (V) vs Thrust Horsepower Required (THPREQ'D) at SEA LEVEL
400
350
Thrust Horsepower Required, THPREQD (hp)
300
262.5 hp
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 250
Flight Speed, V (mph) 230.204 mph
THPREQD = 262.5 hp VDES =VMAX = 230.204 mph
Graph Scale :
10mm = 20 mph
20mm = 50 hp
217
Figure 51.
Efficiency versus CS for various blade angles
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
16.00
0.70
2.85
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
1.73557
SCALE :
19.58mm
at Cs = 1.73557 , 16.3625
10mm
218
Figure 52.
CS versus blade angle for various values of V/ND
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16.3625
16
15 4.24
14 14.85
13
12
11
10
0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
1.73557 10mm
10mm
SCALE :
Advance Ratio, J :
Cs = 1.73557 J=0.78591
219
POWER SPEED COEFFICIENT, Cs
𝟓 𝝆𝑽𝟓
𝑪𝑺 = √
𝑵𝟐 𝑩𝑯𝑷
Where:
𝜌 = 0.002377 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔⁄𝑓𝑡 3
𝒇𝒕
𝟐𝟐
V = 𝑉𝐷𝐸𝑆 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟒 𝒎𝒑𝒉 𝒙 ( 𝒎𝒊
𝒔
) = 337.633 ft/s
𝟏𝟓
𝒉𝒓
𝒓𝒆𝒗 𝟏𝒎𝒊𝒏
N = 𝑁𝐷𝐸𝑆 = 𝟑, 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒙 ( ) = 56.67 rev/s
𝟔𝟎𝒔
𝒇𝒕−𝒍𝒃
𝟓𝟓𝟎 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡
BHP = 𝐵𝐻𝑃𝐷𝐸𝑆 = 𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝒉𝒑 𝒙 ( 𝒔𝒆𝒄
) = 206,250
𝟏 𝒉𝒑 𝑠𝑒𝑐
5 (0.002377 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔⁄𝑓𝑡 3 )(337.633 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 )5

𝑪𝑺 = √
𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡
(56.67 𝑟𝑒𝑣⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 )2 (206, 250
𝑠𝑒𝑐 )
𝑪𝑺 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟑𝟓𝟓𝟕
220
221
222
Propeller Diameter, D
𝑽
𝑫(𝒇𝒕) =
𝑵𝑱
𝑉𝐷𝐸𝑆 = 337.633 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑁𝐷𝐸𝑆 = 56.67 𝑟𝑒𝑣⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐽 = Advance Ratio = 0.78591
337.633 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐷(𝑓𝑡) =
(56.67 𝑟𝑒𝑣⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 )(0.78591)
𝑫 = 𝟕. 𝟓𝟖𝟏𝟑𝟔 𝒇𝒕
Figure 44b
223
Figure 55b
Altitude, h Altitude Factor

ft Fig. 44b Fig. 55b
5,000 0.8193 0.9967
10,000 0.6662 0.9797
15,000 0.5419 0.9495
20,000 0.4348 0.9051
25,000 0.3351 0.8447
224
Explanation of Table :
Column
No.
① 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑑
② % 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑉 = ① + Design Speed
③ % 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑁 = 𝑂𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐹𝑖𝑔. 44𝑎
④ 𝑁 = ③ 𝑥 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑁
⑤ 𝐵𝐻𝑃 = ③ 𝑥 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝐵𝐻𝑃
⑥ 𝑉 = [(① 𝑥 88) ÷ (④ 𝑥 𝐷)]

𝑁𝐷
⑦ 𝑉 = (⑥ ÷ 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
𝑉
)
% 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑁𝐷
𝑁𝐷
225
⑧ % 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝜂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐹𝑖𝑔. 55𝑎
⑨ 𝜂𝑃 = ⑧ 𝑥 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝜂𝑃
⑩ 𝑇𝐻𝑃𝐴𝑉 = ⑤𝑥⑨
⑪ 𝑁 = ④ 𝑥 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐹𝑖𝑔. 55𝑏)
⑫ 𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑁= [(𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑥 ⑪) ÷ 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑁]
⑬ 𝐵𝐻𝑃 = ⑫ 𝑥 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐹𝑖𝑔. 44𝑏)
⑭ 𝑉 = [(① 𝑥 88) ÷ (⑪ 𝑥 𝐷)]

𝑁𝐷
⑮ 𝑉 = (⑭ ÷ 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
𝑉
)
𝑁𝐷
226
⑯ % 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝜂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐹𝑖𝑔. 55𝑎
⑰ 𝜂𝑃 = ⑯ 𝑥 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝜂𝑃
⑱ 𝑇𝐻𝑃𝐴𝑉 = ⑬𝑥⑰
⑲ 𝑁 = ④ 𝑥 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐹𝑖𝑔. 55𝑏)
⑳ 𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑁= [(𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑥 ⑲) ÷ 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑁]
㉑ 𝐵𝐻𝑃 = ⑳ 𝑥 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐹𝑖𝑔. 44𝑏)
㉒ 𝑉 = [(① 𝑥 88) ÷ (⑲ 𝑥 𝐷)]

𝑁𝐷
㉓ 𝑉 = (㉒ ÷ 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
𝑉
)
𝑁𝐷
227
㉔ % 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝜂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐹𝑖𝑔. 55𝑎
㉕ 𝜂𝑃 = ㉔ 𝑥 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝜂𝑃
㉖ 𝑇𝐻𝑃𝐴𝑉 = ㉑𝑥㉕
㉗ 𝑁 = ④ 𝑥 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐹𝑖𝑔. 55𝑏)
㉘ 𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑁= [(𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑥 ㉗) ÷ 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑁]
㉙ 𝐵𝐻𝑃 = ㉘ 𝑥 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐹𝑖𝑔. 44𝑏)
㉚ 𝑉 = [(① 𝑥 88) ÷ (㉗ 𝑥 𝐷)]

𝑁𝐷
㉛ 𝑉 = (㉚ ÷ 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
𝑉
)
𝑁𝐷
228
㉜ % 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝜂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐹𝑖𝑔. 55𝑎
㉝ 𝜂𝑃 = ㉜ 𝑥 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝜂𝑃
㉞ 𝑇𝐻𝑃𝐴𝑉 = ㉙𝑥㉝
㉟ 𝑁 = ④ 𝑥 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐹𝑖𝑔. 55𝑏)
㊱ 𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑁= [(𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑥 ㉟) ÷ 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑁]
㊲ 𝐵𝐻𝑃 = ㊱ 𝑥 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐹𝑖𝑔. 44𝑏)
㊳ 𝑉 = [(① 𝑥 88) ÷ (㉟ 𝑥 𝐷)]

𝑁𝐷
㊴ 𝑉 = (㊳ ÷ 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
𝑉
)
𝑁𝐷
229
㊵ % 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝜂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐹𝑖𝑔. 55𝑎
㊶ 𝜂𝑃 = ㊵ 𝑥 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝜂𝑃
㊷ 𝑇𝐻𝑃𝐴𝑉 = ㊲𝑥㊶
㊸ 𝑁 = ④ 𝑥 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐹𝑖𝑔. 55𝑏)
㊹ 𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑁 = [(𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑥 ㊸) ÷ 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑁]
㊺ 𝐵𝐻𝑃 = ㊹𝑥 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐹𝑖𝑔. 44𝑏)
㊻ 𝑉 = [(① 𝑥 88) ÷ (㊺ 𝑥 𝐷)]

𝑁𝐷
㊼ 𝑉 = (㊻ ÷ 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
𝑉
)
𝑁𝐷
230
㊽ % 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝜂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐹𝑖𝑔. 55𝑎
㊾ 𝜂𝑃 = ㊽𝑥 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝜂𝑃
㊿ 𝑇𝐻𝑃𝐴𝑉 = ㊺𝑥㊾
231
SEA LEVEL
① ② ③ ④ ⑤
Vo % Design V % Design N N BHP
mph % % rpm hp
70.00 30.41 86.08 2926.72 322.8
80.00 34.75 86.26 2932.84 323.48
80.65 35.03 86.27 2933.29 323.53

90.00 39.10 86.43 2938.73 324.13
100.00 43.44 86.61 2944.85 324.8

110.00 47.78 86.79 2950.75 325.45
120.00 52.13 87.05 2959.59 326.43

130.00 56.47 87.59 2977.95 328.45
140.00 60.82 88.16 2997.44 330.6
150.00 65.16 88.95 3024.41 333.58

160.00 69.50 89.85 3054.79 336.93
170.00 73.85 90.87 3089.47 340.75

180.00 78.19 92.07 3130.49 345.28
190.00 82.54 93.41 3176.05 350.3

200.00 86.88 94.83 3224.11 355.6
210.00 91.22 96.31 3274.43 361.15
220.00 95.57 97.90 3328.6 367.13

230.00 99.91 99.59 3385.95 373.45
230.20 100.00 100.00 3400.00 375.00

240.00 104.26 101.39 3447.37 380.23
232
SEA LEVEL
⑥ ⑦ ⑧ ⑨ ⑩
% Design % Design
V/ND ɳp THPAV
V/ND hp
- % % % hp
0.28 35.63 42.52 29.76 96.07
0.32 40.72 49.36 34.55 111.76
0.32 40.72 49.36 34.55 111.78

0.36 45.81 55.73 39.01 126.44
0.39 49.62 60.20 42.14 136.87

0.43 54.71 65.99 46.19 150.33
0.47 59.80 71.45 50.02 163.28

0.51 64.89 76.69 53.68 176.31
0.54 68.71 80.46 56.32 186.19
0.58 73.80 85.15 59.61 198.85

0.61 77.62 88.56 61.99 208.86
0.64 81.43 91.59 64.11 218.45

0.67 85.25 94.38 66.07 228.13
0.69 87.80 95.90 67.13 235.16

0.72 91.61 97.82 68.47 243.48
0.74 94.16 98.82 69.17 249.81
0.77 97.98 99.74 69.82 256.33

0.79 100.52 99.95 69.97 261.30
0.79 100.00 100.00 70.00 262.50

0.81 103.07 99.55 69.69 264.98
233
5,000 ft
⑪ ⑫ ⑬ ⑭ ⑮ ⑯ ⑰ ⑱
BHP at
% Design % Design
N reduced BHP V/ND ɳp THPAV
V/ND hp
N
rpm hp hp - % % hp
2917.06 321.73 263.59 0.28 35.63 42.52 29.76 78.44
2923.16 322.41 264.15 0.32 40.72 49.36 34.55 91.26
2923.61 322.46 264.19 0.32 40.72 49.36 34.55 91.28

2929.03 323.05 264.67 0.36 45.81 55.73 39.01 103.25
2935.13 323.73 265.23 0.40 50.90 61.70 43.19 114.55

2941.01 324.38 265.76 0.43 54.71 65.99 46.19 122.75
2949.82 325.35 266.56 0.47 59.80 71.45 50.02 133.33
2968.12 327.37 268.21 0.51 64.89 76.69 53.68 143.98

2987.55 329.51 269.97 0.54 68.71 80.46 56.32 152.05
3014.43 332.47 272.39 0.58 73.80 85.15 59.61 162.37

3044.71 335.81 275.13 0.61 77.62 88.56 61.99 170.55
3079.27 339.63 278.26 0.64 81.43 91.59 64.11 178.39

3120.16 344.14 281.95 0.67 85.25 94.38 66.07 186.28
3165.57 349.14 286.05 0.70 89.07 96.59 67.61 193.40
3213.47 354.43 290.38 0.72 91.61 97.82 68.47 198.82

3263.62 359.96 294.91 0.75 95.43 99.19 69.43 204.76
3317.62 365.91 299.79 0.77 97.98 99.74 69.82 209.31

3374.78 372.22 304.96 0.79 100.52 99.95 69.97 213.38
373.76 306.22 0.79 100.52 99.95 69.97 214.26 373.76
3435.99 378.97 310.49 0.81 103.07 99.55 69.69 216.38
234
10,000 ft
⑲ ⑳ ㉑㉒㉓㉔㉕㉖
BHP at
% Design % Design
V/ND hp
N
rpm hp hp - % % hp
2867.31 316.25 210.67 0.28 35.63 44.68 31.28 65.90
2873.30 316.91 211.11 0.32 40.72 49.36 34.55 72.94
2873.74 316.96 211.15 0.33 41.99 51.05 35.74 75.47

2879.07 317.54 211.53 0.36 45.81 55.73 39.01 82.52
2885.07 318.21 211.98 0.40 50.90 61.70 43.19 91.55

2890.85 318.84 212.40 0.44 55.99 67.39 47.17 100.19
2899.51 319.80 213.04 0.48 61.08 72.83 50.98 108.61
2917.50 321.78 214.36 0.52 66.17 77.96 54.57 116.98

2936.59 323.89 215.76 0.55 69.98 81.67 57.17 123.35
2963.01 326.80 217.70 0.59 75.07 86.31 60.42 131.53

2992.78 330.09 219.89 0.62 78.89 89.61 62.73 137.94
3026.75 333.83 222.39 0.65 82.71 92.57 64.80 144.11

3066.94 338.27 225.34 0.68 86.52 95.17 66.62 150.12
3111.58 343.19 228.62 0.71 90.34 97.22 68.05 155.58
3158.66 348.38 232.08 0.73 92.89 98.36 68.85 159.79

3207.96 353.82 235.70 0.76 96.70 99.50 69.65 164.17
3261.03 359.67 239.60 0.78 99.25 99.90 69.93 167.55

3317.22 365.87 243.73 0.80 101.79 99.85 69.90 170.37
3330.98 367.39 244.74 0.80 101.79 99.55 69.69 170.56
3377.39 372.51 248.15 0.82 104.34 98.95 69.27 171.89
235
15,000 ft
㉗㉘㉙㉚㉛㉜㉝㉞
BHP at
% Design % Design
V/ND hp
N
rpm hp hp - % % hp
2778.92 306.50 166.08 0.29 36.90 44.23 30.96 51.42
2784.73 307.14 166.43 0.33 41.99 51.05 35.74 59.48
2785.16 307.19 166.45 0.34 43.26 52.71 36.90 61.42

2790.32 307.76 166.76 0.37 47.08 57.21 40.05 66.79
2796.14 308.40 167.11 0.42 53.44 64.58 45.21 75.55

2801.74 309.02 167.44 0.46 58.53 70.12 49.08 82.18
2810.13 309.94 167.94 0.50 63.62 75.43 52.80 88.67
2827.56 311.86 168.98 0.53 67.44 79.21 55.45 93.70

2846.07 313.90 170.09 0.57 72.53 84.01 58.81 100.03
2871.68 316.73 171.62 0.61 77.62 88.56 61.99 106.39

2900.52 319.91 173.34 0.64 81.43 91.59 64.11 111.13
2933.45 323.54 175.31 0.67 85.25 94.38 66.07 115.83

2972.40 327.84 177.64 0.70 89.07 96.59 67.61 120.10
3015.66 332.61 180.23 0.73 92.89 98.36 68.85 124.09
3061.29 337.64 182.95 0.76 96.70 99.50 69.65 127.42

3109.07 342.91 185.81 0.78 99.25 99.90 69.93 129.94
3160.51 348.59 188.89 0.81 103.07 99.55 69.69 131.64

3214.96 354.59 192.14 0.83 105.61 98.28 68.80 132.19
3228.30 356.06 192.93 0.83 105.61 98.28 68.80 132.74
3273.28 361.02 195.62 0.85 108.16 96.31 67.42 131.89
236
20,000 ft
㉟㊱㊲㊳㊴㊵㊶㊷
BHP at
% Design % Design
V/ND hp
N
rpm hp hp - % % hp
2648.97 292.17 127.05 0.31 39.44 47.64 33.35 42.37
2654.51 292.78 127.31 0.35 44.53 54.23 37.96 48.33
2654.92 292.82 127.33 0.35 44.53 54.23 37.96 48.33

2659.84 293.36 127.56 0.39 49.62 60.20 42.14 53.75
2665.38 293.98 127.83 0.44 55.99 67.39 47.17 60.30

2670.72 294.56 128.09 0.48 61.08 72.83 50.98 65.30
2678.72 295.45 128.47 0.52 66.17 77.96 54.57 70.11
2695.34 297.28 129.27 0.56 71.26 82.87 58.01 74.99

2712.98 299.23 130.12 0.60 76.35 87.45 61.22 79.66
2737.39 301.92 131.29 0.64 81.43 91.59 64.11 84.17

2764.89 304.95 132.60 0.67 85.25 94.38 66.07 87.61
2796.28 308.41 134.11 0.71 90.34 97.22 68.05 91.26

2833.41 312.51 135.89 0.74 94.16 98.82 69.17 94.00
2874.64 317.06 137.87 0.77 97.98 99.74 69.82 96.26
2918.14 321.85 139.95 0.80 101.79 99.85 69.90 97.83

2963.69 326.88 142.14 0.82 104.34 98.95 69.27 98.46
3012.72 332.29 144.49 0.85 108.16 96.90 67.83 98.01

3064.62 338.01 146.98 0.87 110.70 95.24 66.67 97.99
3077.34 339.41 147.59 0.87 110.70 95.24 66.67 98.40
3120.21 344.14 149.64 0.89 113.25 92.95 65.07 97.37
237
25,000 ft
㊸㊹㊺㊻㊼㊽㊾㊿
BHP at
% Design % Design
V/ND hp
N
rpm hp hp - % % hp
2472.20 272.67 91.37 0.33 41.99 51.05 35.74 32.66
2477.37 273.24 91.56 0.37 47.08 57.21 40.05 36.67
2477.75 273.28 91.57 0.38 48.35 58.70 41.09 37.63

2482.35 273.79 91.74 0.42 53.44 64.58 45.21 41.48
2487.51 274.36 91.93 0.47 59.80 71.45 50.02 45.98

2492.50 274.91 92.12 0.51 64.89 76.69 53.68 49.45
2499.97 275.73 92.39 0.56 71.26 82.87 58.01 53.60
2515.47 277.44 92.97 0.60 76.35 87.45 61.22 56.92

2531.94 279.26 93.58 0.64 81.43 91.59 64.11 59.99
2554.72 281.77 94.42 0.68 86.52 95.17 66.62 62.90

2580.38 284.60 95.37 0.72 91.61 97.82 68.47 65.30
2609.68 287.83 96.45 0.76 96.70 99.50 69.65 67.18

2644.32 291.65 97.73 0.79 100.52 99.95 69.97 68.38
2682.81 295.90 99.15 0.82 104.34 98.95 69.27 68.68
2723.41 300.38 100.65 0.85 108.16 96.90 67.83 68.27

2765.91 305.06 102.22 0.88 111.97 94.16 65.91 67.37
2811.67 310.11 103.91 0.91 115.79 90.27 63.19 65.66

2860.11 315.45 105.70 0.93 118.33 87.29 61.10 64.58
2871.98 316.76 106.14 0.93 118.33 87.29 61.10 64.85
2911.99 321.18 107.62 0.96 122.15 82.38 57.67 62.06
238
INSERT THPAV vs Flight Speed Graph
239
Conclusion :
The power performance – power available at given altitudes was
determined. The horsepower available and flight speed curve was constructed
for the designed aircraft. The design airspeed and brake horsepower design was
defined by graphical and interpolation method. As the aircraft increases altitude
there is a decrease in power availability. When an aircraft is operating beyond
its designed airspeed there is a decrease in efficiency. Thus, the curve shows a
downward slope after reaching its 100 percent efficiency.
240
NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
Activity No. 10
TITLE: Climb Performance and Ceilings
OBJECTIVES:
To determine the rate of climb on a given altitude.
PROCEDURE:
10.1) Determine the Maximum Speed, the Maximum R.C., the Speed of
Maximum R.C., the Best Climb Angle and the corresponding Flight
Speed.
Note: Highlight the Maximum R.C.
10.2) Determine Absolute Ceiling and Service Ceiling
CONCLUSION:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
REFERENCES:

Daniel P. Raymer
38
NAME: __________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ____________________ RATING: _____________________________
GROUP NO.: _____________________ INSTRUCTOR: _________________________
Activity No. 10a

TITLE: Climb Performance and Ceilings: Climb Performance
and Speed – Rate of Climb
OBJECTIVE:
 To determine the rate of climb of your aircraft at given
altitudes.
From the plotted graphs of the power required and available at

given altitudes, various performance parameters can be obtained:
Maximum flight speed

Maximum rate of climb
Maximum climb angle
All corresponding speeds
The maximum speed in level flight at a given altitude is simply the

speed at which the power available and power required curves intersect.
The maximum rate of climb occurs when the excess power is maximum.
The maximum climb angle occurs when the ratio (R.C. /V) is at maximum
𝑅. 𝐶. = 𝑣 sin 𝛾
𝑅. 𝐶.
sin 𝛾 =
𝑣
𝑅. 𝐶.
𝛾 = sin−1 ( )
𝑣
𝑅. 𝐶.
𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = sin−1 ( )
𝑣 𝑚𝑎𝑥
In determining the maximum climb angle, care should be taken to

make sure that the speed for maximum climb angle is not less than the
stall speed. To find the condition for maximum (R.C. / V) draw a
straight line from the origin tangent to the curve.
For the aircraft described in activity nos. 9a and 9b, determine the maximum
speed, the maximum R.C., the speed for maximum R.C., the best climb angle
and the corresponding flight speed.
SEA LEVEL
Vo THPAV THPREQ'D EHP R.C.
mph hp hp hp ft/min
70.00 96.07 70.58 25.49 252.81
80.00 111.76 65.98 45.78 454.04
80.65 111.78 65.78 46.00 456.21
90.00 126.44 64.10 62.34 618.20
100.00 136.87 64.55 72.32 717.25
110.00 150.33 67.09 83.24 825.55
120.00 163.28 71.62 91.66 909.05
130.00 176.31 78.10 98.21 973.96
140.00 186.19 86.55 99.64 988.16
150.00 198.85 97.00 101.85 1010.09
160.00 208.86 109.51 99.35 985.32
170.00 218.45 124.14 94.31 935.24
180.00 228.13 141.00 87.13 864.10
190.00 235.16 160.16 75.00 743.81
200.00 243.48 181.72 61.76 612.49
210.00 249.81 205.78 44.03 436.61
220.00 256.33 232.46 23.87 236.76
230.00 262.04 261.84 0.20 1.95
230.20 262.50 262.50 0.00 0.00
241
INSERT THP vs FLIGHT SPEED @ SEA LEVEL
242
5,000 ft
mph hp hp hp ft/min
75.41 85.38 76.03 9.35 92.69
86.18 98.36 71.08 27.28 270.57
86.89 99.27 70.86 28.41 281.72
96.96 111.11 69.06 42.05 417.02
107.73 120.89 69.54 51.35 509.29
118.50 131.47 72.27 59.20 587.08
129.28 143.20 77.15 66.05 655.01
140.05 152.10 84.14 67.96 673.99
150.39 162.69 92.88 69.81 692.32
150.82 163.04 93.24 69.80 692.22
161.60 171.80 104.50 67.30 667.47
172.37 180.26 117.97 62.29 617.74
183.14 188.52 133.74 54.78 543.25
193.91 195.50 151.90 43.60 432.40
204.69 201.60 172.54 29.06 288.20
215.46 207.24 195.77 11.47 113.77
221.35 209.94 209.94 0.00 0.00
243
INSERT THP vs FLIGHT SPEED @ 5000ft
244
10,000 ft
mph hp hp hp ft/min
81.46 76.08 82.13 -6.05 -60.02
93.10 85.32 76.78 8.54 84.70
93.85 86.00 76.55 9.45 93.74
104.73 95.64 74.60 21.04 208.67
116.37 105.55 75.11 30.44 301.84
128.01 115.31 78.07 37.24 369.33
139.65 123.13 83.34 39.79 394.60
150.33 131.74 90.27 41.47 411.27
151.28 132.35 90.89 41.46 411.19
162.92 139.74 100.72 39.02 386.98
174.56 146.85 112.88 33.97 336.90
186.20 153.51 127.43 26.08 258.60
197.83 158.88 144.47 14.41 142.91
209.36 163.89 163.89 0.00 0.00
245
246
15,000 ft
mph hp hp hp ft/min
88.25 65.78 88.98 -23.20 -230.06
100.86 76.12 83.18 -7.06 -70.00
101.68 76.66 82.93 -6.27 -62.16
113.46 84.43 80.82 3.61 35.83
126.07 91.72 81.37 10.35 102.60
138.68 99.19 84.58 14.61 144.93
151.29 107.00 90.29 16.71 165.74
163.89 112.96 98.46 14.50 143.77
176.50 118.61 109.11 9.50 94.17
189.11 123.73 122.29 1.44 14.31
190.75 124.34 124.34 0.00 0.00
247
INSERT THP vs FLIGHT SPEED @ 15000 ft
248
20,000 ft
mph hp hp hp ft/min
95.91 57.62 96.70 -39.08 -387.53
109.61 65.11 90.39 -25.28 -250.75
110.50 65.56 90.12 -24.56 -243.58
123.31 71.73 87.83 -16.10 -159.64
137.01 78.26 88.43 -10.17 -100.89
150.71 84.41 91.91 -7.50 -74.40
164.41 89.22 98.12 -8.90 -88.26
178.11 93.48 107.00 -13.52 -134.13
191.81 96.54 118.58 -22.04 -218.57
205.51 98.18 132.89 -34.71 -344.27
219.21 98.05 150.03 -51.98 -515.51
232.91 98.12 170.09 -71.97 -713.72
249
250
INSERT R.C. vs FLIGHT SPEED @ ALTITUDES
251
Best Climb Angle, ϒ𝑴𝑨𝑿
At Sea level,
𝑹. 𝑪.
ϒ𝑴𝑨𝑿 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 ( )
𝑽 𝑴𝑨𝑿
𝑚𝑖
𝑓𝑡 1
(938.64 𝑚𝑖𝑛) ( ℎ𝑟 )
𝑓𝑡
88
ϒ𝑀𝐴𝑋 = sin−1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚𝑖
123.38
ℎ𝑟
[ ]
ϒ𝑴𝑨𝑿 = 𝟒. 𝟗𝟔 𝒅𝒆𝒈.
At 5,000 ft,
𝑹. 𝑪.
𝑽𝑴𝑨𝑿
𝑚𝑖
𝑓𝑡 1
(643.32 𝑚𝑖𝑛) ( ℎ𝑟 )
𝑓𝑡
88
𝑚𝑖
126.55
ℎ𝑟
[ ]
ϒ𝑴𝑨𝑿 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟏 𝒅𝒆𝒈.
252
At 10,000 ft,
𝑹. 𝑪.
𝑽𝑴𝑨𝑿
𝑚𝑖
𝑓𝑡 1
(376.41 𝑚𝑖𝑛) ( ℎ𝑟 )
𝑓𝑡
88
𝑚𝑖
131.62
ℎ𝑟
[ ]
ϒ𝑴𝑨𝑿 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟔 𝒅𝒆𝒈.
At 15,000 ft,
𝑹. 𝑪.
𝑽𝑴𝑨𝑿
𝑚𝑖
𝑓𝑡 1
(164.25 𝑚𝑖𝑛) ( ℎ𝑟 )
𝑓𝑡
88
𝑚𝑖
147.95
ℎ𝑟
[ ]
ϒ𝑴𝑨𝑿 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐 𝒅𝒆𝒈.
253
ALTITUDE, VMAX MAX SPEED FOR BEST CLIMB SPEED FOR BEST
h R.C. MAX R.C. ANGLE, ϒ𝑴𝑨𝑿 CLIMB ANGLE
ft mph fpm mph deg. mph
Sea level 230.20 1010.09 150 4.96 123.38
5,000 221.35 692.32 150.39 3.31 126.55
10,000 209.36 411.27 150.33 1.86 131.62
15,000 190.75 165.74 151.29 0.72 147.95
254
Conclusion:
The rate of climb of the designed aircraft at given altitudes was determined.
As the altitude increases, the velocity and rate of climb decreases. While, the
speed for best climb angle varies directly to altitude.
255
NAME: __________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ____________________ RATING: _____________________________
Activity No. 10b

TITLE: Climb Performance and Ceilings: Ceilings and
Time to Climb
OBJECTIVE:
 To determine the Absolute and Service Ceiling of the design
aircraft
GIVEN:
BHPDES = ______ hp
NDES = ______ rpm
ηP = ______ %
𝑉
(𝑁𝐷 ) = ______
𝐷𝐸𝑆
D = ______ ft
From Activity 10a:
R.C. @ Sea Level =
R.C. @ 5000 ft =
...
Computation for Absolute Ceiling, H

𝐻 ℎ
=
𝑅. 𝐶.𝑂 𝑅. 𝐶. 𝑂 − 𝑅. 𝐶.ℎ
ℎ 𝑅. 𝐶.𝑂
𝐻=
𝑅. 𝐶.𝑂 − 𝑅. 𝐶. ℎ
Where:
H = Absolute Ceiling
h = any altitude
R.C.o = Rate of climb at sea level
R.C.h = Rate of climb at any altitude
Given :
BHPDES = 375 hp
NDES = 3,400 rpm
Ƞp = 70 %
V
(ND)𝐷𝐸𝑆 = 0.786
D = 7.581 ft
From Activity No. 10a

R.C. @ Sea level = 1010.09 ft/min
R.C. @ 5, 000 ft = 692.32 ft/min
R.C. @ 10, 000 ft = 411.27 ft/min
R.C. @ 15, 000 ft = 165.74 ft/min
Computation for Absolute Ceiling, H

𝐇 𝐡
=
𝐑. 𝐂.𝐎 𝐑. 𝐂.𝐎 − 𝐑. 𝐂.𝐡
𝐡𝐑. 𝐂.𝐎
𝐇=
𝐑. 𝐂.𝐎 − 𝐑. 𝐂.𝐡
Where:
h = Any Altitude
R. C.O = Rate of Climb @ Sea level
R. C.h = Rate of Climb @ any altitude
(15,000 𝑓𝑡)(1010.09 ft/min)

H=
(1010.09 ft/min) − (165.74 ft/min)
H = 17,944.44 ft
256
Density Ratio for Absolute Ceiling, H
𝝆 𝒂𝒉 𝟒.𝟐𝟔
𝝈= (𝟏 + )
𝝆𝒐 𝑻𝒐
Where:
𝜌
𝜎𝐻 = = Density ratio
𝜌𝑜
𝑎 = Temperature Gradient ( - 0.003566 ° 𝑅 ⁄𝑓𝑡)

𝑇𝑜 = Atmospheric Temperature (519 °𝑅 )
ℎ = Any altitude in ft.
4.26
𝜌 (− 0.003566 ° 𝑅 ⁄𝑓𝑡)(17,944.44 ft)
𝜎𝐻 = = (1 + )
𝜌𝑜 (519 °𝑅)
𝝈𝑯 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟎𝟗𝟎
ALTITUDE, h ALTITUDE FACTOR

ft FIG. 44b FIG. 55b
17,944.44 0.467 0.925
257
INSERT GRAPH (ALTITUDE vs RATE OF CLIMB) ABSOULTE CEILING
258
Explanation of Table
Column
No.
① 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑁𝑜. 9a
② 𝑇𝐻𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷 𝑜 = 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑁𝑜. 9a
③ 𝑁 = 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑁𝑜. 9𝑏
𝑉 = ①
④ @ 𝐻 = 17,944.44𝑓𝑡.
√𝜎
𝑇𝐻𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷 = ②
⑤ @ 𝐻 = 17,944.44 𝑓𝑡.
√𝜎
𝑁 = ③ 𝑥 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐹𝑖𝑔. 55𝑏)
⑦ 𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑁 = [(𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑥 ⑥) ÷ 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑁]
259
𝑩𝑯𝑷 = ⑦ 𝒙 𝑨𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 (𝑭𝒊𝒈. 𝟒𝟒𝒃)
𝑉 = [(① 𝑥 88) ÷ (⑥ 𝑥 𝐷)]

⑨
𝑁𝐷
𝑉 = 𝑉
⑩ % 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 (⑨ ÷ 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 )
𝑁𝐷 𝑁𝐷
% 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝜂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐹𝑖𝑔. 55𝑎
⑫ 𝜂𝑃 = ⑪ 𝑥 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝜂𝑃
⑬ 𝑇𝐻𝑃𝐴𝑉 = ⑧𝑥⑫
260
SEA LEVEL 17,944.44 ft
① ② ③ ④ ⑤ ⑥
Vo THPREQ'D N V THPREQ'D N
mph hp rpm mph hp rpm

70.00 70.58 2926.72 92.64 93.41 2707.22
80.00 65.98 2932.84 105.88 87.32 2712.88
80.65 65.78 2933.29 106.74 87.06 2713.29
90.00 64.10 2938.73 119.11 84.84 2718.33
100.00 64.55 2944.85 132.35 85.43 2723.99
110.00 67.09 2950.75 145.58 88.79 2729.44
120.00 71.62 2959.59 158.82 94.78 2737.62
130.00 78.10 2977.95 172.05 103.37 2754.60
140.00 86.55 2997.44 185.29 114.55 2772.63
150.00 97.00 3024.41 198.52 128.38 2797.58
160.00 109.51 3054.79 211.76 144.93 2825.68
170.00 124.14 3089.47 224.99 164.30 2857.76
180.00 141.00 3130.49 238.23 186.61 2895.70
190.00 160.16 3176.05 251.46 211.97 2937.85
200.00 181.72 3224.11 264.70 240.51 2982.30
210.00 205.78 3274.43 277.93 272.35 3028.85
220.00 232.46 3328.60 291.17 307.65 3078.96
230.00 261.84 3395.47 304.40 346.55 3140.81
230.20 262.50 3400.00 304.67 347.42 3145.00
240.00 294.05 3447.37 317.64 389.18 3188.82
261
17,944.44 ft
⑦ ⑧ ⑨ ⑩ ⑪ ⑫ ⑬
BHP AT
% Design % Design
REDUCED BHP V/ND ɳp THPAV
V/ND hp
N
hp hp - % % % hp
298.59 139.44 0.30 38.19 45.81 32.07 44.72
299.21 139.73 0.34 43.55 52.92 37.04 51.76
299.26 139.75 0.35 43.90 53.33 37.33 52.18
299.82 140.01 0.38 48.90 59.19 41.44 58.02
300.44 140.31 0.43 54.22 65.28 45.70 64.12
301.04 140.59 0.47 59.52 71.00 49.70 69.88
301.94 141.01 0.51 64.74 76.39 53.47 75.40
303.82 141.88 0.55 69.70 81.26 56.88 80.71
305.81 142.81 0.59 74.58 85.70 59.99 85.67
308.56 144.10 0.62 79.19 89.69 62.78 90.47
311.66 145.54 0.66 83.63 93.09 65.17 94.85
315.19 147.20 0.69 87.86 95.78 67.05 98.69
319.38 149.15 0.72 91.81 97.75 68.43 102.06
324.03 151.32 0.75 95.52 99.06 69.35 104.93
328.93 153.61 0.78 99.05 99.73 69.81 107.24
334.06 156.01 0.80 102.40 99.60 69.72 108.77
339.59 158.59 0.83 105.53 98.17 68.72 108.98
346.41 161.77 0.85 108.16 96.79 67.75 109.60
346.88 161.99 0.85 108.11 96.76 67.73 109.72
351.71 164.25 0.87 111.16 94.73 66.31 108.91
262
INSERT GRAPH (THP vs FLIGHT SPEED) ABSOLUTE CEILING
263
Computation for Service Ceiling, Hs
𝑯(𝑹. 𝑪.𝑶 − 𝟏𝟎𝟎)

𝑯𝑺 =
𝑹. 𝑪.𝑶
Where:
HS = Service Ceiling
R. C.O = Rate of Climb @ Sea level
R. C.h = Rate of Climb @ any altitude
(17,944.44 ft)(1010.09𝑓𝑡/𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 100𝑓𝑡/𝑚𝑖𝑛)

𝐻𝑆 =
1010.09𝑓𝑡/𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑯𝑺 = 𝟏𝟔, 𝟏𝟔𝟕. 𝟗𝟐 𝒇𝒕
Density Ratio for Service Ceiling, Hs
𝝆 𝒂𝒉 𝟒.𝟐𝟔
𝝈= (𝟏 + )
𝝆𝒐 𝑻𝒐
Where:
𝜌
𝜎𝐻 = = Density ratio
𝜌𝑜
𝑎 = Temperature Gradient (- 0.003566 ° 𝑅 ⁄𝑓𝑡)

𝑇𝑜 = Atmospheric Temperature (519 °𝑅 )
ℎ = Any altitude above sea level up to tropopause in ft
264
4.26
𝜌 (− 0.003566 ° 𝑅 ⁄𝑓𝑡)(16,167.92 ft)
𝜎𝐻 = = (1 + )
𝜌𝑜 (519 °𝑅)
𝝈𝑯 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟓𝟓𝟑
ALTITUDE, h ALTITUDE FACTOR

ft FIG. 44b FIG. 55b
12,541.39 0.604 0.966
265
Explanation of Table:
Column
No.
① 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑁𝑜. 9a
② 𝑇𝐻𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷 𝑜 = 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑁𝑜. 9a
③ 𝑁 = 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑁𝑜. 9𝑏
𝑉 = ①
④ @ 𝐻𝑠 = 16,167.92 𝑓𝑡.
√𝜎
𝑇𝐻𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑄𝐷 = ②
⑤ @ 𝐻𝑠 = 16,167.92 𝑓𝑡
√𝜎
𝑁 = ③ 𝑥 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐹𝑖𝑔. 55𝑏)
⑦ 𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑁 = [(𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝐵𝐻𝑃 𝑥 ⑥) ÷ 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑁]
266
𝑩𝑯𝑷 = ⑦ 𝒙 𝑨𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 (𝑭𝒊𝒈. 𝟒𝟒𝒃)
𝑉 = [(① 𝑥 88) ÷ (⑥ 𝑥 𝐷)]

⑨
𝑁𝐷
𝑉 = 𝑉
⑩ % 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 (⑨ ÷ 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 )
𝑁𝐷 𝑁𝐷
% 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝜂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐹𝑖𝑔. 55𝑎
⑫ 𝜂𝑃 = ⑪ 𝑥 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝜂𝑃
⑬ 𝑇𝐻𝑃𝐴𝑉 = ⑧𝑥⑫
267
SEA LEVEL 16,167.92 ft
① ② ③ ④ ⑤ ⑥
Vo THPREQ'D N V THPREQ'D N
mph hp rpm mph hp rpm

70.00 70.58 2926.72 89.96 90.70 2796.481
80.00 65.98 2932.84 102.81 84.79 2802.3286
80.65 65.78 2933.29 103.64 84.53 2802.7586
90.00 64.10 2938.73 115.66 82.38 2807.9565
100.00 64.55 2944.85 128.51 82.95 2813.8042
110.00 67.09 2950.75 141.36 86.21 2819.4416
120.00 71.62 2959.59 154.21 92.03 2827.8882
130.00 78.10 2977.95 167.06 100.37 2845.4312
140.00 86.55 2997.44 179.91 111.22 2864.0539
150.00 97.00 3024.41 192.76 124.65 2889.8238
160.00 109.51 3054.79 205.61 140.72 2918.8518
170.00 124.14 3089.47 218.46 159.54 2951.9886
180.00 141.00 3130.49 231.31 181.20 2991.1832
190.00 160.16 3176.05 244.17 205.82 3034.7158
200.00 181.72 3224.11 257.02 233.53 3080.6371
210.00 205.78 3274.43 269.87 264.45 3128.7179
220.00 232.46 3328.60 282.72 298.73 3180.4773
230.00 261.84 3395.47 295.57 336.49 3244.3716
230.20 262.50 3400.00 295.83 337.33 3248.7
240.00 294.05 3447.37 308.42 377.88 3293.962
268
16,167.92 ft
⑦ ⑧ ⑨ ⑩ ⑪ ⑫ ⑬
%
BHP AT % Design
BHP V/ND Design ɳp THPAV
REDUCED N V/ND
hp
hp hp - % % % hp
308.44 162.08 0.29 36.97 45.42 31.80 51.54
309.08 162.42 0.33 42.16 52.49 36.74 59.68
309.13 162.45 0.33 42.50 52.85 36.99 60.09
309.70 162.75 0.37 47.34 52.92 37.04 60.28
310.35 163.09 0.41 52.49 58.71 41.09 67.02
310.97 163.41 0.45 57.62 64.77 45.34 74.09
311.90 163.90 0.49 62.67 70.44 49.31 80.81
313.83 164.92 0.53 67.48 75.80 53.06 87.51
315.89 166.00 0.57 72.20 80.62 56.43 93.68
318.73 167.49 0.60 76.66 85.05 59.54 99.72
321.93 169.18 0.64 80.96 89.09 62.37 105.51
325.59 171.10 0.67 85.05 92.54 64.78 110.83
329.91 173.37 0.70 88.88 95.42 66.80 115.80
334.71 175.89 0.73 92.47 97.51 68.26 120.06
339.78 178.55 0.75 95.89 99.04 69.33 123.79
345.08 181.34 0.78 99.13 100.24 70.17 127.24
350.79 184.34 0.80 102.16 99.51 69.66 128.41
357.84 188.04 0.82 104.70 98.18 68.73 129.23
358.31 188.29 0.82 104.66 98.15 68.70 129.37
363.30 190.92 0.85 107.61 96.49 67.54 128.95
269
INSERT GRAPH (ALTITUDE vs RATE OF CLIMB) SERVICE CEILING
270
INSERT GRAPH (THP vs FLIGHT SPEED) SERVICE CEILING
271
SERVICE CEILING, Hs = 16,167.92
mph hp hp hp ft/min
128.51 86.54 82.95 3.59 35.63
141.36 94.25 86.21 8.04 79.73
154.21 102.21 92.03 10.18 100.93
156.02 103.26 93.05 10.21 101.25
167.06 109.33 100.37 8.96 88.89
179.91 115.80 111.22 4.58 45.39
187.85 119.21 119.21 0.00 0.00
272
R.C. vs Flight Speed
SERVICE CEILING
Scale : 1mm : 1 ft/min : 1mph
150
Rate of Climb, R.C. (ft/min)
100
RC = 92.9 ft/min
50
0
100 150 200 250
V = 145.69 mph
273
Best Climb Angle, ϒ𝑴𝑨𝑿
At 16,167.92 ft,
𝑹. 𝑪.
𝑽 𝑴𝑨𝑿
1 𝑚𝑝ℎ
(92.9 𝑓𝑝𝑚) ( )
88 𝑓𝑝𝑚
ϒ𝑀𝐴𝑋 = sin−1 [ ]
145.69 𝑚𝑝ℎ
ϒ𝑴𝑨𝑿 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟓 𝒅𝒆𝒈.
ALTITUDE, MAX SPEED FOR BEST CLIMB SPEED FOR BEST

VMAX
h R.C. MAX R.C. ANGLE, ϒ𝑴𝑨𝑿 CLIMB ANGLE
ft mph fpm mph deg. mph
17,944.44 153.63 0 0 0 0
16,167.92 187.85 101.25 156.02 0.415 145.69
274
Time to Climb from Sea level up to 5,000 ft Altitude,
𝑯 𝑯
𝒕= ( ) [𝐥𝐧 ( )]
𝑹. 𝑪.𝑶 𝑯−𝒉
17,944.44 𝑓𝑡 17,944.44 𝑓𝑡
𝑡= ( ) [ln ( )]
1010.09 𝑓𝑡/𝑚𝑖𝑛 17,944.44 𝑓𝑡 − 5,000 𝑓𝑡
𝒕 = 𝟓. 𝟖𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏
Time to Climb from 5,000 ft up to 10,000 ft Altitude,
𝑯 𝑯
𝒕= ( ) [𝐥𝐧 ( )]
𝑹. 𝑪.@𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒇𝒕 𝑯−𝒉
17,944.44 𝑓𝑡 17,944.44 𝑓𝑡
𝑡= ( ) [ln ( )]
692.32 𝑓𝑡/𝑚𝑖𝑛 17,944.44 𝑓𝑡 − 5,000 𝑓𝑡
𝒕 = 𝟖. 𝟒𝟕 𝒎𝒊𝒏
Time to Climb from 10,000 ft up to 15,000 ft Altitude,
𝑯 𝑯
𝒕= ( ) [𝐥𝐧 ( )]
𝑹. 𝑪.@𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒇𝒕 𝑯−𝒉
17,944.44 𝑓𝑡 17,944.44 𝑓𝑡
𝑡= ( ) [ln ( )]
411.27 𝑓𝑡/𝑚𝑖𝑛 17,944.4401 𝑓𝑡 − 5,000 𝑓𝑡
𝒕 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝒊𝒏
275
Time to Climb from 15,000 ft up to 16,167.92 ft Altitude,
𝑯 𝑯
𝒕= ( ) [𝐥𝐧 ( )]
𝑹. 𝑪.@𝟏𝟓,𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐟𝐭 𝑯−𝒉
17,944.44 𝑓𝑡 17,944.44 𝑓𝑡
𝑡= ( ) [ln ( )]
165.74 𝑓𝑡/𝑚𝑖𝑛 17,944.44 𝑓𝑡 − 1,167.92 𝑓𝑡
𝒕 = 𝟕. 𝟐𝟗 𝒎𝒊𝒏
Time to Climb from 16,167.92 ft to 17, 944.44 Altitude,
𝑯 𝑯
𝒕= ( ) [𝐥𝐧 ( )]
𝑹. 𝑪.@𝑯𝒔= 𝟏𝟔,𝟏𝟔𝟕.𝟗𝟐 𝐟𝐭 𝑯−𝒉
17,944.44 𝑓𝑡 17,944.44 𝑓𝑡
𝑡= ( ) [ln ( )]
100 𝑓𝑡/𝑚𝑖𝑛 17,944.44 𝑓𝑡 − 1,776.52 𝑓𝑡
𝒕 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟕𝟏 𝒎𝒊𝒏
Time to Climb from Sea Level to 17, 944.44 Altitude,
𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 5.80 𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 8.47 𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 14.25 𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 7.29 𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 18.71 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝟓𝟒. 𝟓𝟏 𝒎𝒊𝒏
276
Altitude,h R.C. Δh/R.C. t = Σ (3)
ft fpm min min
Sea Level 1010.09 0.00 0.00
1000.00 953.80 0.99 0.99
2000.00 897.51 1.05 2.04
3000.00 841.22 1.11 3.15
4000.00 784.93 1.19 4.34
5000.00 692.32 1.27 5.62
6000.00 672.35 1.44 7.06
7000.00 616.06 1.49 8.55
8000.00 559.77 1.62 10.17
9000.00 503.48 1.79 11.96
10000.00 411.27 1.99 13.94
11000.00 390.90 2.43 16.37
12000.00 334.61 2.56 18.93
13000.00 278.32 2.99 21.92
14000.00 222.03 3.59 25.51
15000.00 165.74 4.50 30.02
16000.00 109.45 6.03 36.05
16167.92 100.00 1.53 37.59
17000.00 53.16 8.32 45.91
17944.44 0.00 17.77 63.67
277
Conclusion:
The absolute and service ceiling of the designed aircraft was determined.
The time to climb was solved with the equations provided. At absolute ceiling,
there is no excess horsepower. The point of tangency between the THP required
and THP available is the flight speed at absolute ceiling.
278
NAME: __________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ____________________ RATING: _____________________________
Activity no. 11
Title: TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
ITEM
SEA LEVEL (STANDARD CONDITIONS) SYMBOLS VALUES REMARKS
NO.
1 FLAP ANGLE, deg. 𝛿𝑓 0 GIVEN
2 WING AREA, sq. ft. S GIVEN
3 WING SPAN, ft b GIVEN

4 ASPECT RATIO A GIVEN
TAKEN FROM ACTIVITY
5 MAX CL 𝐶𝐿 𝑀𝐴𝑋
NO. 3
𝐶𝐿 𝑀𝐴𝑋
6 LIFT-OFF 𝐶𝐿 = 𝑉 2 𝐶𝐿 (𝐿𝑂𝐹 ) 𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 =
( 𝐿𝑂𝐹 ⁄𝑉 )
𝑆
𝐶𝐿 𝑇𝐴𝑋𝐼(𝑂𝐺𝐸)
7 CL DURING GROUND RUN (FREE AIR) (πAeCDO)1/2
𝐶𝐿 (𝐼𝐺𝐸)
𝐶𝐿 𝛼(𝐼𝐺𝐸)
= ( 𝐶𝐿 (𝑂𝐺𝐸) )
7A CL DURING GROUND RUN (IGE) 𝐶𝐿 𝛼(𝑂𝐺𝐸 )
𝐶𝐿 𝑇𝐴𝑋𝐼
− 𝐶𝐿 𝛼(𝐼𝐺𝐸) ∆𝛼𝑜
2
𝐶𝐷(𝑂𝐺𝐸) ___ + ____𝐶𝐿(𝑂𝐺𝐸)
8 CD DURING TAXI 𝐶𝐷
Clean Airplane w/LG
9 COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION 𝜇 ASSUMED
10 9 x 7A 𝜇𝐶𝐿 𝑇𝐴𝑋𝐼
11 HEIGHT OF MAC ABOVE GROUND, ft h

12 h/b h/b
[1 – 1.32(h/b)]/
13 GROUND EFFECT FACTOR 𝜎′
[1.05 + 7.4(h/b)]
𝐶𝐿 𝑇𝐴𝑋𝐼(𝑂𝐺𝐸) 2
14 ∆CDi = −𝜎 ′ ∆CDi
𝜋𝐴𝑒
CD (CORRECTED) = 𝐶𝐷 + ∆CDi ,
15 𝐶𝐷 𝑇𝐴𝑋𝐼
8 + 14
15 - 10 𝐶𝐷 𝑇𝐴𝑋𝐼
16
− 𝜇𝐶𝐿 𝑇𝐴𝑋𝐼
STALL SPEED √
2𝑊
𝑥
15
, 𝑚𝑝ℎ TAKEN FROM
17 𝑉𝑠
𝜌𝐶 𝐿 𝑀𝐴𝑋𝑆 22 ACTIVITY NO. 9a
18 LIFT-OFF SPEED, mph 𝑉𝐿 𝑂𝐹 𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 =

ITEM
NO.
𝑞̅ 𝐿𝑂𝐹 1
19 DYNAMIC PRESSURE AT LIFT-OFF, psf 𝑞̅𝐿𝑂𝐹 = 𝜌𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 2
2
2
𝑞̅ 1 𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹
20 DYNAMIC PRESSURE AT VLOF/ √2 𝑞̅ = 𝜌( )
2 √2
375 √2𝑇𝐻𝑃𝐴𝑉
𝑇=
21 TAKE-OFF THRUST AT AT VLOF/√2 T 𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹
𝑇𝐻𝑃𝐴𝑉 =
NET FORCE FOR ACCELERATION AT VLOF/ √2
22 , lb Fm
FLOF = (T - 𝜇W) – (𝐶𝐷 𝑇𝐴𝑋𝐼 − 𝜇𝐶𝐿 (𝐼𝐺𝐸))𝑞̅ S
𝑊 𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 2
23 𝑆𝐺 = , ft 𝑆𝐺
2𝑔 𝐹𝑚
24 ROTATION DISTANCE, ft 𝑆𝑅
375 √2𝑇𝐻𝑃𝐴𝑉
𝑇=
25 THRUST AT LIFT-OFF, lb T 𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹
𝑇𝐻𝑃𝐴𝑉 =
26 CLTR/CLMAX ASSUMED
𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 2
𝑅= 2
27 TRANSITION RADIUS R 𝑉 𝐶𝐿
𝑔 [( 𝐿𝑂𝐹 ) ( 𝑇𝑅 ) − 1]
𝑉𝑠 𝐶𝐿 𝑀𝐴𝑋
𝐶𝐷 𝑇𝑅 = ___ + ____𝐶𝐿 2
28 TRANSITION CD 𝐶𝐷 𝑇𝑅
(CLEAN AIRPLANE w/ LG)
29 DRAG IN TRANSITION 𝐷𝑇𝑅 𝐷𝑇𝑅 = 𝐶𝐷 𝑇𝑅 𝑞̅𝐿𝑂𝐹 𝑆
T − D 25 − 29
30 ,
𝑊 𝑊
𝑇−𝐷
𝜃𝐶𝐿 = 𝐴𝑅𝐶𝑆𝐼𝑁 | |
31 CLIMB ANGLE, deg. 𝜃𝐶𝐿 𝑊 𝐴𝑇 𝑉=𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹
𝑆𝑇𝑅 = 𝑅𝑆𝐼𝑁 𝜃𝐶𝐿

32 TRANSITION DISTANCE, ft 𝑆𝑇𝑅
𝑆𝑇𝑅
33 hTR ℎ𝑇𝑅 = (1 − 𝐶𝑂𝑆𝜃𝐶𝐿 )
𝑆𝐼𝑁𝜃𝐶𝐿
𝑆𝐶𝐿 50′ − ℎ𝑇𝑅
34 CLIMB DISTANCE, ft 𝑆𝐶𝐿 =
𝑇𝐴𝑁 𝜃𝐶𝐿
𝑆𝑇/𝑂
35 TOTAL TAKE-OFF DISTANCE, ft 𝑆𝑇/𝑂 = 𝑆𝐺 + 𝑆𝑅 + 𝑆𝑇𝑅+ 𝑆𝐶𝐿
Take-off Performance Analysis
The take-off phases of flight are normally broken down as follows:
Take-off
Accelerating ground-run
During the ground run, the airplane starts from rest and accelerates to
the take-off speed. The flaps and engine(s) are adjusted for their takeoff
settings. In case of an airplane with tricycle type of landing gear, all three
wheels remain in contact with the ground till a speed of about 85% of the 𝑉𝑡/𝑜
is reached.
Rotation
The aircraft is permitted to accelerate to rotation speed. The term
rotation is used because the aircraft pivots around the axis of its main landing
gear while still on the ground usually because of manipulation of flight
controls.
Lift-off
The nose is raised to a nominal 5º to 15º nose up pitch attitude to
increase lift from the wings and effect lift off phase the airplane moves along a
curved path and the pilot tries to attain a steady climb.
Climb-out
Following lift off, the aircraft has to climb to a certain altitude before it
can cruise at the altitude in a safe and economic way. A climb is carried out by
increasing the lift of wings supporting the aircraft until their lifting force
exceeds the weight of the aircraft. Once this occurs, the aircraft will climb to a
higher altitude until the lifting force and weight are again in balance.
279
Item Standard Sea Symbols Values Remarks
No. Level Conditions
① 𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑝 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒, 𝑑𝑒𝑔. 𝛿𝑓 0 Given
② 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝑓𝑡.2 𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓 138 Given
③ 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛, 𝑓𝑡. 𝑏 32.15 Given
④ 𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝐴 7.49 Given
⑤ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐿 𝑀𝐴𝑋 1.45 Given
⑥ 𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡 − 𝑂𝑓𝑓 𝐶𝐿 (𝐿𝑜𝑓) 1.00694 𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 = 1.2 𝑉𝑆
𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐶𝐿 = 2
(𝑉𝐿𝑜𝑓 /𝑉𝑆 )
⑦ 𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑢𝑛 𝐶𝐿𝑇𝑎𝑥𝑖(𝑂𝐺𝐸) 0.86418
(𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝐴𝑖𝑟) √𝜋𝐴𝑒𝐶𝐷𝑜
⑦A 𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑢𝑛 𝐶𝐿𝑇𝑎𝑥𝑖 0.90350 𝐶𝐿𝛼(𝐼𝐺𝐸)
(𝐼𝐺𝐸) 𝐶𝐿(𝐼𝐺𝐸) = 𝐶𝐿(𝑂𝐺𝐸)
𝐶𝐿𝛼(𝑂𝐺𝐸)
− 𝐶𝐿𝛼(𝐼𝐺𝐸) ∆𝛼𝑜
⑧ 𝐶𝐷 during Taxi 𝐶𝐷 (𝑂𝐺𝐸) 0.07964 From Polar Drag Equation
𝐶𝐷(𝑂𝐺𝐸) = 0.03982 +
0.05332𝐶𝐿 2(OGE)
⑨ Coefficient of Friction 𝜇 0.03 Assumed
⑩ 9 𝑥 7𝐴 𝜇𝐶𝐿𝑇𝑎𝑥𝑖 0.02711
⑪ Height of M.A.C. ℎ 3.48900
Above Ground, 𝑓𝑡.
⑫ ℎ/𝑏 ℎ 0.10852
𝑏
⑬ Ground Effect Factor 𝛿′ 0.46234 1 − 1.32 ℎ/𝑏
1.05 + 7.4 ℎ/𝑏
⑭ 𝐶𝐿𝑇𝑎𝑥𝑖(𝑂𝐺𝐸) ∆𝐶𝐷𝑖 -0.01843
∆𝐶𝐷𝑖 =
𝜋𝐴
⑮ 𝐶𝐷 (𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑) = 𝐶𝐷+ ∆𝐶𝐷𝑖 𝐶𝐷𝑇𝑎𝑥𝑖 0.06121
⑧+⑭
⑯ ⑮−⑩ 𝐶𝐷𝑇𝑎𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇𝐶𝐿𝑇𝑎𝑥𝑖 -0.04553
280
⑰ 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑉𝑆 80.65064 Taken from
2𝑊 15 Activity No. 9
√ 𝑥 , 𝑚𝑝ℎ
𝜌𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑓 22
⑱ Lift – Off Speed, 𝑚𝑝ℎ 𝑉𝐿𝑜𝑓 96.78076 𝑉𝐿𝑜𝑓 = 1.2𝑉𝑠
⑲ Dynamic Pressure at 𝑞̅𝐿𝑜𝑓 23.94639 1
𝑞̅𝐿𝑜𝑓 = 𝜌𝑉𝐿𝑜𝑓 2
Lift – Off, 𝑝𝑠𝑓 2
⑳ Dynamic Pressure at 𝑞̅ 11.97320 1 𝑉𝐿𝑜𝑓 2
𝑉𝐿𝑜𝑓 ⁄√2 𝑞̅ = 𝜌 ( )
2 √2
㉑ Take-off Thrust at 𝑇 513.02285 375√2 𝑇𝐻𝑃𝐴𝑉
𝑉𝐿𝑜𝑓 ⁄√2 𝑇=
𝑉𝐿𝑜𝑓
𝑇𝐻𝑃𝐴𝑉 = 39.85
㉒ Net Force Acceleration 𝐹𝑚 384.32812
at 𝑉𝐿𝑜𝑓 ⁄√2 , 𝑙𝑏𝑠.
𝐹𝑚 = (𝑇 − 𝜇𝑊) −
(𝐶𝐷𝑇𝑎𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇𝐶𝐿𝑇𝑎𝑥𝑖 )𝑞̅ 𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑓
2
㉓ 𝑊 𝑉𝐿𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝐺
𝑆𝐺 = (2𝑔) ( 𝐹 ),ft
𝑚
Approximate Method I 2,710.99246
Approximate Method II 2,885.06690
㉔ Rotation Distance, 𝑓𝑡. 𝑆𝑅 283.89024 𝑡𝑅 = 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐
㉕ Thrust at Lift – Off, 𝑙𝑏𝑠. 𝑇 517.32516 375 √2 𝑇𝐻𝑃𝐴𝑉
𝑇=
𝑉𝐿𝑜𝑓
㉖ CLTR /CLmax − 0.80 Assumed
㉗ Transition Radius, ft 𝑅 4119.95324 𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 2
𝑅=
𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 2 𝐶𝐿𝑇𝑅
𝑔 [( 𝑉 ) (𝐶 ) − 1]
𝑆 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
㉘ Transition 𝐶𝐷 𝐶𝐷𝑇𝑅 0.11157 From Polar Drag
Equation (Clean Airplane
Take-Off Landing Gear
Down
CD(TR) = 0.03982 +
0.05332CL 2 (TR)
㉙ Drag in Transition 𝐷𝑇𝑅 368.68586 1
DTR    CD
2
ρ VLOF S
2 TR
㉚ 𝑇−𝐷 ㉕−㉙ 0.04467
,
𝑊 𝑊
281
Item Standard Sea Symbol Values Remarks
No. Level Conditions s
㉛ Climb Angle, 𝑑𝑒𝑔. 𝜃𝐶𝐿 2.56021 𝑇−𝐷
𝜃𝐶𝐿 = sin−1 | |
𝑊 𝑎𝑡 𝑉=𝑉𝐿𝑜𝑓
㉜ Transition Distance, 𝑓𝑡. 𝑆𝑇𝑅 184.03538 𝑆𝑇𝑅 = 𝑅 sin 𝜃𝐶𝐿
㉛𝑥㉗
㉝ ℎ𝑇𝑅 , 𝑓𝑡. ℎ𝑇𝑅 4.11242 𝑆𝑇𝑅
ℎ𝑇𝑅 = (1 − cos 𝜃𝐶𝐿 )
sin 𝜃𝐶𝐿
㉞ Climb Distance, 𝑓𝑡. 𝑆𝐶𝐿 1026.24823 50 𝑓𝑡 − ℎ𝑇𝑅
𝑆𝐶𝐿 =
tan 𝜃𝐶𝐿
㉟ Total Take – Off 𝑆𝑇/𝑜 𝑆𝑇/𝑂 = 𝑆𝐺 + 𝑆𝑅 + 𝑆𝑇𝑅 + 𝑆𝐶𝐿
Distance, 𝑓𝑡.
Approximate Method I 4,205.16631
Approximate Method II 4,379.24075
282
Computation for total take-off distance,
Lift Coefficient in Ground Effect,
𝑪𝑳 𝜶(𝑰𝑮𝑬)
𝑪𝑳 (𝑰𝑮𝑬) = 𝑪𝑳 (𝑶𝑮𝑬) − 𝑪𝑳 𝜶(𝑰𝑮𝑬) ∆𝜶𝒐
𝑪𝑳 𝜶(𝑶𝑮𝑬)
Where:
𝑪𝑳 (𝑶𝑮𝑬) = Lift coefficient in the appropriate configuration out of ground
effect
𝑪𝑳 (𝑶𝑮𝑬) = √𝜋𝐴𝑒𝐶𝐷 𝑜
1
𝑪𝑳 (𝑶𝑮𝑬) = √( ) (0.03982)
0.05332
𝑪𝑳 (𝑶𝑮𝑬) = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟒𝟏𝟖
-
2𝜋𝐴
𝐶𝐿 𝛼(𝑂𝐺𝐸) = , 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑
2 + √𝐴2 (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ⩘𝐶/2 ) + 4
Where:
A = 7.49
⩘𝐶/2 = 2.84922 º
2𝜋(7.49)
𝐶𝐿 𝛼(𝑂𝐺𝐸) = , 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑
2+ √(7.49)2 (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (2.84922°)) +4
𝟒. 𝟖𝟐𝟏𝟏𝟓
𝑪𝑳 𝜶(𝑶𝑮𝑬) =
𝒓𝒂𝒅
283
𝐴 2ℎ
= 𝑓( )
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑏
284
Where:
2ℎ 2 (3.48900 𝑓𝑡)
=
𝑏 32.15 𝑓𝑡
𝟐𝒉
= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟓
𝒃
2ℎ 𝐴
@ = 02105 , = 0.52108
𝑏 𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓
Therefore,
𝐴
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 =
0.52108
7.49
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 =
0.52108
𝑨𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟑𝟕𝟑𝟗𝟗
285
2𝜋𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝐶𝐿 𝛼(𝐼𝐺𝐸) = , 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑
2
2 + √𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ⩘𝐶/2 ) + 4
2𝜋(14.37399)
𝐶𝐿 𝛼(𝐼𝐺𝐸) = , 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑
2 + √(14.37399)2 (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (2.84922°)) + 4
𝑪𝑳 𝜶(𝑰𝑮𝑬) = 𝟓. 𝟒𝟔𝟑𝟔𝟒
Taper Ratio, λ
𝒄𝒕
𝛌=
𝒄𝒓
Where:
𝒄𝒕 = Tip Chord = 2.58 ft
𝒄𝒓 = Root Chord = 6.00 ft
2.58 ft
𝛌=
6.00 ft
𝛌 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑
Mean Aerodynamic Chord, 𝒄̅ (Taken From Activity 2)
𝒄̅ = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟏𝟕 𝒇𝒕
286
∆⍺𝒐
𝑡 3.5655 0.1177
∆⍺𝑜 = [ − ] , 𝑑𝑒𝑔.
𝑐 (ℎ) ℎ 2
𝑐 (𝑐 )
3.5655 0.1177 𝜋
∆⍺𝑜 = (0.18) − 2 𝑥 , 𝑟𝑎𝑑.
3.489 𝑓𝑡 180°
( ) (3.489 𝑓𝑡)
[ 4.517 𝑓𝑡 4.517 𝑓𝑡 ]
∆⍺𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟖𝟖 𝒓𝒂𝒅.
Therefore,
𝐶𝐿 (𝐼𝐺𝐸) = 𝐶𝐿 (𝑂𝐺𝐸) − 𝐶𝐿 𝛼(𝐼𝐺𝐸) ∆𝛼𝑜
𝐶𝐿 𝛼(𝑂𝐺𝐸)
5.46364
( ) 5.46364
𝐶𝐿 (𝐼𝐺𝐸) = (0.86418) 𝑟𝑎𝑑 − ( ) (0.01388 𝑟𝑎𝑑. )
4.82115 𝑟𝑎𝑑
( )
𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑪𝑳 (𝑰𝑮𝑬) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎𝟑𝟓𝟎
Drag Coefficient in Ground Effect
𝐶𝐷 (𝐼𝐺𝐸) = 𝐶𝐷 (𝑂𝐺𝐸) + ∆𝐶𝐷 𝑖

Where:
𝐶𝐷 (𝑂𝐺𝐸) = 0.07964 + (−0.01843)𝐶𝐿 2
𝐶𝐿 2
′
∆𝐶𝐷 𝑖 = −𝜎 , 𝑒 = 0.79711
𝜋𝐴𝑒
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿 (𝑂𝐺𝐸) = 0.86418
287
𝑪𝑫 (𝑶𝑮𝑬)
𝐶𝐷 (𝑂𝐺𝐸) = 0.07964 + (−0.01843)𝐶𝐿 2
𝐶𝐷 (𝑂𝐺𝐸) = 0.07964 + (−0.01843)(0.86418)2
𝑪𝑫 (𝑶𝑮𝑬) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟗𝟔𝟒
∆𝑪𝑫 𝒊
𝐶𝐿 2
′
∆𝐶𝐷 𝑖 = −𝜎 , 𝑒 = 0.79711
𝜋𝐴𝑒
ℎ
1 − 1.32 ( )
′
𝜎 = 𝑏
ℎ
1.05 + 7.4 ( )
𝑏
3.489 𝑓𝑡
1 − 1.32 ( )
′ 32.150 𝑓𝑡
𝜎 =
3.489 𝑓𝑡
1.05 + 7.4 ( )
32.150 𝑓𝑡
𝝈′ = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝟐𝟖𝟏
(0.86418)2
∆𝐶𝐷 𝑖 = −(0.46281)
𝜋(7.49)(0.79711)
∆𝑪𝑫 𝒊 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟒𝟑
Therefore,
𝐶𝐷 (𝐼𝐺𝐸) = 𝐶𝐷 (𝑂𝐺𝐸) + ∆𝐶𝐷 𝑖
𝐶𝐷 (𝐼𝐺𝐸) = 0.07964 + (− 0.01843)
𝑪𝑫 (𝑰𝑮𝑬) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟏𝟐𝟏
288
Stall Speed, 𝑽𝑺
𝑊 2 1
𝑉𝑆 = √( ) ( ) ( )
𝑆 𝜌 𝐶𝐿 𝑀𝐴𝑋
3,327.55 𝑙𝑏 2 1
𝑉𝑆 = √( ) ( ) ( )
138.00 𝑓𝑡 2 0.002377 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔⁄𝑓𝑡 3 1.45
𝑓𝑡 15
𝑉𝑆 = 118.28760 𝑥
𝑠 22
𝑽𝑺 = 𝟖𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟎𝟔𝟒 𝒎𝒑𝒉

Lift-off Speed, 𝑽𝑳𝑶𝑭
𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 = 1.2 𝑉𝑆
𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 = (1.2)(80.65064 𝑚𝑝ℎ)
𝑽𝑳𝑶𝑭 = 𝟗𝟔. 𝟕𝟖𝟎𝟕𝟔 𝒎𝒑𝒉
Dynamic Pressure at Lift-off, 𝒒

̅𝑳𝑶𝑭
1
𝑞̅𝐿𝑂𝐹 = 𝜌𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 2
2
1 3)
22 2
𝑞̅𝐿𝑂𝐹 = (0.002377 ⁄
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝑓𝑡 (96.78076 𝑚𝑝ℎ 𝑥 )
2 15
̅𝑳𝑶𝑭 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟗𝟒𝟔𝟑𝟗 𝒑𝒔𝒇

𝒒
𝑽𝑳𝑶𝑭
Dynamic Pressure at ̅
,𝒒
√𝟐
1 𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 2
𝑞̅ = 𝜌 ( )
2 √2
1 96.78076 𝑚𝑝ℎ 22 2
𝑞̅ = (0.002377 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔⁄𝑓𝑡 3 ) ( 𝑥 )
2 √2 15
289
̅ = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟗𝟕𝟑𝟐𝟎 𝒑𝒔𝒇
𝒒
Thrust at Lift-off (at VLOF √2)

375√2𝑇𝐻𝑃𝐴𝑉
𝑇=
𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹
375√2(93.62234 ℎ𝑝)
𝑇=
96.78076 𝑚𝑝ℎ
𝑻 = 𝟓𝟏𝟑. 𝟎𝟐𝟐𝟖𝟓 𝒍𝒃
290
APPROXIMATE METHOD I FOR 𝑺𝑮 , (Thrust, T at VLOF √2 = 513.02285 )
Static Force, 𝑭𝑺
𝐹𝑆 = 𝑇 − 𝜇𝑊 − 𝑊 𝜑 𝑎𝑡 𝑉 = 0
𝐹𝑆 = 𝑇 − 𝜇𝑊
𝐹𝑆 = 513.02285 − (0.03)(3,327.55 𝑙𝑏)
𝑭𝑺 = 𝟒𝟏𝟑. 𝟏𝟗𝟔𝟑𝟓 𝒍𝒃
Lift-off Force, 𝑭𝑳𝑶𝑭 𝒂𝒕 𝑽 = 𝑽𝑳𝑶𝑭 √𝟐
𝐹𝐿𝑂𝐹 = 𝑇 − 𝜇𝑊 − (𝐷 − 𝜇𝐿) − 𝑊 𝜑 𝑎𝑡 𝑉 = 𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 √2

1
𝐹𝐿𝑂𝐹 = 𝑇 − 𝜇𝑊 − (𝐶𝐷(𝑇𝐴𝑋𝐼) − 𝜇𝐶𝐿(𝐼𝐺𝐸) ) 𝜌𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 √2 2 𝑠
2
𝐹𝐿𝑂𝐹
= 513.02285 𝑙𝑏 − (0.03)(3,327.55 𝑙𝑏)
1 22
− [0.06121 − (0.03)(0.90350)] (0.002377 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔⁄𝑓𝑡 3 ) (68.43433 𝑚𝑝ℎ 𝑥 ) 2 (138.00 𝑓𝑡 2 )
2 15
𝑭𝑳𝑶𝑭 = 𝟑𝟓𝟔. 𝟖𝟑𝟔𝟖𝟔 𝒍𝒃
Net Force for Acceleration, 𝑭𝒎
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑘𝐹𝑆
Where:
𝐹𝐿𝑂𝐹
1− 𝐹
𝑆
𝑘=
𝐹𝑆
ln 𝐹
𝐿𝑂𝐹
291
356.83686 𝑙𝑏
1− ( )
𝑘= 413.19635 𝑙𝑏
413.19635 𝑙𝑏
ln ( )
356.83686 𝑙𝑏
𝒌 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟑𝟎𝟏𝟑
Therefore,
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑘𝐹𝑆
𝐹𝑚 = (0.93013)(413.19635 𝑙𝑏)
𝑭𝒎 = 𝟑𝟖𝟒. 𝟑𝟐𝟖𝟏𝟐 𝒍𝒃
Ground Distance, 𝑺𝑮
𝑆𝐺 = ( )( )
2𝑔 𝐹𝑚
22 2
3,327.55 𝑙𝑏 (96.78076 𝑚𝑝ℎ 𝑥 )
𝑆𝐺 = [ ] [ 15 ]
(2)(32.174 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ) 384.32812 𝑙𝑏
𝑺𝑮 = 𝟐, 𝟕𝟏𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟐𝟒𝟔 𝒇𝒕
292
Thrust at Lift-off
375 𝑇𝐻𝑃𝐴𝑉
𝑇=
𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹
375 (133.51233 ℎ𝑝)

𝑇=
96.78076 𝑚𝑝ℎ
𝑻 = 𝟓𝟏𝟕. 𝟑𝟐𝟓𝟏𝟔 𝒍𝒃
293
APPROXIMATE METHOD II FOR 𝑺𝑮
Static Force, 𝑭𝑺
𝐹𝑆 = 𝑇 − 𝜇𝑊 − 𝑊 𝜑 𝑎𝑡 𝑉 = 0
𝐹𝑆 = 𝑇 − 𝜇𝑊
𝐹𝑆 = 517.32516 − (0.03)(3,327.55 𝑙𝑏)
𝑭𝑺 = 𝟒𝟏𝟕. 𝟒𝟗𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝒍𝒃
Lift-off Force, 𝑭𝑳𝑶𝑭
𝐹𝐿𝑂𝐹 = 𝑇 − 𝜇𝑊 − (𝐶𝐷(𝑇𝐴𝑋𝐼) − 𝜇𝐶𝐿(𝐼𝐺𝐸) )𝑞̅ 𝑠 − 𝑊 𝜑 𝑎𝑡 𝑉 = 𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹
𝐹𝐿𝑂𝐹 = 517.32516 𝑙𝑏 − (0.03)(3,327.55 𝑙𝑏)

− [0.06121 − (0.03)(0.90350)] (23.94639 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 2 )(138.00 𝑓𝑡 2 )
𝑭𝑳𝑶𝑭 = 𝟑𝟎𝟒. 𝟕𝟕𝟗𝟔𝟔 𝒍𝒃
Net Force for Acceleration, 𝑭𝒎
(𝐹𝑆 + 𝐹𝐿𝑂𝐹 )
𝐹𝑚 =
2
(417.49866 𝑙𝑏 + 304.77966 𝑙𝑏)
𝐹𝑚 =
2
𝑭𝒎 = 𝟑𝟔𝟏. 𝟏𝟑𝟗𝟏𝟔 𝒍𝒃
Ground Distance, 𝑺𝑮
𝑆𝐺 = ( ) ( )
𝑔 (𝐹𝑆 + 𝐹𝐿𝑂𝐹 )
22 2
3,327.55 𝑙𝑏 (96.78076 𝑚𝑝ℎ 𝑥 )
𝑆𝐺 = [ ] [ 15 ]
(32.174 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ) (417.49866 𝑙𝑏 + 304.77966 𝑙𝑏)
𝑺𝑮 = 𝟐, 𝟖𝟖𝟓. 𝟎𝟔𝟔𝟗𝟎 𝒇𝒕
294
Transition Radius, R
𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 2
𝑅=
𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 2 𝐶𝐿 𝑇𝑅
𝑔 [( 𝑉 ) (𝐶 ) − 1]
𝑆 𝐿 𝑀𝐴𝑋
Where:
𝐶𝐿 𝑇𝑅 0.8 ∗ 1.45
= = 0.8
𝐶𝐿 𝑀𝐴𝑋 1.45
22 2
(96.78076 𝑚𝑝ℎ 𝑥 )
𝑅= 15
96.78076 𝑚𝑝ℎ 2
(32.174 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ) [( ) (0.8) − 1]
80.65064 𝑚𝑝ℎ
𝑹 = 𝟒𝟏𝟏𝟗. 𝟗𝟓𝟑𝟐𝟒 𝒇𝒕
Transition 𝑪𝑫 , 𝑪𝑫 𝑻𝑹
𝐶𝐷 𝑇𝑅 = 0.03982 + 0.05332 𝐶𝐿 𝑇𝑅 2
(𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑓 − 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐺𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛)
Where:
𝐶𝐿 𝑇𝑅 = 0.8 𝐶𝐿 𝑀𝐴𝑋
𝐶𝐿 𝑇𝑅 = 0.8 (1.45)
𝑪𝑳 𝑻𝑹 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟔
𝐶𝐷 𝑇𝑅 = 0.03982 + 0.05332(1.16)2
𝑪𝑫 𝑻𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟕
295
Drag in Transition, 𝑫𝑻𝑹
1
𝐷𝑇𝑅 = 𝐶𝐷 𝑇𝑅 𝜌𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 2 𝑠
2
1 22 2
𝐷𝑇𝑅 = (0.11157) (0.002377 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔⁄𝑓𝑡 2 ) (96.78076 𝑚𝑝ℎ 𝑥 ) (138.00 𝑓𝑡 2 )
2 15
𝑫𝑻𝑹 = 𝟑𝟔𝟖. 𝟔𝟖𝟓𝟖𝟔
Item No. 30
T − 𝐷𝑇𝑅 517.32516 𝑙𝑏 − 368.68586 𝑙𝑏
=
W 3,327.55 𝑙𝑏
T − 𝐷𝑇𝑅
= 0.04467
W
Climb Angle, θCL
𝑇 − 𝐷𝑇𝑅
𝜃𝐶𝐿 = sin−1 | |
𝑊 𝑎𝑡 𝑉=𝑉𝐿𝑜𝑓
𝜃𝐶𝐿 = sin−1|0.04467|
𝜃𝐶𝐿 = 2.56021
Transition Distance in ft, STR
𝑆𝑇𝑅 = 𝑅 sin 𝜃𝐶𝐿
𝑆𝑇𝑅 = 4,119.95324 sin 2.56021
𝑆𝑇𝑅 = 184.03538 𝑓𝑡
296
hTR in ft
𝑆𝑇𝑅
ℎ𝑇𝑅 = (1 − cos 𝜃𝐶𝐿 )
sin 𝜃𝐶𝐿
184.03538
ℎ𝑇𝑅 = (1 − cos 2.56021)
sin 2.56021
𝒉𝑻𝑹 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟒𝟐 𝒇𝒕
Climb Distance in ft, SCL

50 𝑓𝑡 − ℎ𝑇𝑅
𝑆𝐶𝐿 =
tan 𝜃𝐶𝐿
50 𝑓𝑡 − 4.11242 𝑓𝑡
𝑆𝐶𝐿 =
tan 2.56021
𝑺𝑪𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟔. 𝟐𝟒𝟖𝟐𝟑 𝒇𝒕
Total Take – Off Distance, ft
𝑆𝑇/𝑂 = 𝑆𝐺 + 𝑆𝑅 + 𝑆𝑇𝑅 + 𝑆𝐶𝐿
Approximate Method I for SG

𝑆𝑇/𝑂 = 𝑆𝐺1 + 𝑆𝑅 + 𝑆𝑇𝑅 + 𝑆𝐶𝐿
𝑆𝑇/𝑂 = (2,710.99246 + 283.89024 + 184.03538 + 1,026.24823)𝑓𝑡
𝑺𝑻/𝑶 = 𝟒, 𝟐𝟎𝟓. 𝟏𝟔𝟔𝟑𝟏 𝒇𝒕
Approximate Method II for SG
𝑆𝑇/𝑂 = 𝑆𝐺2 + 𝑆𝑅 + 𝑆𝑇𝑅 + 𝑆𝐶𝐿

𝑆𝑇/𝑂 = (2,885.06690 + 283.89024 + 184.03538 + 1,026.24823)𝑓𝑡
𝑺𝑻/𝑶 = 𝟒, 𝟑𝟕𝟗. 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟕𝟓 𝒇𝒕
297
INSERT TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE GRAPH I
298
INSERT TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE GRAPH II
299
Conclusion :
The takeoff performance geometric analysis was constructed based on the

formulas provided. Value limitations are based on FAR Part 23 Takeoff
Procedures and Requirements for Civil Transport Aircraft.
300
NAME: __________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ____________________ RATING: _____________________________
Activity no. 12
Title: LANDING PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
ITEM
NO.
1 FLAP ANGLE, deg. 𝛿𝑓 30° GIVEN
2 LANDING WEIGHT, lb 𝑊𝐿 From Act. 4
𝐶𝐿𝑀𝐴𝑋 𝛿 = 𝐶𝐿 𝑀𝐴𝑋
3 MAXIMUM CL WITH 𝛿𝑓 = 30° 𝑓
𝐶𝐿𝑀𝐴𝑋 𝛿 + ∆𝑓 𝐶𝐿 𝑀𝐴𝑋
𝑓
𝑊𝐿 2 1
4 STALL SPEED =√( )( )( ) , 𝑉𝑆 (𝐿)
𝑆 𝜌 𝐶𝐿 𝑀𝐴𝑋
𝛿𝑓
fps
5 APPROACH SPEED = 1.3 𝑉𝑆 (𝐿) 𝑉𝐴
6 TOUCHDOWN SPEED = 1.15 𝑉𝑆 (𝐿) 𝑉𝑇𝐷
CL AT APPROACH SPEED
7 𝑊𝐿 𝐶𝐿𝐴
𝐶𝐿𝐴 = 1
𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆
2 𝐴
8 𝐶𝐷𝐴 = ____ + ____𝐶𝐿𝐴 2

CD AT APPROACH SPEED 𝐶𝐷𝐴
(𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒)
DESCENT ANGLE, rad
9 𝐶𝐷𝐴 𝑇 𝑇=
𝛾= − 𝛾
𝐶𝐿𝐴 𝑊𝐿
𝑊𝐿
𝑆𝐴 =
10 𝐷−𝑇
AIR DISTANCE, ft 𝑆𝐴 𝑉𝐴 2 − 𝑉𝑇𝐷 2
𝑥 ( + ℎ𝑓)
2𝑔
11 𝑆𝐹𝑅 = 𝑉𝑇𝐷 𝑡𝐹𝑅
FREE ROLL DISTANCE, ft 𝑆𝐹𝑅
𝑡𝐹𝑅 = 1.9 𝑠𝑒𝑐
12 𝐹𝑆
STATIC BREAKING FORCE, lb
13 𝐶𝐿 𝑇(𝑂𝐺𝐸) 𝐶𝐿 𝑇(𝑂𝐺𝐸) = 𝐶𝐿(𝑂𝐺𝐸) + ∆𝐶𝐿

CL DURING GROUND RUN
ITEM SEA LEVEL (STANDARD
SYMBOLS VALUES REMARKS
NO. CONDITIONS)
CL DURING GROUND RUN WITH 𝐶𝐿 𝑇(𝐼𝐺𝐸) 𝐶𝐿 𝑇(𝐼𝐺𝐸) = 𝐶𝐿 (𝑂𝐺𝐸)
13A 𝐶𝐿𝛼(𝑂𝐺𝐸)
GROUND EFFECT
− 𝐶𝐿𝛼(𝐼𝐺𝐸) ∆𝛼𝑜
𝑪𝑫 𝑻(𝑶𝑮𝑬)
CD CORRESPONDING TO 𝐶𝐷 𝑇(𝑂𝐺𝐸)
14 = _____ + ____𝑪𝑳 𝑻(𝑶𝑮𝑬) 𝟐
𝐶𝐿 𝑇(𝑂𝐺𝐸) IN FREE AIR
(𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒕𝒚 𝑨𝒊𝒓𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆)
ℎ
1 − 1.32 ( )
15 ′ 𝑏
GROUND EFFECT FACTOR 𝛾′ 𝛾 =
ℎ
1.05 + 7.4 ( )
𝑏
𝐶𝐿 𝑇(𝑂𝐺𝐸) 2
16 DECREASE IN CDL , ∆𝐶𝐷𝑖 ∆𝐶𝐷𝑖 ∆𝐶𝐷 𝑖 = −𝛾 ′
𝜋𝐴
𝐶𝐷 𝑇(𝐼𝐺𝐸) = 𝐶𝐷 𝑇(𝑂𝐺𝐸) + ∆𝐶𝐷𝑖

17 CD IN GROUND RUN 𝐶𝐷 𝑇(𝐼𝐺𝐸)
BRAKING FORCE AT THE

BEGINNING OF APPLYING BRAKES,
18 lb Te
𝐹𝐵 ASSUMED ZERO
𝐹𝐵 = 𝜇 𝐵 𝑊 − 𝑇𝑒 − (𝜇 𝐵 𝐶𝐿 − 𝐶𝐷 )𝑞̅𝑇𝐷 𝑆
+ 𝑊𝜑 𝑎𝑡 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑇𝐷
19 FB/FS
𝐹𝐵
1−
20 𝐹𝑆
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑘𝐹𝑆 , lb 𝐹𝑚 𝑘=
𝐹𝑆
ln
𝐹𝐵
GROUND RUN DISTANCE, ft
21 𝑊𝐿 𝑉𝑇𝐷 2 𝑆𝐵
𝑆𝐵 = 𝑥
2𝑔 𝐹𝑚
22 TOTAL DISTANCE, ft
𝑆𝐿
𝑆𝐿 = 𝑆𝐴 + 𝑆𝐹𝑅 + 𝑆𝐵
Landing Performance Analysis
Descent
In such a flight thrust is less than drag, the airplane performs a steady
descent during the final approach phase the flight velocity in this phase is
called approach speed, 𝑉𝐴
Flare
In this phase, the pilot makes the flight almost horizontal.
Touchdown
In this phase, the pilot gently touches the main wheels to the ground.
This is gradually done to make its vertical velocity not exceed 13 FPS. The flight
speed, 𝑉𝑇 is 90% of 𝑉𝐴 .
Decelerating ground-run
After the three wheels have touched the ground, the breaks are applied.
The ground run is said to be over when the airplane comes to halt or attains a
low speed when it can turn off the runway and go to the parking place.
301
Item Standard Sea
Symbols Values Remarks
① 𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑝 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒, 𝑑𝑒𝑔. 𝛿𝑓 30° Given
② 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑙𝑏𝑠. 𝑊𝐿 2385.54531 Given
𝐶𝐿 𝑀𝐴𝑋 C Δ C
③ 𝑀𝐴𝑋 𝐶𝐿 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝛿𝑓 = 30° 𝛿𝑓 2.14111 L
MAX
f L
MAX
 
 W  2  
④ STALL SPEED    
 S  ρ  CL
1
 , fps

𝑉𝑆 (𝐿) 82.42058
 MAX 
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑓𝑡/𝑠

⑤ 𝑉𝐴 107.14676 𝑉𝐴 = 1.3 𝑉𝑆 (𝐿)
= 1.3 𝑉𝑆 (𝐿) (ft/s)
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑,
⑥ 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 𝑉𝑇𝐷 94.78367 𝑉𝑇𝐷 = 1.15 𝑉𝑆 (𝐿)
= 1.15 𝑉𝑆 (𝐿)
𝐶𝐿 𝑎𝑡 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
2𝑊
⑦ = 𝐶𝐿 𝐴 1.26693
1 2
2 𝜌𝑉𝐴 𝑠
From Polar Drag Equation
(Dirty Airplane) Landing –
⑧ 𝐶𝐷 𝑎𝑡 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 0.17144
Landing Gear Down
𝐶𝐷 𝐴 = 0.09537 + 0.04739 𝐶𝐿2𝐴
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒, 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝐶𝐷 𝑇 𝑇=
⑨  4.68204
= 𝐴− 517.74292 𝑙𝑏𝑠.
𝐶𝐿 𝐴 𝑊
𝑊 𝑉𝐴 2 − 𝑉𝑇𝐷 2
⑩ 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑓𝑡. 𝑆𝐴 1086.63489 𝑆𝐴 = ( )
𝐷𝐴 − 𝑇 2𝑔
302
Item Standard Sea
Symbols Values Remarks
⑪ 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑓𝑡. 𝑆𝐹𝑅 180.08897 𝑆𝐹𝑅 = 𝑡𝐹𝑅 𝑉𝑇𝐷 , tFR = 1.9s
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒,

⑫ 𝐹𝑆 1996.53000 𝜇𝐵 = 0.6 (𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑)
𝑙𝑏𝑠 = 𝜇𝐵 𝑊
𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑢𝑛

⑬ 𝐶𝐿 𝑇 2.18817 𝐶𝐿 𝑇 = 𝐶𝐿 (𝑂𝐺𝐸) + ∆𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐿 (𝑂𝐺𝐸) + ∆𝐶𝐿 (𝑂𝐺𝐸) (𝑂𝐺𝐸)
𝐶𝐿 𝛼 (𝐼𝐺𝐸)
𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑢𝑛 𝐶𝐿 (𝐼𝐺𝐸) = 𝐶𝐿𝑇 (𝑂𝐺𝐸)
⑬A 𝐶𝐿 𝑇 2.40394 𝐶𝐿 𝛼 (𝑂𝐺𝐸)
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 (𝐼𝐺𝐸)
− 𝐶𝐿 𝛼 (𝐼𝐺𝐸) ∆𝑎𝑂
From Polar Drag
𝐶𝐷 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 Equation (Dirty Airplane)
⑭ 𝐶𝐷 𝑇 0.32228 𝐶𝐷 𝑇
𝐶𝐿 𝑇 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝑂𝐺𝐸)
(𝑂𝐺𝐸)
(𝑂𝐺𝐸)
= 0.0372 + 0.0549 𝐶𝐿2 𝑇
(𝑂𝐺𝐸)
1 − 1.32 ℎ𝑏
⑮ 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝜎’ 0.46281 𝜎’ =
1.05 + 7.4 ℎ𝑏
𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝐷 𝑖 , 𝐼𝐺𝐸, 2
2 ∆𝐶𝐷𝑖 -0.09417
(𝐶𝐿 𝑇 (𝑂𝐺𝐸) )
⑯  - σ CL / π A ∆𝐶𝐷 𝑖 = 𝜎’
T 𝜋𝐴
𝐶𝐷 𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑢𝑛, 𝐶𝐷 𝑇 𝐶𝐷 𝑇 (𝐼𝐺𝐸) = 𝐶𝐷 𝑇 (𝑂𝐺𝐸) + ∆𝐶𝐷 𝑖

⑰ 0.22810
𝐶𝐷 + 𝐶𝐷 𝑖 (𝐼𝐺𝐸)
303
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐹𝐵 357.86356 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝐵𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑒 = 0 (𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑)
⑱ 𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑠
𝐹𝐵 = 𝜇𝐵 𝑊 − 𝑇𝑒 −
(𝜇𝐵 𝐶𝐿 𝑇 − 𝐶𝐷 𝑇 )𝑞̅ 𝑆
𝐹𝐵 0.25002
⑲ 𝐹𝑆
𝐹𝑚 = 𝐾 𝐹𝑆 , 𝑙𝑏𝑠. 𝐹𝑚 774.38991 𝐹
1 − 𝐹𝐵
𝑆
⑳ 𝑘=
𝐹
ln 𝐹𝑆
𝐵
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑢𝑛 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑓𝑡. 𝑆𝐵 430.09061
㉑ 𝑊 𝑉𝑇𝐷 2
𝑆𝐵 =
2𝑔 𝐹𝑚
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑓𝑡. 𝑆𝐿 1696.81447
㉒ 𝑆𝐿 = 𝑆𝐴 + 𝑆𝐹𝑅 + 𝑆𝐵
304
Computation for Total Landing Distance, 𝑺𝑳
For 𝜽𝑭
𝒄𝒇
𝜽𝑭 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 (𝟐 − 𝟏)
𝒄̅
Where:
𝑐𝑓 (Flap Width) = 1.130 ft

𝑐̅ (M.A.C. of Wing) = 4.517 ft
1.130 𝑓𝑡
𝜃𝐹 = cos−1 [(2) ( ) − 1]
4.517 𝑓𝑡
𝜽𝑭 = 𝟏𝟏𝟗. 𝟗𝟕𝟖𝟎𝟑°
For ∆𝒇 𝑪𝒍 𝑴𝑨𝑿 ,
∆𝒇 𝑪𝒍 𝑴𝑨𝑿 = 𝟐𝜹𝒇 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝒇 , 𝜹𝒇 = 𝟑𝟎°

𝜋
∆𝑓 𝐶𝑙 𝑀𝐴𝑋 = (2) (30° 𝑥 ) sin(119.97803°)
180°
∆𝒇 𝑪𝒍 𝑴𝑨𝑿 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎𝟕𝟏𝟎
𝑺𝑾 𝒇
NOTE: FOR MODERATE TAPERED WINGS, THE NUMERICAL VALUE OF 𝑺
IS APPROXIMATELY EQUAL TO THE FACTOR 𝒌𝒃
305
Where:
𝑏𝑓 = (2.339 + 3.287 + 3.287 + 2.339)𝑓𝑡 = 11.252 𝑓𝑡

𝑏 32.15 𝑓𝑡
= = 16.075 𝑓𝑡
2 2
Hence,
𝑏𝑓 11.252 𝑓𝑡
=
𝑏 16.075 𝑓𝑡
(2 )
𝒃𝒇
= 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟕
𝒃
(𝟐)
306
In Fig. 4.24
𝒃𝒇
At 𝒃 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟕 , 𝒌𝒃 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟐𝟗𝟏𝟔
( )
𝟐
For ∆𝒇 𝑪𝑳 𝑴𝑨𝑿 , cos⩘𝑐/2 = 2.84922 (𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 11)
∆𝒇 𝑪𝑳 𝑴𝑨𝑿 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐∆𝒇 𝑪𝒍 𝑴𝑨𝑿 𝒌𝒃 𝐜𝐨𝐬⩘𝒄/𝟐

∆𝑓 𝐶𝐿 𝑀𝐴𝑋 = (0.92)(0.90710)(0.82916) cos(2.84922°)
∆𝒇 𝑪𝑳 𝑴𝑨𝑿 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟏𝟏𝟏
Minimum 𝑪𝑳 with 𝜹𝒇 = 𝟑𝟎°
𝑪𝑳 𝑴𝑨𝑿 = 𝑪𝑳 𝑴𝑨𝑿 + ∆𝒇 𝑪𝑳 𝑴𝑨𝑿

𝜹𝒇
Where:
𝑪𝑳 𝑴𝑨𝑿 = 1.45
𝑪𝑳 𝑴𝑨𝑿 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝜹𝒇
𝑪𝑳 𝑴𝑨𝑿 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟒𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝜹𝒇
Stall Speed in Landing, 𝑽𝑺 (𝑳)
𝑾𝑳 𝟐 𝟏
𝑽𝑺 (𝑳) = √( ) ( ) ( )
𝑺 𝝆 𝑪𝑳 𝑴𝑨𝑿
𝜹𝒇
Where:
𝑾𝑳 = 𝑾𝑶 − 𝟗𝟖. 𝟓% 𝑭𝒖𝒆𝒍 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 − 𝟗𝟕. 𝟓% 𝑶𝒊𝒍 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
𝑊𝐿 = 3,327.55 𝑙𝑏 − (0.985) (911.25 𝑙𝑏) − (0.975) (45.56250 𝑙𝑏)
𝑾𝑳 = 𝟐, 𝟑𝟖𝟓. 𝟓𝟒𝟓𝟑𝟏 𝒍𝒃
2,385.54531 𝑙𝑏 2 1
𝑉𝑆 (𝐿) = √( 2
)( 3
)( )
138 𝑓𝑡 0.002377 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔⁄𝑓𝑡 2.14111
𝑽𝑺 (𝑳) = 𝟖𝟐. 𝟒𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟖 𝒇𝒕⁄𝒔
307
Approach Speed, 𝑽𝑨
𝑽𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟑 𝑽𝑺 (𝑳)
𝑉𝐴 = 1.3 (82.42058 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠)
𝑽𝑨 = 𝟏𝟎𝟕. 𝟏𝟒𝟔𝟕𝟔 𝒇𝒕/𝒔
308
Touchdown Speed, 𝑽𝑻𝑫
𝑽𝑻𝑫 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓 𝑽𝑺 (𝑳)
𝑉𝑇𝐷 = 1.15 (82.42058 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠)
𝑽𝑻𝑫 = 𝟗𝟒. 𝟕𝟖𝟑𝟔𝟕 𝒇𝒕⁄𝒔
Thrust at V = 𝑽𝑨 , T
𝟑𝟕𝟓𝑻𝑯𝑷𝑨𝑽
𝑻=
𝑽𝑨
375(100.86268 ℎ𝑝)
𝑇=
𝑓𝑡 15 𝑚𝑝ℎ
(107.14676 𝑠 𝑥 )
22𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝑻 = 𝟓𝟏𝟕. 𝟕𝟒𝟐𝟗𝟐 𝒍𝒃
𝑪𝑳 at Approach Speed, 𝑪𝑳 𝑨
𝑾𝑳
𝑪𝑳 𝑨 =
𝟏 𝟐
𝟐 𝝆𝑽𝑨 𝑺
2,385.54531 𝑙𝑏
𝐶𝐿 𝐴 =
1
(2) (0.002377 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔⁄𝑓𝑡 3 )(107.14676 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠)2 (138 𝑓𝑡 2 )
𝑪𝑳 𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟔𝟔𝟗𝟑
𝑪𝑫 at Approach Speed, 𝑪𝑫 𝑨
𝑪𝑫 𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟓𝟑𝟕 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟕𝟑𝟗 𝑪𝑳 𝑨 𝟐 (𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒕𝒚 𝑨𝒊𝒓𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆)

𝐶𝐷 𝐴 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟓𝟑𝟕 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟕𝟑𝟗 (𝟏. 𝟐𝟔𝟔𝟗𝟑)𝟐
𝑪𝑫 𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟏𝟒𝟒
309
Descent Angle, 𝜸
𝑪𝑫 𝑨 𝑻
𝜸= −
𝑪𝑳 𝑨 𝑾𝑳
0.17144 517.74292 𝑙𝑏
𝛾= −
1.26693 2,385.54531 𝑙𝑏
180°
𝛾 = −0.08172 𝑥
𝜋
𝛾 = |−4.68204°|
𝜸 = 𝟒. 𝟔𝟖𝟐𝟎𝟒°
Air Distance, 𝑺𝑨
𝑾𝑳 𝑽𝑨 𝟐 − 𝑽𝑻𝑫 𝟐
𝑺𝑨 = ( + 𝒉𝒇 )
𝑫−𝑻 𝟐𝒈
Where:
𝟏
𝑫 = 𝑫𝑨 = 𝑪𝑫 𝑨 𝝆𝑽𝑨 𝟐 𝑺
𝟐
1
𝐷 = 𝐷𝐴 = (0.17144) ( ) (0.002377 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔⁄𝑓𝑡 3 )(107.14676 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠)2 (138 𝑓𝑡 2 )
2
𝑫 = 𝑫𝑨 = 𝟑𝟐𝟐. 𝟖𝟎𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝒉𝒇 = 𝟓𝟎 𝒇𝒕
Therefore:
2,385.54531 𝑙𝑏 (107.14676 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠)2 − (94.78367 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠)2

𝑆𝐴 = ( )[ + 50 𝑓𝑡]
322.80320 𝑙𝑏 − 517.74292 𝑙𝑏 (2)(32.174 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠 2 )
𝑆𝐴 = |−1,086.63489 𝑓𝑡|
𝑺𝑨 = 𝟏, 𝟎𝟖𝟔. 𝟔𝟑𝟒𝟖𝟗𝒇𝒕
310
Free Roll Distance, 𝑺𝑭𝑹
𝑺𝑭𝑹 = 𝑽𝑻𝑫 𝒕𝑭𝑹

Where:
𝑡𝐹𝑅 = 1.9 𝑠𝑒𝑐. (𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑)
𝑆𝐹𝑅 = (94.78367 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠)(1.9 𝑠𝑒𝑐. )
𝑺𝑭𝑹 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟖𝟗𝟕 𝒇𝒕
∆𝑪𝒍 𝒇 = 𝟐𝜹𝒇 (𝝉 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝉)
Where:
𝝉 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 (𝟐𝒙𝒇 − 𝟏)
𝒄𝒇
𝒙𝒇 = 𝟏 −
𝒄̅
Then,
𝟏. 𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒇𝒕
𝒙𝒇 = 𝟏 −
𝟒. 𝟓𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝒇𝒕
𝒙𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟒𝟗𝟖𝟑
𝝉 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 (𝟐𝒙𝒇 − 𝟏)
𝜏 = cos−1 [(2)(0.74983) − 1]
𝜋
𝜏 = 60.02249° 𝑥 180°
𝝉 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟒𝟕𝟓𝟖 𝒓𝒂𝒅.
Therefore:
𝜋
∆𝐶𝑙 𝑓 = (2) (30° 𝑥 ) [1.04758 𝑟𝑎𝑑 + sin(60.02249°)]
180°
∆𝑪𝒍 𝒇 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟏𝟐
311
From Fig. 4.23
𝑐𝑓
At = 0.25017 , (𝑎𝛿 )𝐶𝑙 = 0.63968
𝑐̅
Hence,
𝑘𝑐 = 1.03846 , At A = 7.49
𝑪𝑳 𝜶
For 𝑪𝒍 𝜶
𝑪𝑳 𝜶 𝑨
=
𝑪𝒍 𝜶
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 ⩘𝒄/𝟐
𝟐 + √𝑨𝟐 (𝟏 + )+𝟒
𝜷𝟐
312
Where:
𝜷 = √𝟏 − 𝑴𝟐
For M,
𝑽𝒐
𝑴=
𝑽𝒂
Where:
22 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝑉𝑜 = 230.20399 𝑚𝑝ℎ 𝑥 = 337.63252 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
15 𝑚𝑝ℎ
1𝑚
𝑉𝑜 = 337.63252 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠 𝑥
3.28084 𝑓𝑡
𝑽𝒐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟐. 𝟗𝟑𝟔𝟕𝟒 𝒎⁄𝒔
𝐴𝑡 𝑆𝑒𝑎 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙, 𝑉𝑎 = 49.02√519 𝑅 = 1116.752635 fps
337.63252 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝑀=
1116.752635 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝑴 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟐𝟑𝟑
Then,
𝛽 = √1 − (0.30233)2
𝜷 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝟑𝟐𝟎
Therefore,
𝐶𝐿 𝛼 7.49
=
𝐶𝑙 𝛼 tan(2.84922°)2
2 + √(7.49)2 (1 + )+4
(0.95320)2
𝑪𝑳 𝜶
= 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝟕𝟐𝟒
𝑪𝒍 𝜶
313
∆𝑪𝑳 ,
𝑪𝑳 𝜶
∆𝑪𝑳 = ∆𝑪𝒍 𝒇 ()𝒌 𝒌
𝑪𝒍 𝜶 𝒄 𝒃
∆𝐶𝐿 = (2.00412) (0.76724)(1.03846)(0.82916)
∆𝑪𝑳 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟐𝟑𝟗𝟗
𝑪𝑳 During Ground Run,

𝑪𝑳 𝑻(𝑶𝑮𝑬) = 𝑪𝑳 (𝑶𝑮𝑬) + ∆𝑪𝑳
Where:
𝐶𝐿 (𝑂𝐺𝐸) = 0.86418
𝐶𝐿 𝑇(𝑂𝐺𝐸) = 0.86418 + 1.32399
𝑪𝑳 𝑻(𝑶𝑮𝑬) = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟖𝟖𝟏𝟕
𝑪𝑳 During Ground Run with Ground Effect,

𝑪𝑳 𝑻(𝑰𝑮𝑬) = 𝑪𝑳𝑻 (𝑶𝑮𝑬) − 𝑪𝑳 𝜶(𝑰𝑮𝑬) ∆𝜶𝒐
Where:
𝐶𝐿 𝛼(𝐼𝐺𝐸) = 5.46364/rad.
𝐶𝐿 𝛼(𝑂𝐺𝐸) = 4.82115/rad.
∆𝛼𝑜 = 0.01388 rad.
5.46364/rad.
𝐶𝐿 𝑇(𝐼𝐺𝐸) = (2.18817) ( ) − (5.46364/rad. )(0.01388 𝑟𝑎𝑑. )
4.82115/rad.
𝑪𝑳 𝑻(𝑰𝑮𝑬) = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟎𝟑𝟗𝟒
Drag Coefficient During Ground Run,

𝑪𝑫 𝑻(𝑶𝑮𝑬) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟓𝟑𝟕 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟕𝟑𝟗 𝑪𝑳 𝑻(𝑶𝑮𝑬) 𝟐 (𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒕𝒚 𝑨𝒊𝒓𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆)
𝐶𝐷 𝑇(𝑂𝐺𝐸) = 0.09537 + 0.04739(1.70)2
𝑪𝑫 𝑻(𝑶𝑮𝑬) = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟖
314
Decrease in 𝑪𝑫 𝒊 , ∆𝑪𝑫 𝒊 (𝜸′ = 𝑻𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝟏𝟏)
𝑪𝑳 𝑻(𝑶𝑮𝑬) 𝟐
′
∆𝑪𝑫 𝒊 = −𝜸
𝝅𝑨
(2.18817)2
∆𝐶𝐷 𝑖 = −(0.46281)
𝜋(7.49)
∆𝑪𝑫 𝒊 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟒𝟏𝟕
𝑪𝑫 in Ground Run, 𝑪𝑫 𝑻(𝑰𝑮𝑬)

𝑪𝑫 𝑻(𝑰𝑮𝑬) = 𝑪𝑫 𝑻(𝑶𝑮𝑬) + ∆𝑪𝑫 𝒊
𝐶𝐷 𝑇(𝐼𝐺𝐸) = 0.3228 + (−0.09417)
𝑪𝑫 𝑻(𝑰𝑮𝑬) = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟖𝟏𝟎
Static Force, 𝑭𝑺 (Assume Te = 0, 𝜇𝑆 = 0.6)
𝑭𝑺 = 𝝁𝑺 𝑾𝑳 + 𝑻𝒆 + 𝑾𝝋 𝒂𝒕 𝑽 = 𝟎
𝐹𝑆 = (0.6)(2,385.54531 𝑙𝑏)
𝑭𝑺 = 𝟏, 𝟒𝟑𝟏. 𝟑𝟐𝟕𝟏𝟗 𝒍𝒃
Dynamic Pressure at 𝑽 = 𝑽𝑻𝑫 , 𝒒

̅𝑻𝑫
𝟏
̅𝑻𝑫 =
𝒒 𝝆𝑽𝑻𝑫 𝟐
𝟐
1
𝑞̅𝑇𝐷 = ( ) (0.002377 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔⁄𝑓𝑡 3 )(94.78367 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠)2
2
̅𝑻𝑫 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟕𝟒𝟐 𝒍𝒃⁄𝒇𝒕𝟐

𝒒
315
Braking Force, 𝑭𝑩
𝑭𝑩 = 𝝁𝑩 𝑾𝑳 − 𝑻𝒆 − (𝝁𝑩 𝑪𝑳 − 𝑪𝑫 )𝒒
̅𝑻𝑫 𝑺 + 𝑾𝝋 𝒂𝒕 𝑽 = 𝑽𝑻𝑫
Where:
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿 𝑇(𝐼𝐺𝐸) = 2.40394
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝑇(𝐼𝐺𝐸) = 0.32228
𝐹𝐵 = (0.6)(2,385.54531 𝑙𝑏) − [(0.6)(2.40394) − 0.32228](10.67742 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 2 )(138.00 𝑓𝑡 2 )
𝑭𝑩 = 𝟑𝟓𝟕. 𝟖𝟔𝟑𝟓𝟔 𝒍𝒃
Braking Distance, 𝑺𝑩
𝑾𝑳 𝑽𝑻𝑫 𝟐
𝑺𝑩 = 𝒙
𝟐𝒈 𝑭𝒎
Where:
𝑭𝒎 = 𝒌𝑭𝑺
𝑭
𝟏 − 𝑭𝑩
𝑺
𝒌=
𝑭
𝐥𝐧 𝑭 𝑺
𝑩
357.86356 𝑙𝑏
1−( )
1,431.32719 𝑙𝑏
𝑘=
1,431.32719 𝑙𝑏
ln ( )
357.86356 𝑙𝑏
𝒌 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒𝟏𝟎𝟑
𝐹𝑚 = (0.54103)(1,431.32719 𝑙𝑏)
𝑭𝒎 = 𝟕𝟕𝟒. 𝟑𝟖𝟗𝟗𝟏 𝒍𝒃
316
2,385.54531 𝑙𝑏 (94.78367 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠)2
𝑆𝐵 = 𝑥
(2)(32.174 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠 2 ) 774.38991 𝑙𝑏
𝑺𝑩 = 𝟒𝟑𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟎𝟔𝟏 𝒇𝒕
Total Landing Distance, 𝑺𝑳
𝑺𝑳 = 𝑺𝑨 + 𝑺𝑭𝑹 + 𝑺𝑩
𝑆𝐿 = 1,089.63489 𝑓𝑡 + 180.08897 𝑓𝑡 + 430.09061 𝑓𝑡
𝑺𝑳 = 𝟏, 𝟔𝟗𝟔. 𝟖𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟕 𝒇𝒕
317
INSERT LANDING PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS GRAPH
318
Conclusion :
The landing performance geometry was constructed based on the formulas

provided. The value limitations is in accordance in FAR part 23.
319
NAME: __________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ____________________ RATING: _____________________________
Activity no. 13
Title: RANGE AND ENDURANCE
OBJECTIVES:
 Determine the Range and Endurance of the design aircraft at max

power and at critical power.
Given
W = W0 = (GROSS WEIGHT)
Wf= Wfused = (TOTAL FUEL WEIGHT)
Wl= W0 – Wfused =
S =
CD=_____ + _____ C L2 (Clean Airplane)
BHP =
𝑊𝑓̇ = (FUEL CONSUMPTION)
Procedures:
1. Calculate the best range and endurance and their corresponding
airspeed at 100% BSFC
2. Calculate the best range and endurance and their corresponding
airspeed at 75% BSFC (BSFCCR)
Range and Endurance
GIVEN
Initial Gross Weight, Wo 3327.55 lbs.
Wing Area, S 138.00 ft2
Weight of Fuel, 𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 911.25 lbs
Propeller Efficiency,𝜂𝑝 70 %
Engine Continental GTSIO-520-D 6-cylinder
Brake Horsepower, BHP 375 hp
Fuel Consumption,𝑤𝑜 101.25 lbs/hr

𝑓
Polar Drag Equation

CD = 0.02118 + 0.05332 CL 2
(Clean Cruise-Retracted
Landing gear)
REQUIRED:
(A). Best range and its corresponding flight speed.

(B). Best endurance and its corresponding flight speed.
320
SOLUTION:
AT 75 % BSFC,
𝒐
𝒘𝒇
𝑩𝑺𝑭𝑪 =
𝑩𝑯𝑷
101.25 𝑙𝑏𝑠/ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 =
375 ℎ𝑝
𝒍𝒃
𝑩𝑺𝑭𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕
𝒉𝒑 𝒉𝒓
𝑩𝑺𝑭𝑪𝑪𝑹 = 𝟕𝟓% 𝑩𝑺𝑭𝑪
𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶𝐶𝑅 = (0.27) (0.75) 𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶
𝒍𝒃
𝑩𝑺𝑭𝑪𝑪𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎
𝒉𝒑 𝒉𝒓
For Best Range, 𝑅𝐵𝐸𝑆𝑇
Ƞ𝒑 𝑪𝑳 𝑾𝑶
𝑹𝑩𝑬𝑺𝑻 (𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒔) = 𝟑𝟕𝟓 ( ) 𝐥𝐧
𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶𝐶𝑅 𝑪𝑫 𝑴𝑨𝑿 𝑾𝟏
Where:
𝑪𝑳 𝟏 𝝅𝑨𝒆
( ) = √
𝑪𝑫 𝑴𝑨𝑿 𝟐 𝑪𝑫 𝑶
From Polar Drag Equation,
𝑪𝑫 = 0.02118 + 0.05332 𝑪𝑳 𝟐
(Clean Airplane Cruise – Retracted Landing Gear)
Where:
𝑪𝑫 𝑶 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟏𝟖
𝟏
𝝅𝑨𝒆 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟑𝟐
321
𝐶
For (𝐶 𝐿 ) ,
𝐷 𝑀𝐴𝑋
𝐶𝐿 1 1
( ) = √
𝐶𝐷 𝑀𝐴𝑋 2 (0.02118)(0.05332)
𝑪𝑳
( ) = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟖𝟖
𝑪𝑫 𝑴𝑨𝑿
For Final Aircraft Weight, 𝑊1
𝑾𝟏 = 𝑾𝒐 − 𝑾𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅
𝑊1 = 3327.55 − 911.25 𝑙𝑏
𝑾𝟏 = 𝟐𝟒𝟏𝟔. 𝟑𝟎 𝒍𝒃
Therefore:
0.70 3,327.55𝑙𝑏
𝑅𝐵𝐸𝑆𝑇 (𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠) = 375 (14.88) ln ( )
𝑙𝑏 2,416.30 𝑙𝑏
0.20
ℎ𝑝 ℎ𝑟
𝑹𝑩𝑬𝑺𝑻 (𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒔) = 𝟔, 𝟐𝟒𝟗. 𝟓𝟖 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒔
For Flight Speed at Best Range, 𝑉𝑅𝐵𝐸𝑆𝑇
𝑾𝒐 𝟐 𝟏
𝑽𝑹𝑩𝑬𝑺𝑻 = √( ) ( ) ( )
𝑺 𝝆 𝑪𝑳
Where:
𝑪𝑳 = √𝝅𝑨𝒆𝑪𝑫 𝑶
322
1
𝐶𝐿 = √( ) (0.02118)
0.05332
𝑪𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑
Therefore:
3327.55 𝑙𝑏 2 1
𝑉𝑅𝐵𝐸𝑆𝑇 = √( 2
)( 3
)( )
138.00 𝑓𝑡 0.002377 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔⁄𝑓𝑡 0.63
15
𝑉𝑅𝐵𝐸𝑆𝑇 = (179.45 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠) (22)
𝑽𝑹𝑩𝑬𝑺𝑻 = 𝟏𝟐𝟐. 𝟑𝟓 𝒎𝒑𝒉
For Best Endurance, 𝐸𝐵𝐸𝑆𝑇
Ƞ𝒑 𝑪𝑳 𝟑⁄𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝑬𝑩𝑬𝑺𝑻 (𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔) = 𝟕𝟕𝟖 ( ) √𝑺𝝆 ( − )
𝑩𝑺𝑭𝑪𝑪𝑹 𝑪𝑫 𝑴𝑨𝑿 √𝑾𝟏 √𝑾𝑶
Where:
𝑪𝑳 = √𝟑𝝅𝑨𝒆𝑪𝑫 𝑶
1
𝐶𝐿 = √(3) ( ) (0.02118)
0.05332
𝑪𝑳 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟗
𝑪𝑫 = 𝟒𝑪𝑫 𝑶
𝐶𝐷 = (4)(0.02118)
𝑪𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖
323
𝐶𝐿 3⁄2
For ( ) ,
𝐶𝐷
𝑀𝐴𝑋
𝑪𝑳 𝟑⁄𝟐 (𝟏. 𝟎𝟗)𝟑⁄𝟐

( ) =
𝑪𝑫 𝑴𝑨𝑿 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖
𝑪𝑳 𝟑⁄𝟐
( ) = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟐𝟐
Therefore:
0.70
𝐸𝐵𝐸𝑆𝑇 (ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠) = 778 ( ) (14.22)√(138.00 𝑓𝑡 2 )(0.002377 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔⁄𝑓𝑡 3 )
𝑙𝑏
0.20
ℎ𝑝 ℎ𝑟
1 1
𝑥 ( − )
√ 2416.30 𝑙𝑏 √3327.55 𝑙𝑏
𝑬𝑩𝑬𝑺𝑻 (𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔) = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟕𝟏 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔
For Flight Speed at Best Endurance,
𝑾𝒐 𝟐 𝟏
𝑽𝑬𝑩𝑬𝑺𝑻 = √( )( )( )
𝑺 𝝆 𝑪𝑳
3327.55 𝑙𝑏 2 1
𝑉𝐸𝐵𝐸𝑆𝑇 = √( 2
)( 3
)( )
138𝑓𝑡 0.002377 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔⁄𝑓𝑡 1.09
15
𝑉𝐸𝐵𝐸𝑆𝑇 = (136.43 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠) ( )
22
𝑽𝑬𝑩𝑬𝑺𝑻 = 𝟗𝟑. 𝟎𝟐 𝒎𝒑𝒉
324
AT 100 % BSFC,
𝒐
𝒘𝒇
𝑩𝑺𝑭𝑪 =
𝑩𝑯𝑷
101.25 𝑙𝑏𝑠/ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶 =
375 ℎ𝑝
𝒍𝒃
𝑩𝑺𝑭𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕
𝒉𝒑 𝒉𝒓
𝑩𝑺𝑭𝑪𝑪𝑹 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 % 𝑩𝑺𝑭𝑪
𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶𝐶𝑅 = (0.27) (1) 𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶
𝒍𝒃
𝑩𝑺𝑭𝑪𝑪𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕
𝒉𝒑 𝒉𝒓
For Best Range, 𝑅𝐵𝐸𝑆𝑇
Ƞ𝒑 𝑪𝑳 𝑾𝑶
𝑹𝑩𝑬𝑺𝑻 (𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒔) = 𝟑𝟕𝟓 ( ) 𝐥𝐧
𝐵𝑆𝐹𝐶𝐶𝑅 𝑪𝑫 𝑴𝑨𝑿 𝑾𝟏
Where:
𝑪𝑳 𝟏 𝝅𝑨𝒆
( ) = √
𝑪𝑫 𝑴𝑨𝑿 𝟐 𝑪𝑫 𝑶
From Polar Drag Equation,
𝑪𝑫 = 0.02118 + 0.05332 𝑪𝑳 𝟐
(Clean Airplane Cruise – Retracted Landing Gear)
Where:
𝑪𝑫 𝑶 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟏𝟖
𝟏
𝝅𝑨𝒆 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟑𝟐
325
𝐶
For (𝐶 𝐿 ) ,
𝐷 𝑀𝐴𝑋
𝐶𝐿 1 1
( ) = √
𝐶𝐷 𝑀𝐴𝑋 2 (0.02118)(0.05332)
𝑪𝑳
( ) = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟖𝟖
For Final Aircraft Weight, 𝑊1
𝑾𝟏 = 𝑾𝒐 − 𝑾𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅
𝑊1 = 3327.55 − 911.25 𝑙𝑏
𝑾𝟏 = 𝟐𝟒𝟏𝟔. 𝟑𝟎 𝒍𝒃
Therefore:
0.70 3,327.55𝑙𝑏
𝑅𝐵𝐸𝑆𝑇 (𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠) = 375 (14.88) ln ( )
𝑙𝑏 2,416.30 𝑙𝑏
0.27
ℎ𝑝 ℎ𝑟
𝑹𝑩𝑬𝑺𝑻 (𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒔) = 𝟒, 𝟔𝟐𝟗. 𝟑𝟐 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒔
For Flight Speed at Best Range, 𝑉𝑅𝐵𝐸𝑆𝑇
𝑾𝒐 𝟐 𝟏
𝑽𝑹𝑩𝑬𝑺𝑻 = √( ) ( ) ( )
𝑺 𝝆 𝑪𝑳
Where:
𝑪𝑳 = √𝝅𝑨𝒆𝑪𝑫 𝑶
326
1
𝐶𝐿 = √( ) (0.02118)
0.05332
𝑪𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑
Therefore:
3327.55 𝑙𝑏 2 1
𝑉𝑅𝐵𝐸𝑆𝑇 = √( ) ( ) ( )
138.00 𝑓𝑡 2 0.002377 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔⁄𝑓𝑡 3 0.63
15
𝑉𝑅𝐵𝐸𝑆𝑇 = (179.45 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠) ( )
22
𝑽𝑹𝑩𝑬𝑺𝑻 = 𝟏𝟐𝟐. 𝟑𝟓 𝒎𝒑𝒉
For Best Endurance, 𝐸𝐵𝐸𝑆𝑇
Ƞ𝒑 𝑪𝑳 𝟑⁄𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝑬𝑩𝑬𝑺𝑻 (𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔) = 𝟕𝟕𝟖 ( ) √𝑺𝝆 ( − )
𝑩𝑺𝑭𝑪𝑪𝑹 𝑪𝑫 𝑴𝑨𝑿 √𝑾𝟏 √𝑾𝑶
Where:
𝑪𝑳 = √𝟑𝝅𝑨𝒆𝑪𝑫 𝑶
1
𝐶𝐿 = √(3) ( ) (0.02118)
0.05332
𝑪𝑳 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟗
𝑪𝑫 = 𝟒𝑪𝑫 𝑶
𝐶𝐷 = (4)(0.02118)
𝑪𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖
327
𝐶𝐿 3⁄2
For ( ) ,
𝐶𝐷
𝑀𝐴𝑋
𝑪𝑳 𝟑⁄𝟐 (𝟏. 𝟎𝟗)𝟑⁄𝟐

( ) =
𝑪𝑫 𝑴𝑨𝑿 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖
𝑪𝑳 𝟑⁄𝟐
( ) = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟐𝟐
Therefore:
0.70
𝐸𝐵𝐸𝑆𝑇 (ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠) = 778 ( ) (14.22)√(138.00 𝑓𝑡 2 )(0.002377 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔⁄𝑓𝑡 3 )
𝑙𝑏
0.27
ℎ𝑝 ℎ𝑟
1 1
𝑥 ( − )
√ 2416.30 𝑙𝑏 √3327.55 𝑙𝑏
𝑬𝑩𝑬𝑺𝑻 (𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔) = 𝟒𝟗. 𝟒𝟏 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔
For Flight Speed at Best Endurance,
𝑾𝒐 𝟐 𝟏
𝑽𝑬𝑩𝑬𝑺𝑻 = √( )( )( )
𝑺 𝝆 𝑪𝑳
3327.55 𝑙𝑏 2 1
𝑉𝐸𝐵𝐸𝑆𝑇 = √( 2
)( 3
)( )
138𝑓𝑡 0.002377 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔⁄𝑓𝑡 1.09
15
𝑉𝐸𝐵𝐸𝑆𝑇 = (136.43 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠) ( )
22
𝑽𝑬𝑩𝑬𝑺𝑻 = 𝟗𝟑. 𝟎𝟐 𝒎𝒑𝒉
328
Conclusion:
The range and endurance of the designed aircraft was defined in this
activity. As the brake specific fuel consumption is reduced, the range and
endurance of the aircraft increases. Thus, brake specific fuel consumption is
inversely proportional the range and endurance of an aircraft.
329
SUMMARY OF GRADES
ACTIVITY TITLE SUBMISSION DATE GRADE

NO.
1 DESIGN CONCEPT JUNE 14, 2014 1.50
2 INITIAL SPECIFICATION ESTIMATE JUNE 21, 2017 1.50
3 AIRFOIL SELECTION JUNE 28, 2017 1.50
4 WEIGHT ESTIMATE JULY 5, 2017 1.25
5 CENTROID JULY 19, 2017 1.25
6 CENTER OF GRAVITY AND C.G. JULY 27, 2017 1.25
ENVELOPE
7 LANDING GEAR DESIGN AUGUST 15, 2017 1.25
8A INITIAL ESTIMATE FOR POLAR DRAG AUGUST 23, 2017 1.25
EQUATION
8B AIRCRAFT 3 VIEWS AUGUST 23, 2017 1.25
9A POWER PERFORMANCE- POWER AUGUST 29, 2017 1.25
REQUIRED AT SEA LEVEL AND
ALTITUDES
9B POWER PERFORMANCE- POWER AUGUST 29, 2017 1.50
AVAILABLE AT SEA LEVEL AND
ALTITUDES
10A CLIMB PERFORMANCE AND SEPTEMBER 13, 2017 1.25
CEILINGS: CLIMB PERFORMANCE
AND SPEED –RATE OF CLIMB
10B CLIMB PERFORMANCE AND SEPTEMBER 21, 2017 1.25
CEILINGS: CEILINGS AND TIME TO
CLIMB
11 TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OCTOBER 2, 2017
12 LANDING PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OCTOBER 2, 2017
13 RANGE AND ENDURANCE SEPTEMBER 26, 2017 1.50
AVERAGE
330 6
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

FIGURE 1 Conceptual Design Sketch 2
FIGURE 2 Table 2.3 Propeller Specific Fuel Consumption (CBHP) 7
FIGURE 3 Table 2.1 Empty Weight Fraction Vs Wo 10
FIGURE 4 Fig 2.2 Wetted Area Ratios 11
FIGURE 5 Designed Aircraft Wing Geometry (Top View) 12
FIGURE 6 Fig 2.3 Maximum Lift to Drag Ratio Trends 13
FIGURE 7 Wing Span 14
FIGURE 8 Fig 2.4 Wing Geometry 15
FIGURE 9 Wing Taper Ratio 16
FIGURE 10 Wing Mean Aerodynamic Chord 17
FIGURE 11 Table 2.5 Fuselage Length Vs Wo 18
FIGURE 12 Horizontal Tail Geometry (Top View) 19
FIGURE 13 Horizontal Tail Length, LHT 20
FIGURE 14 Table 2.7 Tail Volume Coefficient 21
FIGURE 15 SVT (Eq. 2.7) and SHT (Eq. 2.8) 21
FIGURE 16 Table 2.6 Tail Aspect Ratio and Taper Ratio 22
FIGURE 17 Horizontal Tail Span, bHT (Top View) 23
FIGURE 18 Vertical Mean Geometry (Right Side View) 24
FIGURE 19 Vertical Tail Length, LVT 25
FIGURE 20 Table 2.6 Tail Aspect Ratio and Taper Ratio 26
FIGURE 21 Vertical Tail Span, bVT (Right Side View) 27
FIGURE 22 Equations for Propeller Diameter 27
FIGURE 23 NACA 6515 Airfoil Profile 31
FIGURE 24 Fig 9.23 Theoretical and Experiment Variation of ew 32
with Aspect Ratio
FIGURE 25 Lift-Drag Curve NACA 6515 36
FIGURE 26 NACA 6515 Corrected Airfoil Characteristics Curve 37
7
FIGURE 33 Airfoils of the Wing 56
FIGURE 34 Airfoil for the Vertical Stabilizer 60
FIGURE 35 Airfoil for the Horizontal Stabilizer 62
FIGURE 36 Sweep angle of wing 65
FIGURE 37 Fuel tank of upper wing 65
FIGURE 38 Table 4.1 Typical limit load factors 66
FIGURE 39 Sweep angle of Vertical Tail 68
FIGURE 40 Main Fuselage Top View Area 69
FIGURE 41 Main Fuselage Right Side View Area 70
FIGURE 42 Twin Boom Fuselage Top View Area 70
FIGURE 43 Twin Boom Fuselage Right Side View Area 71
FIGURE 44 Height measurement of Main Landing Gear 72
FIGURE 45 Table 4.4 Gear Load Factors 73
FIGURE 46 Height measurement of Nose Landing Gear 73
FIGURE 47 Volume of 3D wing fuel tank 75
FIGURE 48 Measurement of Fuselage Length, L 76
FIGURE 49 Table 4.3 Avionics Weights 77
FIGURE 50 Table 4.5 Weights estimation “fudge factors” 78
FIGURE 51 Table 14.6 Properties of simple sections 83
FIGURE 52 Formula of centroid of each group and of whole 83
aircraft
FIGURE 53 Centroid of the Propeller 85
FIGURE 54 Centroid of the Spinner 86
FIGURE 55 Centroid of the Propeller and Spinner Group 87
FIGURE 56 Centroid of the Engine 89
8
FIGURE 57 Centroid of the Cowling 90
FIGURE 58 Centroid of Oil Tank and System 91
FIGURE 59 Centroid of the Engine Group 92
FIGURE 60 Centroid of the Fuselage 94
FIGURE 61 Centroid of the Twin Boom Fuselage 95
FIGURE 62 Centroid of the Canopy 96
FIGURE 63 Centroid of the Instruments and Radio 97
FIGURE 64 Centroid of Battery, Lights, and Electrical System 98
FIGURE 65 Centroid of the Seats 99
FIGURE 66 Centroid of the Pilot and the Passenger 100
FIGURE 67 Centroid of the Baggage 101
FIGURE 68 Centroid of the Fuselage Group 102
FIGURE 69 Top view wing geometry for aileron length 105
FIGURE 70 Analysis of Right Side View Aileron length 106
FIGURE 71 Analysis of Right Side View Flaps length 108
FIGURE 72 Centroid of the Wing 109
FIGURE 73 Centroid of the Flaps and Ailerons, including Control 110
FIGURE 74 Centroid of the Fuel Tank and Systems 111
FIGURE 75 Centroid of the Wing Group 112
FIGURE 76 Centroid of the Horizontal Stabilizer 114
FIGURE 77 Centroid of the Elevator 115
FIGURE 78 Centroid of the Trim Tabs 116
FIGURE 79 Centroid of the Horizontal Tail Group 117
FIGURE 80 Centroid of the Vertical Fin 119
FIGURE 81 Centroid of the Rudder 120
FIGURE 82 Centroid of the Vertical Tail Group 121
FIGURE 83 Centroid of the Main Landing Gear 123
FIGURE 84 Centroid of the Nose Landing Gear 124
FIGURE 85 Centroid of the Landing Gear Group 125
FIGURE 86 Centroid of the Whole Aircraft 127
9
FIGURE 87 Basic Airplane C.G. Position 130
FIGURE 88 Most Aft C.G. Position 132
FIGURE 89 Centroid of the Pilot 134
FIGURE 90 Gross Weight C.G. 136
FIGURE 91 Center of Gravity (Basic, Most Aft, Most Forward and 137
Gross Weight)
FIGURE 92 C.G. Envelope 138
FIGURE 93 Centroid of Fuselage 139
FIGURE 94 Centroid of ½ Fuel Tank and System 140
FIGURE 95 Centroid of Passenger 141
FIGURE 96 Centroid of Pilot 142
FIGURE 97 Fig 6.1 Landing Gear Arrangement 144
FIGURE 98 Angle at Clmax 145
FIGURE 99 Overturn Angle 146
FIGURE 100 Table 6.4 Tire Data 149
FIGURE 101 Table 6.4 Tire Data 150
FIGURE 102 Oleo Shock-Strut 152
FIGURE 103 Table 6.2 Shock absorber efficiency 152
FIGURE 104 Table 6.3 Gear load factors 152
FIGURE 105 Wing Load Geometry 154
FIGURE 106 Angle between Gross C.G. and Main Landing Gear 155
FIGURE 107 Main and Nose Landing Gear Strut Travel 156
Measurements
FIGURE 108 Fig. 9.23 Theoretical and Experimental Variation of ew 160
with Aspect Ratio
FIGURE 109 Fig. 14.2 Chart for estimating effect of fuselage on 161
airplane efficiency factor zero wing incidence
FIGURE 110 Location of Max Wing Thickness 164
FIGURE 111 Swept angle of MAC 165
FIGURE 112 𝑆𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 , True Planform Area for the whole wing 166
10
FIGURE 113 Characteristics Length of Fuselage 167
FIGURE 114 Table 12.4 168
FIGURE 115 Amax, Frontal Area of Fuselage 169
FIGURE 116 Table 12.4 172
FIGURE 117 Location of Maximum Thickness 173
FIGURE 118 Swept angle of MAC (Vertical Tail) 173
FIGURE 119 𝑆𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 , True Planform Area for the vertical tail 174
FIGURE 120 Location of Maximum Thickness 178
FIGURE 121 𝑆𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 , True Planform Area for the horizontal tail 179
122 Table 12.5 Drag Area-to-Frontal Area Ratio 180
FIGURE 123 Total Frontal Area of Main Landing gears (wheels) 180
FIGURE 124 Total Frontal Area of Main Landing gears (fork, bogey, 181
irregular fitting)
FIGURE 125 Total Frontal Area of Nose Landing gears (wheels) 182
FIGURE 126 Total Frontal Area of Nose Landing gears (fork, bogey, 183
irregular fitting)
FIGURE 127 Flap Span 185
FIGURE 128 Aircraft 3 Views 193
FIGURE 129 Power Required at Sea Level and Altitudes 202
FIGURE 130 Flight Speed, (v) vs Thrust Horsepower Required 206
(THPREQ’D) at Sea Level
FIGURE 131 Figure 5.1 Efficiency versus Cs for various blade 207
angles
FIGURE 132 Figure 5.2. Cs versus blade angle for various values of 208
V/ND
FIGURE 133 Fig 44b. Variation of brake horsepower with altitude 210
at constant r.p.m.
FIGURE 134 Fig 55b. Variation of Propeller with altitude 211
FIGURE 135 Fig 44a. Variation of revolutions per minute with 212
airpseed
11
FIGURE 136 Fig 55a. Variation of efficiency with V/(ND) Sea Level 213
FIGURE 137 Fig 55a. Variation of efficiency with V/(ND) 5000 ft 214
FIGURE 142 Power Available at Sea Level and Altitudes 226
FIGURE 143 THP Required and THP Available vs Flight Speed 229
(Sea Level)
(5000 ft)
(10000ft)
(15000ft)
(20000ft)
FIGURE 148 Rate of Climb 238
FIGURE 149 Altitude vs Rate of Climb (Absolute Ceiling) 245
FIGURE 150 Fig 55b. Variation of propeller with altitude 246
at constant r.p.m
FIGURE 152 Fig 55a. Variation of efficiency with V/(ND) Absolute 247
ceiling
FIGURE 153 THP vs Flight Speed Absolute Ceiling 250
FIGURE 154 Fig 55b. Variation of propeller with altitude 253
at constant r.p.m
FIGURE 156 Fig 55a. Variation of efficiency with V/(ND) Absolute 254
ceiling
12
FIGURE 157 Altitude vs Rate of Climb (Service Ceiling) 257
FIGURE 158 THP vs Flight Speed Service Ceiling 258
FIGURE 159 Rate of Climb @ Service Ceiling 260
FIGURE 160 Figure 10.8 Effect of Wing Height from Ground on 271
Effective Aspect Ratio
FIGURE 161 Measurement of Ground line to MAC 272
FIGURE 162 Thrust Horsepower Available vs Flight Speed at Sea 277
Level (VLOF/√2)
FIGURE 163 Coefficient of Relations 278
FIGURE 164 Thrust Horsepower Available vs Flight Speed at Sea 280
Level (VLOF)
FIGURE 165 Takeoff Performance Analysis Approximate Method I 285
FIGURE 166 Takeoff Performance Analysis Approximate Method II 286
FIGURE 167 Flaps Geometry (Top View) 292
FIGURE 168 Figure 4.24 Variation of Span Factor Kb with the Flap 293
Span for Inboard Flaps
FIGURE 169 Thrust Horsepower Available vs Flight Speed at Sea
Level (VA)
FIGURE 170 Fig 4.23 Variation of Flap Chord Factor (α) with the 299
Flap Span for Inboard Flaps
FIGURE 171 Landing Performance Geometry Analysis 305
13
DESIGN CONCEPT
Introduction:
From the well-defined columns of the structures of ancient Greece and the
great Pyramids of Egypt to the Great Wall of China, these structures has proven
that a well-built foundation lasts for centuries. The bedrock of civilization was
created from single rock. A seemingly useless amount of gravel or mineral, but
it was the building block of what we have today. Rock became the first weapon
of man against forces that threaten life. This piece of stone has also built the
largest religions of today as stated, “upon this rock, I will build my Church”. And
today, a concrete jungle exists around the world. Because of man’s ingenuity
and struggle to improve the quality of life. We have created a better place to live
in. But it does not stop there…History has taught as much as we need to be able
to strive to become better and better every day. A notion of constant struggle
towards perfection. Our ancestry has built a strong foundation, which is
knowledge or information. It is one of the strongest structures built that will last
for centuries and on. The call is upon the men of today. A challenge to be able to
establish a fortified structure that will uphold the teachings of yesterday, pass
on the learnings of today and make a better tomorrow.
The designer, named after the Spanish word “roque” which means rock,
aimed to improve previously designed aircrafts. Hence, the aircraft was named
“Roquette”, a unification of the word “rock” and “rocket”. It brought about a
new definition of the word, which is to be able to propel the teachings of past
and bring upon new knowledge faster than the speed of sound.
The Roquette-TB2 was created by consolidating the characteristics of

previously designed aircrafts to formulate a new concept. Envisioned to become
a new design that would provide a safer and more efficient form of air
transportation. The aircraft design considered various roles of aircraft
nowadays. The Roquette-TB2 aims to become a multi-role two seater aircraft. It
is designed to be used as a normal transport and touring aircraft. It aims to
promote ease of air transport, to maximize fuel consumption and to provide
leisure for cross-country flyers. The aircraft is based on the design of previous
models; Adam A500 and II F300 Sport.
1
Ralph Andre C. Roque
Block 1 Lot 27 Madison Street
Pacific Residences, Cayetano Avenue
Barangay Ususan, Taguig City
09063678673
roqueralph45@gmail.com / andrecalayag32@gmail.com
Objective
To be able to expand my knowledge, to experience the working environment and to explore the
career path of an aeronautical engineer
Educational Background
Tertiary PATTS College of Aeronautics 2013-Present
Lombos Avenue San Isidro, Paranaque City
Bachelor of Science in Aeronautical Engineering
Secondary Lourdes School of Mandaluyong 2013

Shaw Boulevard Greenhills, Mandaluyong City
Primary Lourdes School of Mandaluyong 2009

Shaw Boulevard Greenhills, Mandaluyong City
Certificates and Awards

Certificate of Academic Excellence Silver Seahorse Awardee - 4th year
Second Semester AY 2016-2017
Certificate of Academic Excellence Golden Seahorse Awardee - 4th year
First Semester AY 2016-2017
Certificate of Academic Excellence Silver Seahorse Awardee - 3rd year
Certificate of Academic Excellence Silver Seahorse Awardee - 2nd year
Certificate of Excellence for Outstanding Academic Achievement - 2nd year
Certificate of Academic Excellence Golden Seahorse Awardee - 1st year
Certificate of Recognition Best in Declamation - 1st year
Certificate of Recognition as Oral Presenter - 4th year
December 7, 2016
“BS Aeronautical Engineering Department Activities 2014-2016: An Evaluation”
Research and Academic Affairs Department
Affiliations
PATTS Running Buddies, Member 2014 - present
Aeronautical Engineering Research Organization, Member 2015 - present
Seminars and Trainings Attended
2nd Aero Convention September 17, 2016
“Path to Aeronautical Engineering”
PATTS College of Aeronautics Lombos Avenue, San Isidro, Paranaque City
Maintenance Repair and Overhaul Training December 6, 2015

Aviation Partnership Philippines
8006 Airline Operations Center, Domestic Road Pasay City, Philippines
SAEP General Assembly and Seminar August 16, 2015

“Enhancing Development Practices Through Career Path Modeling”
PATTS College of Aeronautics Lombos Avenue, San Isidro, Paranaque City
Skills
• Able to read and write in the English Language for technical needs
• Proof of Proficiency :
TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication)
Total Score : 950 Test Date : January 7, 2014
• Basic AutoCAD 2D Drafting and 3D Modeling
• Basic MS Office Excel, Word and Powerpoint
• Basic technical writing and research
Interests
Running, Traveling, Driving
Personal Information
Birthday : February 29, 1996 Birth Place : Sampaloc, Manila

Age : 21 Marital Status : Single
Nationality : Filipino Religion : Catholic
Height : 5 8” Language : English, Filipino
Weight : 142 Lbs. Dialect : Waray
Character Reference
Engr. Hilbert Temporosa Dave Jeffrey Camposano, MEM
Head Basic Engineering and Sciences Professor, Mathematics Department
PATTS College of Aeronautics PATTS College of Aeronautics
09983552147 09086165245
Engr. Joy Cosme Amores

Head Bachelor of Science in Air Transportation & Mathematics Department
PATTS College of Aeronautics
09154238265

Roquette Tb2 Aircraft Design 1 Version 1

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Roquette Tb2 Aircraft Design 1 Version 1

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PATTS

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

ROQUE, RALPH ANDRE C.

TO GOD BE THE GLORY !

I would like to acknowledge the omnipotent, omnipresent and omniscient

knowledge to be able to accomplish the task assigned to us.

To PATTS College of Aeronautics and the BS Aeronautical Engineering

He instilled the values of persistence to students to be able to accomplish task

To my parents, for keeping up the morale of striving to become better each

day, upholding the values of patience and perseverance

This output is dedicated to the designer’s family, to their relatives and to

THIS COMPILATION OF ACTIVITIES OF THE DESIGN CONCEPT &

PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS FOR THE SUBJECT AIRCRAFT DESIGN 1

PRESENTED & SUBMITTED BY ROQUE, RALPH ANDRE C. IS HEREBY

ACCEPTED AS PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

SUBJECT AENG 511L-3 AIRCRAFT DESIGN 1 IN THE AERONAUTICAL

ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF PATTS COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS WITH A

ENGR. AIVEN C. DELA ROSA

SUMMARY OF GRADES 330

TITLE: Conceptual Design

To determine the type and category of the designed aircraft.

To determine the regulation requirements of the designed aircraft.

To set the preliminary specification of the design aircraft.

1.1) Introduce your designed aircraft. (Construct a conceptual sketch)

1.2) Determine the regulatory requirement.

1.3) Aircraft Specification

Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach

TITLE: Initial Specification Estimate

To determine the initial specification of your designed aircraft.

2.1) Determine you aircraft weight.

2.1.1) Gross Weight (W0)

2.1.2) Empty Weight (We)

2.2) Determine your (L/D)max ratio.

2.3) Determine your aircraft sizing.

Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach

 To determine the initial specification of your aircraft

2.1 Determine Aircraft Weight

2.1.1 Fuel Weight (𝑾𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 )

C = Specific Fuel Consumption

𝑉 = Taken from Design Concept = Cruising Speed

(0.4) (293.45 𝑓𝑡/𝑠)

2.1.2 Gross Weight (𝑾𝒐 )

𝑾𝒐 = 𝑾𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘 + 𝑾𝒑𝒂𝒚𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 + 𝑾𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 + 𝑾𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒕𝒚

𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = Weight of fuel

𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 + 𝑊𝑏𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 = Weight of passengers = 170 lbs. each

𝑊𝑏𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = Baggage Weight = 40 lbs. each

𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 + 𝑊𝑏𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

Substitute the values,

170 𝑙𝑏 + 250 𝑙𝑏 + 911.25 𝑙𝑏

2.1.3 Empty Weight (𝑾𝒆 )

From the formula of 𝑊𝑜 ,

𝑊𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 = 𝑊𝑜 − (𝑊𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 + 𝑊𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑊𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 )

2.2 Determine Maximum Lift-to-Drag Ratio, (𝑳⁄𝑫)

From Fig. 2.2,

According to Fig. 2.3,

Wing Span = 32.15 ft (9.80 m)

From the formula of Aspect Ratio:

𝑺 = 𝑺𝒓𝒆𝒇 = 𝟏𝟑𝟖 𝒇𝒕𝟐

From Fig. 2.4,

𝑪𝑻𝑰𝑷 = Tip Chord of the Wing

 Through geometric solving of MAC,

 Distance from MAC, 𝒚