Practical Guide 6th Edition - Oil Analisys - Test Oil

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section 1: Introduction ....................................................................... 2

Section 2: Basic Oil Analysis Tests ....................................................... 3
Elemental Spectroscopy ..................................................................... 5
FTIR Spectroscopy .............................................................................. 6
Particle Count ..................................................................................... 8
Viscosity ........................................................................................... 10
Acid Number .................................................................................... 12
Base Number .................................................................................... 13
Crackle Test ...................................................................................... 14
Karl Fischer Water ............................................................................ 16
Fuel Dilution ..................................................................................... 17
Ferrous Wear Concentration............................................................ 18
Section 3: Advanced Oil Analysis Tests ............................................. 19
Analytical Ferrography ..................................................................... 19
Demulsibility (Water Separation) ..................................................... 24
Rust Test........................................................................................... 25
RPVOT .............................................................................................. 25
Foaming Tendency ........................................................................... 26
Varnish Potential Analysis ................................................................ 27
Turbine Oil Analysis .......................................................................... 29
Section 4: Non-Fluid Analysis............................................................ 30
Filter Debris Analysis ........................................................................ 30
Grease Analysis ................................................................................ 33
Material Identification Analysis........................................................ 34
Section 5: Report Interpretation Basics ............................................ 35
Section 6: Glossary of Oil Analysis Terms .......................................... 53
SECTION 1
Introduction
Proper data interpretation begins with an understanding of the
scope and significance of the various oil analysis tests. It is
important to know not just what a test is measuring, but also in
what manner is it being measured, e.g. a direct measurement of
the quantity of an additive versus an indirect measurement of
the performance of the same additive.
Part of this comprehension also comes from knowing the basic

principle of the tests, which, in turn, provides insight regarding
any limitations to the tests. There is perhaps greater
importance in what a test cannot reveal, than what it can. Too
often data interpretation is flawed by assumptions regarding the
capabilities of the testing.
Once the test itself is understood, in general, the results are

best interpreted through trending, as opposed to evaluation
against static limits.
This book provides guidance regarding all of these principles.
www.testoil.com Page 2
SECTION 2
Basic Oil Analysis Tests

Test Selection
Oil analysis is a quick and easy way to monitor the health of

lubricated equipment. Sampling and analyzing oil on a regular
basis establishes a baseline for normal wear and can help
indicate when abnormal wear or contamination is occurring.
Lubricating oil circulating inside any piece of equipment over a

period of time reflects the condition of the equipment. Because
oil is in contact with internal components, any microscopic wear
particles or contaminants found in the machine will also be
present in the oil.
By identifying and measuring these particles, an indication of

the equipment’s wear rate and any excessive contamination can
be determined. An effective oil analysis program will assess
lubricant condition, qualify/quantify contaminants and trend
machine wear.
Fluid Properties. The assessment of lubricant condition checks

for excess oxidation and degradation. It also reveals whether
the system fluid is healthy and fit for further service or is ready
for a change.
Contamination. Contaminant ingress from the surrounding

environment in the form of dirt, water and process
contamination are the leading cause of degraded machine
operation and failure. Increased contamination should initiate a
corrective action in order to save the oil, avoid excessive
machine wear, and unexpected downtime.
Wear Debris. An unhealthy machine generates wear particles at

an exponential rate. The detection and analysis of these
particles assist in making critical maintenance decisions.
Machine failures due to worn out components can be avoided.
The following table provides an overview of which tests produce

data for each condition.
Fluid Properties Contamination Wear Debris

Elemental Spectroscopy
Viscosity Crackle Analytical Ferrography
Acid/Base Number Karl Fischer Patch Test
FTIR Fuel Dilution Filter Debris
MPC Particle Count X-Ray Fluorescence
RPVOT Filter Debris Analysis
RULER Material Identification Analysis
Demulsibility Ferrous Wear
(Water Separation) Concentration
Ultra-Centrifuge
Foaming Tendency
Rust Test
ELEMENTAL SPECTROSCOPY
Measures the elemental concentration of wear metals,
contaminant metals and additive metals in a lubricant.
Operating Principle.
(ASTM D5185) A diluted oil sample is
atomized by inert gas (argon) to form an
aerosol. This is magnetically induced to
form a plasma at a 9000° C. The high
temperature causes metal ions to take
on energy and release new energy in the
form of photons. A spectrum with
different wavelengths is created for each
element. The instrument quantifies the
amount of energy emitted and
determines the concentration in parts
per million (ppm) of 20 elements
present in the sample. TestOil reports a value below the
detection limit as a dash (-).
Significance. Elemental spectroscopy assists decision makers in

determining the oil and machine condition.
Advantages. Very repeatable, proven technology.
Disadvantages. Cannot detect particles greater than 10 microns

in size, generally considered to accurately measure particles
from 0 to 5 microns. The level of additive elements is not
necessarily indicative of additive package depletion.
Application. All industrial lubricants.
FTIR SPECTROSCOPY
Measures additive depletion, contamination buildup and base
stock degradation of a lubricant.
Operating Principle. Infrared radiation is passed through an oil

sample. Different molecular structures within the sample will
absorb the radiation at specific wavenumbers and a spectrum is
generated. By comparing the amount of energy absorbed or
transmitted at specific locations on the spectrum various
molecular features can be quantified.
Significance. Molecular analysis of lubricants and hydraulic

fluids by FTIR spectroscopy produces direct information on
molecular species of interest, including additives, fluid
breakdown products and external contamination.
Oil Degradation by chemical change:
• Oxidation. At elevated temperatures, oil exposed to

oxygen from the air will oxidize to form a variety of
compounds. The majority of these are carbonyl
containing compounds e.g. carboxylic acid.
• Nitration. Results from the reaction of oil components
with nitrogen oxides.
• Sulfation. Various oxides of sulfur and water react
together to form acid. This acid is neutralized by basic
reserve and normally results in formation of
metallic sulfates.
Specific to Engine Oils
• Soot. Measure of the level of carbon particulates
formed by incomplete combustion in the oil.
• Glycol. An ingredient in coolant suggesting an internal
leak.
Specific to Turbine Oils
• Thermal Event Acid. A degradation mechanism of the
fluid caused by microdieseling or electrostatic sparks.
• Acid Oxidation. Final oxidation mode of the lubricant,
may be in the presence of water.
• Ester. Measurement of oxidation in the absence of
water.
• Amine Antioxidants, Aromatic Additive, Base Oil
Aromatic and Phenolic Antioxidants. These are direct
measurements of their respective additives.
Advantages. Provides information on the overall degradation

of an oil. Assists in optimizing oil change outs.
Disadvantages. Imprecise quantification of water and glycol levels.
Applications. All industrial lubricants.
PARTICLE COUNT
Measures the size and quantity of particles in a lubricant.
Light Blockage Principle. A known volume of oil (5ml) is injected
through a sampling cell; on one side of the cell is a beam of laser
light and on the other side is a detector. As particles pass
through the cell, they block the beam and cast shadows on the
detector. The drop
in light intensity
received by the
detector is
proportional to the
size of particle
blocking the light
beam. Both the
number and size of
particles are
measured.
Operating Principle. Fluid Flow

Decay Principle. Oil is passed
through a screen of known mesh
size (5, 10, or 15 microns) and
the rate of flow decay is
determined. The instrument
then calculates the distribution of
the other predetermined size
ranges by extrapolation.
Significance. Optical particle counters use the light blockage
method and are particularly effective in clean systems such as
turbines and hydraulics. However, this method yields
inaccurate results in the presence of water or air bubbles.
Pore blockage particle counters are not affected by air bubbles

or water.
Advantages. Excellent for “clean” systems (turbines, hydraulics

etc.). Limits provided by equipment manufactures determines
cleanliness levels.
Disadvantages. Abnormal wear can be masked on systems with

routinely high levels of particulate matter. Does not determine
the TYPE of debris in the sample.
Application. Suitable where equipment manufacturer provides

recommended lubricant cleanliness levels and any filtered
system. Turbines, Boiler Feed Pumps, EHC Systems, Hydraulics,
Servo Valves. Any system where oil cleanliness is directly
related to longer lubricant life, decreased equipment wear or
improved equipment performance.
Making Sense Out of
ISO Particle Count Codes
Number of Particles per ml

ISO 4406:99 More than Up To Range
R4/R6/R14 Number (R)
80,000 160,000 24
TestOil Particle Count 40,000 80,000 23

Size 20,000 40,000 22
Particles
(micron)
10,000 20,000 21
There are 3471
>4 3471 particles greater 5,000 10,000 20
than 4 microns.
>6 1198 2,500 5,000 19
There are 1198 1,300 2,500 18
>14 107
particles greater
than 6 microns. 640 1,300 17
>25 8
320 640 16
>50 2 There are 107 160 320 15
particles greater
>100 0 than 14 microns. 80 160 14
40 80 13
= ISO 19/17/14 20 40 12
10 20 11
What does it mean? 5 10 10
Using ISO 4406:99, a sample is 2.5 5 9
assigned a cleanliness rating using the
1.3 2.5 8
chart on the right. To arrive at the
reading TestOil performs a particle 0.64 1.3 7
count to determine the number of 0.32 0.64 6
particles greater than three size
0.16 0.32 5
ranges (4, 6, and 14 µm) in 1 ml of the
sample. The chart on the left depicts 0.08 0.16 4
the actual particles of one of our 0.04 0.08 3
particle count tests. This particle
0.02 0.04 2
distribution translates to an ISO
4406:99 rating of 19/17/14. 0.01 0.01 1
VISCOSITY
Measure of lubricant’s resistance to flow at a specific
temperature.
Operating Principle. (ASTM D445) A sample is brought up to

measurement temperature, 40°C or 100°C, and allowed to flow
via gravity down the capillary glass tube where it is timed as it
passes through one or more sections of the tube. The viscosity
in centistokes (cSt) is the flow time (seconds) multiplied by the
tube constant.
Significance. Viscosity is measured at 40°C for industrial

applications, classified using the ISO VG (International
Organization for Standardization Viscosity Grade) system, and
100°C for engine oil applications, classified according to SAE
(Society of Automotive Engineers).
Advantages. Quickly
detects the addition
of a wrong oil. Quick
and inexpensive to
run. Best
measurement of oil
serviceability.
Application.
All industrial
lubricants.
ACID NUMBER
Measures the acidity of a lubricant.
(ASTM D974) A weighed amount of sample in titration solvent is
titrated with a potassium hydroxide solution to a definite end
point.
Description. Organic acids, a by-product of oil oxidation,

degrade oil properties and lead to corrosion of the internal
components. The AN is lowest as a virgin oil and will gradually
increase with use. High acid levels are typically caused by oil
oxidation.
Applications. All lubricating systems where extended drain

intervals are considered.
Advantages. A sudden or significant rise in acid number is an

alarm for an oil change.
BASE NUMBER
Measures the basic constituents in a lubricant.
A weighed amount of sample
in titration solvent is titrated
with a hydrochloric acid
solution to a definite end
point.
TestOil also utilizes FTIR

technology to determine Base
Number. Infrared
spectroscopy determines the
BN of a sample by measuring the absorbance of the lubricant
through a 100 to 200-micron transmission cell.
Significance. The amount of reserve alkalinity in a lubricant is

critical for certain oils. Often oil is fortified with alkaline
additives to combat acid formation. The BN is at its highest as a
new oil and decreases with service.
Applications. Diesel, gasoline and some LPG engine oils.
Advantages. A sudden or significant drop in base number is an

alarm for an oil change.
CRACKLE TEST
Quick screen to determine if a sample contains moisture.
Operating Principle. A drop of oil is placed on a hotplate that

has been heated to approximately 400°F. The sample drop
bubbles, spits, crackles or pops when moisture is present.
When moisture is detected, a Karl Fischer water test is
performed.
Significance. A crackle test is a good screening test to use to

determine if a sample contains moisture.
Advantages. This is a very low cost test. It is a good way to

determine the need for further moisture analysis.
Disadvantages. The crackle test can generally only detect

moisture greater than .05% (500ppm). A sample with entrained
gas often results in false positive results.
Applications. All lubricants that are non-water based.
Limitation of the Crackle Test
The limitations of the crackle test were documented in a recent

study conducted by TestOil. A total of 493 samples, comprised
of a variety of lubricant types, were run on a 400°F hot plate.
The samples were assessed for a positive or negative crackle.
These same samples were then analyzed for water
contamination using a Karl Fischer titration. The table below
summarizes the results of the study.
The lowest positive values represent those samples that
exhibited a positive crackle and the associated Karl Fischer
result, while the highest negative values represent those
samples that clearly had water present according to the Karl
Fischer results, yet didn’t crackle. Clearly, the study
demonstrates the variability in the detection limit inherent in
the crackle test. As such, if water is an inherent problem, a Karl
Fischer test is recommended.
Lowest Highest
Samples Detection
OIL TYPE Positive Negative
Tested Limit (ppm)
(ppm) (ppm)
Turbine 111 110-610 110 610
Mineral Gear 62 240-1190 240 1190
Synthetic Gear 86 100-460 100 460
AW Hydraulic 86 320-750 320 750
Polyol Ester 36 340-1830 340 1830
Phosphate Ester 37 450-1140 450 1140
Engine 40 320-580 320 580
Wind Turbine (Optigear) 35 780-1070 780 1070
Combined 493 100-1830 100 1830
KARL FISCHER WATER
Quantifies the amount of water in the lubricant.
Operating principle.
(ASTM D6304) Sample is
titrated with a hydro-
reactive chemical to
quantify water content.
Results are reported as
either % water or ppm
(1% =10,000ppm).
Other methods of
detecting water may be
used. The specific method used is always denoted on the report
with a letter after the result.
Significance. Water seriously damages the lubricating

properties of oil and promotes component corrosion. Increased
water concentrations indicate possible condensation, coolant
leaks, or process leaks around the seals.
Advantages. Accurate to 0.001%. Quantifies emulsified,

dissolved and free water.
Disadvantages. Sulfur, acetones and ketones can sometimes

trigger erroneous readings.
Applications. All lubricants, especially in systems sensitive to

water.
FUEL DILUTION
Measures amount of fuel (%) present in an engine oil.
Operating Principle. A sample

is heated and injected into a
gas chromatograph (GC). The
chromatographic procedure
separates components of
mixed substances. The process
consists of three steps:
injection, separation and
detection. A sample is injected into a flowing stream of inert gas
(mobile phase) in the GC and rapidly vaporizes. The mobile
phase then carries the sample onto the analytical column where
the separation of the components takes place. The detector
used in this analysis is a flame ionization detector (FID). A small
hydrogen flame inside the detector ionizes the components as
they pass through the FID. The ions created in this process
conduct electricity that is measured through a collector
electrode. As the components pass through the detector, the
current (mA) increases and the data is graphically represented
as a scan (time vs. mV). The graph is integrated to measure the
area under the curve (peak) and quantified based on a standard
curve.
Significance. Fuel dilution in engine oils is measured by this

process and returns a value in percent fuel dilution. Excessive
fuel dilution can cause a drastic drop in viscosity which may lead
to increased wear.
Application. Diesel and gasoline engine oils.
FERROUS WEAR CONCENTRATION
Measures the amount of ferrous wear in a lubricant.
Operating Principle. A wear

particle analyzer quantifies
the amount of ferrous
material present in a sample
of fluid. A measured amount
of sample is inserted into the
analyzer and amount of
ferromagnetic material is
determined by change in
magnetic flux. This change is
then converted into ferrous
concentration in parts per million. Using this method, there are
no interferences with non-ferromagnetic particles.
Significance. This test gives a direct measure of the amount of

ferrous wear metals present in a sample. Trending of ferrous
concentration reveals changes in the wear mode of the system.
Advantages. Excellent trending device for “dirty” systems such

as large splash lubricated gearboxes. No particle size limitation.
Disadvantages. Does not detect non-ferrous particles.
Application. Gearboxes, Anti-Friction bearings.
SECTION 3
Advanced Oil Analysis Tests

ANALYTICAL FERROGRAPHY
Microscopic characterizations of wear and contaminant particles.
Operating Principle. To create a ferrogram, a sample of oil is

passed over a glass slide. The slide rests on a magnetic plate
that attracts ferrous wear particles in the oil onto the surface of
the slide. The ferrous wear particles line up in rows with the
largest particles forming rows at the top of the ferrogram. Non-
ferrous particles are easily detected because they deposit
randomly across the slide.
Significance. A trained analyst visually determines the type and
severity of wear particles deposited onto the substrate by using
a high magnification microscope. The particles are readily
identified and classified according to size, shape, and
metallurgy.
Advantages. Best method for determining severity and type of

wear present. There are no particle size or metallurgy
limitations. Wear can be documented by digital photography.
Disadvantages. Subjective results dependent upon the Analyst.
Application. Best used when other test methods indicate

possible problems.
Examining the Evidence

Analytical Ferrography is among the most powerful diagnostic tools
in oil analysis today. When implemented correctly it is an excellent
tool when attempting to diagnose an active wear problem.
The test is qualitative, which means it relies on the skill and

knowledge of the ferrographic analyst, who can visually determine
the severity of wear on the unit using a microscope to classify the
particles.
The analyst can evaluate the concentration, size, shape,
composition, and condition of the particles, which indicates where
and how they were generated.
A test report for Analytical Ferrography typically includes a

photomicrograph of the debris found, along with specific
descriptions of the particles and their suspected cause.
The following page includes examples of the photomicrographs and

classifications of wear that are detected using Analytical
Ferrography.
Particle Identification
Normal Rubbing Wear

Description. Ferrous particles, less than 30
microns in size. Rubbing wear is typically found
in both reciprocating and non-reciprocating
units.
Comments. On a ferrogram the ferrous
particles tend to align in chains. Normal ferrous
wear can be categorized as cast iron, low alloy
and high alloy steel.
Small Cutting Wear
Description. Metal particles that look like wood
shavings from a lathe. Seen in sleeve bearings
and shaft couples. Abrasives embedded in soft
bearing or burrs on hardened metals create
these wear particles.
Comments. Worm drives have a tendency to
create this type of particle. When seen, it
indicates abnormal wear.
Laminar Particles
Description. Thin, smooth particles which
appear to have been rolled flat. Commonly
seen in systems with roller bearings or systems
where high-pressure angled or lateral contact
occurs.
Comments. If the laminar particle has small
holes or indents is was created by extraneous
particle.
Fatigue Crack Spheres
Description. A relatively smooth spherical
particle. Spheres are often created in bearing
fatigue cracks of roller bearings.
Comments. Spheres are often precursors of
bearing spalls. A large increase in quantity is
indicative of imminent spalling.
Severe Sliding Wear

Description. Metallic particles with striations
along one or more surfaces. Sliding wear can be
created when two parts of a machine scrape
together.
Comments. Particles exhibiting sliding wear are

often a good clue as to what part of a machine
is having mechanical issues.
Contaminants
Description. Dirt, sand and other silica
particulates. Contaminants can enter into a
system by a variety of ways: poor seals, faulty
breathers, oil top off, etc.
Comments. Some appear crystalized.
Dark Metal Oxide Wear

Description. Grey to black chunks with a semi-
metallic appearance and mottled edges. Some
Sources: Breakdown of boundary film, excessive
operating temperatures, lubricant oxidation.
Comments. The darker the color, the more

severe the oxidation of the particle.
Fiber
Description. Fibers are thread like material
made of asbestos, paper, glass or a synthetic
material. Most common source is filter media.
Could also originate from machine housing,
cleaning rags, or air contaminants.
Comments. A small amount of fibrous material

in oil is common.
Non-Ferrous Metal Wear
Description. Any metallic particle that is not
ferrous. Most common include aluminum,
copper alloy, chrome, and babbitt. Non-
ferrous wear can originate from specific
components within the machine.
Comments. Non-ferrous metallic wear can

be across the entire length of a ferrogram.
These particles will not be aligned with the
ferrous wear chains.
Red Oxide
Description. Iron oxides or rust. It appears
as orange/red in color. Red oxides are
produced when moisture enters into a
system. Water does not have to be present
when red oxides are seen, as they are often
difficult to filter out of oil.
Comments. Red oxides are not necessarily

magnetic like ferrous wear. Alpha hematite
is paramagnetic and will be found on all
regions of a ferrogram.
DEMULSIBILITY (WATER SEPARATION)
Measures the ability of a lubricant to separate from water.
(ASTM D1401) Combine
40 ml of distilled water with
40 ml of oil in a graduated
cylinder. Place in a constant
temperature bath and stir for
5 minutes. The amount of oil
separation is recorded at 5
minute intervals over a period
of 30 minutes. Failure is considered an emulsion layer greater
than 3 ml at the end of the test. Oils with a viscosity over 90 cSt
are placed in a bath with an increased temperature and the test
is run over a period of 60 minutes.
The results are reported as such: 40/40/0 (30), meaning that

this sample contained 40 ml of oil, 40 ml of water and 0 ml
emulsion, and reached <3 ml of emulsion after 30 minutes. This
sample readily separates from water and therefore, has good
demulsibility.
Significance. Lubricating oils used in circulating systems should

separate readily from water that entering the system as a result
of condensation or other means. If the water separates quickly,
it will settle to the bottom of the reservoir where it can be
periodically drained.
RUST TEST
Rust preventing characteristics of oil in the presence of water.
Operating Principle. (ASTM D665) A portion of the oil is placed

in a beaker along with water and a polished steel rod. The
beaker is then immersed in a heated bath and is stirred for 4
hours. At the end of the 4 hours, the steel rod is inspected for
the presence of rust / corrosion.
Significance. Evaluates
the ability of the
lubricant to prevent
the corrosion of
ferrous parts should
water become mixed
with the oil.
Application. Turbines
or any other machine where there is a concern of corrosion with
the presence of water.
RPVOT
This test measures oxidation stability of new and used oils.
Operating Principle. (ASTM D2272) In the Rotating Pressure

Vessel Oxidation Test a sample of oil along with water and a
copper catalyst is placed in a pressure vessel and pressurized
with pure oxygen. Antioxidants present in the oil will act to
resist oxidation, but once they have been consumed the oil will
begin to react with the oxygen and the pressure in the vessel
will drop. The time it takes to reach the specified drop in
pressure is recorded and compared to new oil specifications.
Significance. Oxidation is a critical mode of lubricant
degradation. As oil oxidizes it forms acids and insoluble
oxidation products, which can lead to formation of sludge or
varnish. These degradation products can coat bearing and oil
cooler surfaces preventing adequate cooling of the bearings.
Areas with tight tolerances such as hydraulic control valves can
also become coated causing operational issues.
Applications. Mainly used for lubricants with antioxidant

additive packages to help monitor fluid health and provide an
estimate of remaining life.
FOAMING TENDENCY
Measures the foaming tendency of a lubricant.
Operating Principle. (ASTM D892) Air is

forced through a diffuser within a
portion of oil creating foam. After 5
minutes of blowing, the amount of foam
is recorded. Then, the sample is
observed for the clearing of generated
foam. Then either time of full dissipation
is recorded or amount of foam remaining
after 10 minutes.
Significance. The tendency of lubricants

to foam can cause serious issues in
systems with high-speed operations. Excessive foam can cause
problems such as inadequate lubrication and overflowing
reservoirs.
VARNISH POTENTIAL ANALYSIS
Lubricating oil in gas turbines and hydraulic systems is
unfortunately subject to the ravages of varnish. It is well-
documented that varnish is an insoluble contaminant comprised
of oil degradation by-products and sometimes depleted additive
molecules. It is generally caused by some type of thermal (heat-
related) stress placed on the oil. The debilitating effects of
varnish include the loss of operating clearances within
machinery and a loss of heat transfer due to thermal insulating.
As more operators face the prospect of varnish in their lube oil
systems, they are turning to oil analysis labs for answers.
Varnish potential, or
the measure of a
lubricant's tendency
to form varnish
deposits, cannot
accurately be
measured using
standard oil analysis tests. The specific lubricant degradation
by-products associated with varnish formation remain elusive
for tests like viscosity, acid number, spectroscopy, and particle
counts to measure. For this reason, specific tests have been
developed which can assess the likelihood of varnish formation
in a lube oil system.
Varnish Potential Analysis correlates the results of several

individual tests to provide a complete picture of a lubricant’s
varnishing potential. These tests include Acid Number, Karl
Fischer, Particle Count and FTIR Spectroscopy (outlined in
Section 2), and the following tests:
Membrane Patch Colorimetry
Operating Principle. Insoluble deposits are extracted from the
sample using a membrane patch. The color of the patch is
analyzed using a spectrophotometer. Results are reported as a
ΔE value in the CIE LAB scale.
Significance. The delta E value can be trended and used to
monitor oil condition with regard to varnish potential.
Ultra-Centrifuge
Operating Principle. As an oil
sample is spun at 17,000 rpm in the
ultra-centrifuge the soft
contaminant oxidation by-products
which have a higher molecular
weight than the oil will be forced to
the bottom of the centrifuge tube.
Significance. The amount of deposited contaminants can be
visually compared to a scale to quantify the level of
contaminants present in the oil.
Remaining Useful Life Evaluation Routine

Operating Principle. Antioxidants are removed from the oil by
mixing sample with a solvent. The dissolved antioxidants are
then measured using linear sweep voltammetry.
Significance. The remaining useful life of the used oil can be
estimated by comparing the levels of antioxidants in the used oil
sample to the levels present in a virgin reference sample of the
same lubricant.
TURBINE OIL ANALYSIS
Turbines are widely used in the power industry and are
generally run on continuous operating schedules. Maintenance
professionals are challenged with implementing tactics that
enhance equipment performance given the turbine’s extreme
operating conditions such as high temperatures, water
contamination and lengthy periods of time in service.
Lubrication plays a vital role in supporting turbine performance.

Achieving long-term operating success requires testing in-
service oil on regular intervals to detect degradation issues early
enough so they do not lead to costly or catastrophic
consequences. By taking this proactive approach, maintenance
professionals will help promote optimized turbine efficiency and
generate valuable cost savings.
Turbine oil testing should provide a detailed analysis of the

health of the turbine oil through the following tests:
Test Method
Acid Number ASTM D974
Color ASTM D1500
Demulsibility ASTM D1401
Foam ASTM D892
FTIR TestOil Turbine Method
Karl Fischer Water ASTM D6304 C
Membrane Patch Colorimetry ASTM D7843
Particle Count Pore Blockage/Optical
RPVOT ASTM D2272
RULER® ASTM D6971
Rust Test ASTM D665 Procedure A
Spectroscopic Analysis ASTM D5185
Ultra Centrifuge IWI-251
Viscosity ASTM D445
SECTION 4
Non-Fluid Analysis
FILTER DEBRIS ANALYSIS
The Filter Debris Analysis
(FDA) instrument is a
self-contained unit which
employs an automated
method for filter washing
to extract all inorganic
debris from the filter
with high repeatability
and reproducibility. The
modular design can accommodate irregular filters such as large
sized filters and bag or sock filters. A used filter is placed in the
system wash chamber and all debris is removed from the filter
using a combination of fluid and compressed air.
The wash fluid carrying the filter debris is collected and then
analyzed by passing through a 30 µm filter patch stacked on top
of a 5 µm filter patch. The patches are weighed before and after
filtration, to provide gravimetric results, before undergoing
microscopic analysis and EDXRF quantification.
Once testing is complete the data is assembled in a

comprehensive test report. Analysts review the data and
conclude an appropriate determination of the machine’s
condition. In addition, the report displays images of the filter
and patches, microscopic views of the patches, and pie charts
displaying elemental data.
Patch (Insoluble Contamination by Gravimetric Analysis)

Operating Principle. A sample diluted with solvent is passed
through a 30 µm membrane patch stacked on top of a 5 µm
membrane patch, which are each weighed (dry) before and
after testing to provide a gravimetric concentration of
particulate, as well as serve as a test specimens for EDXRF.
Significance. Provides a measurement of the size and quantity
of material trapped by a filter, as well as accounts for wear
debris and contamination that would not appear in fluid
analysis.
Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence

Operating Principle. Both the 30 µm and 5 µm patches are
placed in the X-ray beam, and the appropriate regions of its
spectrum are measured to give the fluorescent intensities of 25
elements reported for each patch.
Significance. Provides a method to quantify severe or abnormal
wear particles too large for detection by elemental
spectroscopy.
Benefits of Filter Debris Analysis
In traditional oil analysis, the only particles available for analysis
are those circulating in the oil (smaller than the filter size) or
immediately released in the oil prior to filtering. Given the fine
filtration used in rotating equipment today to produce longer
life cycles, 95% of the wear debris that could provide useful
insight into machinery condition is caught in the filter and never
ends up in an oil sample. Increasingly, fine filtration is making
conventional monitoring techniques less effective at providing
reliable indication of machinery component wear. FDA captures
this lost information and identifies the specific components that
are wearing, providing improved diagnostic and prognostic
information about impending failures.
• FDA fills a gap left by atomic emission spectroscopy and

analytical ferrography with improved diagnostic and
prognostic information about impending failures.
• FDA captures valuable data lost by fine filtration.
• FDA provides a fingerprint of what has happened since
last filter change.
FDA allows accurate quantification of elemental particle debris

without interference from the oil.
GREASE ANALYSIS
A complete grease analysis

program monitors
contamination levels, grease
degradation characteristics and
wear rates.
Contamination: Contamination of grease is detrimental to the

lubricating quality of the grease. Whether the contamination is
from water, dirt, or an incompatible grease, the performance
levels of grease are severely impaired. Contamination can cause
serious bearing damage if gone undetected and thus
uncorrected.
Degradation: As grease is used the beneficial additives that are

blended into the grease to protect against base oil oxidation are
depleted. Once these additives are depleted, the grease will
become oxidized and the designed performance characteristics
will be dramatically altered. One of the most important
performance characteristics is the viscosity of the base oil and
the base oil viscosity will increase when the antioxidants can no
longer protect the oil.
Wear: Measuring the concentration, metallurgy and

topographical characteristics of wear metals in used grease not
only gives the user a measurement of how much wear is taking
place, but the source and mechanisms of the wear. Wear rates
can be compared over time, for a single bearing and/or against
like bearings to evaluate abnormal conditions. When coupled
with other technologies, such as vibration analysis (where
applicable) metals analysis becomes an indispensable part a
complete condition monitoring program.
MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION ANALYSIS
Routine oil analysis test slates are

geared towards testing liquid
lubricants. The problem occurs when
the sample collected is a non-liquid
material. The standard
instrumentation used in oil analysis
laboratories cannot handle samples
in other physical states, such as
solids, or semi-solids (like sludge and
gels). In addition, there are times
when sampling fails to collect a
representative portion of the
lubricant, such as a portion of the
sump containing large particles or
strange debris that may be found
during an oil change.
TestOil has developed Material

Identification Analysis (MIA) for
identifying foreign materials, also
known as sludge and varnish, and to
identify a potential source. MIA is a
process; it is not a standardized list
of tests. Our analyst creates a testing
agenda that is unique to each
sample based on the lubricant type
and information provided by the
customer including, the type of
machine involved, activity of the
machine, and other details that may shed light on the root cause
of the problem.
SECTION 5
Report Interpretation Basics

The ability to interpret oil analysis results is vital to making
significant maintenance decisions. It is important to review the
whole report, from top to bottom, to determine what action
should be taken, if any.
Proper interpretation begins with the top section of the report;

confirm that the correct lube type, machine MFG, and machine
type are listed. Review the upper right-hand corner where it
states the machine and lubricant condition. The ratings are:
Normal, Marginal or Critical. The top section also includes
comments from the analyst who reviewed the results. The
comments help gauge the criticality of the problem and provide
a suggested course of action.
The body of the report contains the data from the analysis of
the sample and is organized by test. The left-hand column of
data contains reference oil data, if a sample of new oil was
provided. The column to the right of the new oil column is the
most current sample, followed by historical sample data.
The following pages offer some insight into the method TestOil
uses to alarm the data on the report.
Trending Versus Alarm Limits
At TestOil, we prefer to employ trending techniques when
evaluating the sample data, versus relying on static alarm limits.
The following is a brief explanation describing the benefits of
our linear-regression method.
Many static alarm limits are based on statistical analysis of a

common grouping of machines under similar operating
conditions. As long as machine is operated under similar
conditions (load, speed, temperature, ambient environment) for
a similar sampling and drain interval, the limits may have merit.
When any variable is different, the limit quickly loses relevance.

The most common variable is the sampling interval, as most
limits are set for an end-of-service (scheduled drain) interval or
as a condemning limit. Samples taken early in the expected life
of the lubricant usually have significantly lower results than
these limits, so the alarm limit is perceived as being set too high.
When an alarm is set too high, the

risk is that the lubricant or the
machine may enter into a failure
mode without setting off an alarm.
Conversely, if an alarm limit has

been set too low for the operating
conditions or drain interval, the
result is an ever-present alarm on
the lubricant and/or the machine.
This typically results in a “cry wolf”
effect where alarms end up being
ignored, even if they represent a
true failure mode.
Another issue, typically seen when desiring condition-based oil
drains, or simply extending drain intervals, is referred to as the
eventuality factor. Given a long
enough service interval on the
lubricant, the alarm should
eventually be exceeded, yet, for
many parameters, this does not
necessarily signify a problem.
Lastly, over-reliance on alarms

tends to shift the focus from
detecting an underlying trend that
may serve to truly predict a failure
before it occurs, to whether or not
the lubricant or machine is simply
in alarm.
Using linear-regression as the predominant method for

evaluating the data eliminates such problems. Linear-regression
begins on the fourth sample from the same machine, as a
minimum of data is required for the calculations to be practical.
Based on historical data, the software predicts a range for the
latest result; data within this range is considered normal for that
individual machine, therefore alarms may appear at differing
values for similar machines.
Static alarm limits can still be applied as a secondary evaluation,

which may be necessary if certain targets must remain for
warranty/service agreements, or for regulatory compliance, or
until enough historical data has been obtained.
In cases where an existing alarm
limit has been set too high, linear
regression is able to trigger an
alarm even if the value is well
below the limit.
In cases where the alarm limit is

too low for the given operating
conditions, linear regression
rewards consistency and will not
trigger an alarm even when it is
above the limit.
The eventuality factor is also dealt

with, as steady changes are
expected with continued service
on the lubricant. Only cases where
the rate changes significantly will
be alarmed, while normal trend
will not be alarmed even when the
static limit has been exceeded.
Underlying trends are also

identified, providing more
feedback to the end-user, even in
situations where the lubricant or
machine is constantly going in and
out of alarm (often due to fluid
changes).
One fringe benefit that linear
regression offers is identification of
an abnormality that is both below an
alarm limit and below historical
results. Typically, this data would be
ignored under the presumption that
previous results were worse and no
failure occurred.
Another benefit is identification of an

abnormality under the guise of a
significant improvement. Often,
results close to new oil values are
perceived as ideal, however, in some
cases, a sudden departure from a
trend, even towards new oil values,
indicates a serious concern.
Trending provides greater depth to the interpretation, allowing

for more relevant alarms that account for variations in operating
conditions, and providing an ability to predict and anticipate a
future sample exceeding an alarm, instead of waiting for the
alarm and having to react with greater immediacy.
The rest of this section provides useful information pertaining to

basic interpretation of the standard oil analysis tests. Please
note the alarm parameters given for each test are not meant to
be treated as absolute limits. They are mostly provided to
indicate general limits that are used before sufficient data has
been obtained to perform linear regression.
Elemental Spectroscopy
Note that this test measures soluble and suspended particulates
in the 0-5 µm range, and is essentially blind to particles larger
than ~10 µm, so gross contamination and severe wear may go
undetected. Gross contamination can be seen with particle
count testing and severe wear can be seen with Ferrous Wear
Concentration and Analytical Ferrography.
The results are separated into three categories: wear metals,

additives and contaminants.
Wear metals should be trended for significant increases, rather

than compared against an arbitrary limit that does not take into
account variables such as sampling intervals, sump size or
operating conditions.
Additives should be compared to values in the new oil or

reference column. Deviations of up to 25% are expected, based
on batch-to-batch variability and the limitations of the test. The
most common reason for a change in value greater than 25% is
mixing with another product.
Contaminants should be trended similarly to wear metals, and

increases in contaminants will frequently correlate to increases
in wear metals.
The following tables serve as a reference for potential sources of

the measured elements.
Potential Wear Metal Sources
Element Hydraulic Transmission Turbine

Airborne dirt Airborne dirt Airborne dirt
Cylinder gland Bushings Alumina media
Pump housing Clutch/Friction disc contamination
Aluminum Pumps Bearings
Thrust washers Oil cooler
Rods Roller/Taper bearings Bearings

Roller/Taper bearings Shaft coating
Chromium Spools
Bushings Bearings Bearings

Cylinder glands Bushings Oil cooler
Guides Clutch/Friction disc
Copper Oil cooler Oil cooler
Pump pistons Steering discs
Pump thrust plates Thrust washers
Bearings Bearings Bearings
Cylinder bores Brake bands Reduction gear
Gears Clutch/Friction disc Shafts
Pistons Gears
Iron Pump housing Housings
Pump vanes Power Take-Off (PTO)
Rods Pumps
Valves Shift spools
Lead Clutch/Friction disc
Pumps Bearings Bearings
Nickel Gear plating
Bearing cage Bearing cage Roller bearings
Silver Solder from coolers Solder from coolers Thrust bearings

Polyol ester catalyst Clutch Solder from coolers
Pump thrust plates Solder from coolers
Tin Solder from coolers Thrust washers
Element Compressor Engine Gearbox
Airborne dirt Airborne dirt Airborne dirt
Bearings Bearings Bushings
Block (corrosion) Block (corrosion) Grease contamination
Cylinder guides Blowers Oil Pump
Oil cooler Bushings Thrust washers
Aluminum Oil pump Oil cooler
Pistons Oil pump
Rotors Pistons
Thrust washers Thrust bearings
Wear plates
Cylinder guides Bearings Roller/Taper bearings
Rings Exhaust valves Shaft coating
Chromium Roller/Taper bearings Liners
Thrust washers Rings
Wear plates Roller/Taper bearings
Bearings (Recips) Bearings (near failure) Bushings
Rings Cam bushings Oil cooler
Roller/Taper bearings Connecting rod bearings Thrust washers
Thrust washers Governor
Wear plates Oil additive
Copper Oil cooler
Oil pump
Thrust washers
Valvetrain bushings
Wrist pin bushings
Bearings Block Bearings
Block Camshaft Gears
Camshaft Crankshaft Pinions
Cylinder Cylinder Shaft
Lobes Gears Thrust washers
Iron Oil pump Liners
Rings Oil pump
Screws Rings (cast)
Shafts Valvetrain
Wrist pins
Lead Thrust washers Thrust washers
Nickel Gear plating
Bearings Bearing cage Bearing cage
Silver Solder from coolers Solder from coolers
Wrist pin bushings
Bearings Bearings Bushings
Bushings Bushings
Piston overlay Con-rod bearings
Tin Governor
Piston overlay
Solder from coolers
Thrust washers
Potential Contaminant Sources
Element Function
Aluminum Airborne dirt (correlation ~3:1 Silicon/Aluminum), grease thickener
Barium Grease additive
Boron Coolant additive, detergent additive, oil drum cleansing agent
Calcium Fuller’s earth, dust, gypsum, hard water
Lithium Grease thickener
Magnesium Fuller’s earth, hard water
Potassium Coolant additive, fly ash
Silicon Airborne dust or dirt (as above), defoamant additive, sealant
Sodium Coolant additive, detergent or dispersant additive, airborne salt
Titanium Machinist layout paint, aerosol paint
Vanadium Residual fuel contamination (Bunker C)
Potential Additive Sources
Element Function
Barium Rust Inhibitor, detergent or dispersant additive
Boron Anti-wear additive
Calcium Detergent or dispersant additive, corrosion inhibitor
Copper Anti-wear additive
Magnesium Detergent or dispersant additive, corrosion inhibitor
Molybdenum Friction modifier
Phosphorus EP additive, anti-wear additive, corrosion inhibitor
Silicon Defoamant additive
Sodium Detergent or dispersant additive, corrosion inhibitor
Zinc Anti-wear or anti-oxidant additive, rust inhibitor, EP additive
FTIR
Infrared results must be trended from their reference values,
with degradation parameters expected to increase over time
and additive parameters expected to decrease over time.
Any sudden change in multiple parameters, particularly in the

opposite to expected direction, likely indicate a top-up with a
different product.
Particle Count
The broad approach is to first look at the ISO cleanliness code,
which represents the cumulative number of particles greater
than 4, 6 and 14 microns in the fluid.
Changes to any one code compared to the previous result is

mostly considered normal, only when all three codes increase
should the result be considered noteworthy. With optical
particle counting, the increase may be due to water or soft
contaminants, not just hard particulate.
As a rough guide, the following table provides upper thresholds

for when a particle count will receive an alarm, if one or more
codes exceeds them.
Alarm Parameter
Hydraulic System 19/17/16

Turbines 18/16/14
Centrifugal Compressor 19/17/15
Axial Compressor 18/16/14
Screw Compressor 18/16/14
Reciprocating Compressor 21/18/15
Gearbox 24/22/20
Viscosity
Viscosity should always remain in grade for the specified oil.
Deviation outside of grade indicates significant oxidation or
breakdown of the fluid, or simply mixing with another product.
⇑ An increase in viscosity may indicate:
• Increasing suspended solid material such as wear

particles, contamination, or soot
• Additions of a higher viscosity oil
• Lubricant oxidation
⇓ A decrease in viscosity may indicate:
• Contamination from water, fuels, solvents or a process

fluid
• Additions of a lower viscosity oil
• Additive shear in multigrade or High Viscosity Index
(HVI) oils
The following parameters are used to confirm products are in

grade:
Alarm Parameter (applicable for ISO VG, measured at 40°C)

>±10 % variance from grade = Marginal
>±20 % variance from grade = Critical
Alarm Parameter (applicable for SAE, measured at 100°C)

30 weight oils (0W-30, 5W-30, 10W-30, 30) are 9.3-12.5 cSt
40 weight oils (0W-40, 5W-40, 15W-40, 40) are 12.5-16.3 cSt
Acid Number
Acid Number can be measured on any product, but it cannot
necessarily be compared only to new oil values. A commonly
uttered Rule-of-thumb is to condemn an oil at double its new oil
value, however there are far too many exceptions for this to be
universally applied.
Trending should remain linear with usage, and once the AN

begins to increase faster, corrective actions should be taken.
One common cause for accelerated increases is water content,
another is an increase in operating temperature.
Alarm Parameter Alarms are based on increases from the

trend using linear regression. Some OEMs specify limits (rare).
Base Number
Base Number is a parameter only measurable on products
containing a Base Number additive (mostly engine oils), but
results should always be trended and compared to the new oil
value.
The BN is expected to decrease with increased service, however

accelerated decreases are usually caused by excessive blow-by
or an increase in operating temperature.
Alarm Parameter
50% of new oil value = Marginal
25% of new oil value = Critical
Water
Water is inherently present in all oils; therefore, a negative
crackle should never be interpreted as absolutely no water.
Positive crackle test results simply indicate a significant amount
of water is present, but the detection limit varies according to
the oil type.
The Karl Fischer titration provides an accurate quantification of

the water content, and these results can be trended for
significant increases.
Water contamination causes:

• Fluid breakdown, such as additive precipitation and oil
oxidation
• Reduced lubricating film thickness
• Corrosion
• Accelerated metal surface fatigue
Sources of water contamination:

• Heat exchanger leaks
• Seal leaks
• Condensation of humid air
• Inadequately sealed reservoir covers
Alarm Parameter 0.06% Marginal; 0.5% Critical.

Different lubricants may have different water limits.
Fuel Dilution
This test quantifies the amount of residual fuel in the oil sample,
and may not reflect total fuel contamination due to some of the
fuel being driven off by heat.
Conversely, with the heat of normal operating temperatures,
extensive idling, short trips or a recent cold start may produce
fuel content that can be misinterpreted as a mechanical issue.
Alarm Parameter
2% = Marginal
4% = Critical
Ferrous Wear Concentration

This test is not limited to particle size like elemental
spectroscopy, and therefore may not correlate with its iron
result, but even a lack of correlation can be telling.
When elemental iron is high, but ferrous wear is low, this means
that the wear debris is small and likely from normal wear
modes. When both elemental iron and ferrous wear are high,
this means the wear is progressing to an abnormal and severe
wear mode. When only ferrous wear is high, this means the
wear is severe and abnormal.
Alarm Parameter Alarms are based on change in relation to

linear regression values, static limits are secondary and vary
greatly according to machine type.
Analytical Ferrography
Due to the subjective nature of this test, it is best to trust the
interpretation of the analyst related to action to be taken.
However, remember that this test is qualitative, which means it
relies on the skill and knowledge of the ferrographic analyst.
Trace and light amounts can be considered somewhat normal

for parameters like rubbing wear and dust/dirt, but indicate
abnormal wear in most other parameters, even at these levels.
Moderate and heavy levels in any parameter should always be
considered abnormal and require corrective action.
Demulsibility
Demulsibility results are reported as a series of values, starting
with the volume (in ml) of oil, water and emulsion, and then the
time (in minutes) the sample took to reach ≤3 ml of emulsion.
A perfect result would appear as 40/40/0 (0) indicating that no

emulsion formed at all; 40/40/0 (20) still indicates no
permanent emulsion, but that it took 20 minutes before the
emulsion layer reduced to ≤3 ml.
Failing demulsibility results are often correlated against

contamination, either with another product or with microscopic
particulate.
Alarm Parameter >3 ml of emulsion after designated time

period running demulsibility test.
RPVOT
RPVOT results are best trended continuously, with the goal of
predicting the amount of time to a near-zero result. Most oils
will trend very linearly with time, other oils may experience a
sudden drop in values initially, before stabilizing for the
remaining life.
RPVOT results are expected to slowly trend downwards with

increased oil service, however they may be accelerated by
elevated water content or operating temperatures.
Alarm Parameter <25% of the new oil value.
Foaming Tendency
Foaming tendency results are reported as a series of values,
starting with the volume of foam (in ml) after 5 minutes of
blowing air through the oil, followed by the volume of foam (in
ml) after 10 minutes without air. The time (in seconds) until
total foam dispersion is also reported.
An excellent result would be like 5/0 (10), meaning only 5 ml of

foam appears under foaming conditions, and it took less than 10
seconds for total foam dispersion.
A poor result could be either due to a significant volume of foam

appearing within the first result, or an inability to achieve total
foam dispersion, even with far lesser volumes of foam.
Failing foaming tendency results are often attributable to

contamination with another fluid, either water or another
product. Increases in water content will also cause poorer
results.
Alarm Parameter >450ml or >250 seconds
RULER®
RULER® is another test that is best trended continuously, with
the goal of predicting the amount of time to a near-zero result.
Most oils will trend very linearly with time; however, they may
be accelerated by elevated water content or operating
temperatures.
Alarm Parameter
<25% of new oil value
Membrane Patch Colorimetry
With MPC, a direct correlation is made between the color and
intensity of the insoluble contaminants and oil degradation
byproducts suspended in the fluid.
Increases in the MPC results merely indicate increased

production of insoluble by-products, usually from higher
operating temperatures or hot spots, and may not necessarily
indicate greater deposition within the system.
Conversely, low MPC results, and especially a drop in MPC result

not associated with a mitigation technology, often indicate that
the insolubles are no longer in the fluid and have quite likely
deposited within the system.
For these reasons, MPC is a result that is best interpreted by

trending over time, and any sudden change warranting
corrective action.
As part of the MPC the L, a, b color values are al so documented.

The L, a, b values provide additional information on the
particular varnish degradation mode and offer clues about the
effectiveness of filtration targeting specific varnish modes. The L
value is a black to white scale, with higher values representing
higher concentrations of black particles possibly due to soot
particles, which can point to micro-dieseling, spark discharge, or
hot spots. The a value is a red to green scale, with higher values
representing a greater the danger of sludge-building corrosive
particles or diminished extreme pressure (EP) additives. Lastly,
the b value is a yellow to blue scale with higher values indicating
the more susceptible the oil is to sticky deposits.
Alarm Parameter
>23 is considered Marginal
>33 is considered Critical
Ultra-Centrifuge
Ultra-centrifuge is another method that
measures the amount of insoluble
contaminants that are suspended in the
fluid, and offers no direct interpretation of
how much varnish or other material has
deposited in the system.
Increases in the UC results merely indicate

increased production of insoluble by-
products, usually from higher operating
temperatures or hot spots, and may not
necessarily indicate greater deposition
within the system.
Conversely, low UC results, and especially a drop in MPC result

not associated with a mitigation technology, often indicate that
the insolubles are no longer in the fluid and have quite likely
deposited within the system.
For these reasons, UC is a result that is best interpreted by

trending over time, and any sudden change warranting
corrective action.
Alarm Parameter
≥5 is considered Marginal
≥7 is considered Critical
SECTION 6
Glossary of Oil Analysis Terms

Abrasive Wear
Wear due to hard particles or hard protuberances forced against and
moving along a solid surface.
Acid Number
The number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide required to neutralize
one gram of an oil sample. ASTM D664 uses a potentiometric titration;
D974 uses a color-indicator titration. (a.k.a. neutralization number)
Additive
A compound that enhances some property of, or imparts some new
property to, the base fluid. The more important types of additives include
anti-oxidants, anti-wear additives, corrosion inhibitors, viscosity index
improvers, and foam suppressants.
Adhesive Wear
Wear due to localized bonding between contacting solid surfaces leading to
material transfer between the two surfaces or loss from either surface.
Analytical Ferrography
Technique whereby particles from an oil sample deposited on a ferrograph
are identified to aid in establishing wear mode inside an oil-wetted path of
a machine.
Anti-foam Agent
One of two types of additives used to reduce foaming in petroleum
products: silicone oil to break up large surface bubbles, and various kinds of
polymers that decrease the amount of small bubbles entrained in the oils.
Anti-oxidants
A chemical additive which increases a lubricant’s oxidation resistance,
which lengthens its service and storage life.
Antistatic Additive
An additive that increases the conductivity of a hydrocarbon fuel to hasten
the dissipation of electrostatic charges during high-speed dispensing,
thereby reducing the fire/explosion hazard.
Antiwear Additives
An additive in a lubricant that reduces friction and excessive wear.
Asperities
Microscopic projections on metal surfaces resulting from normal surface-
finishing processes. Interference between opposing asperities in sliding or
rolling applications is a source of friction, and can lead to metal welding and
scoring. Ideally, the lubricating film between two moving surfaces should be
thicker than the combined height of the opposing asperities.
ASTM International
Formerly American Society for Testing Materials, a society for developing
standards for materials and test methods.
Babbitt
Any of several alloys, predominantly lead, tin, copper, antimony and
arsenic, used for the bearing surface in a plain bearing.
Bactericide
A chemical agent that helps to prevent the formation of bacteria, often
used as additives in coatings and corrosion inhibitors.
Base Number
The number of milligrams of acid required to neutralize one gram of an oil
sample. ASTM D974 uses hydrochloric acid and a color-indicator titration;
D2896 uses perchloric acid in a potentiometric titration.
Blotter Test
Technique used to identify excessive engine soot, evaluate a lubricant’s
dispersancy and detect the presence of glycol, diesel fuel and other
contaminants in diesel engine crankcase lubricants. (See Paper
Chromatography)
Brookfield Viscosity
A measure of the viscosity characteristics of a lubricant under low
temperature and low shear conditions. The apparent viscosity of oil,
usually determined by test method ASTM D2983. The apparent viscosity of
a non-Newtonian fluid is valid only for the shear rates and temperature at
which it is determined. The Brookfield viscometer provides a known rate of
shear by means of a spindle of specified configuration that rotates at a
known constant speed in the fluid. The torque imposed by fluid friction can
be converted to absolute viscosity units (centipoise) by a conversion factor
or equation.
BS&W
An acronym for the material that settles to the bottom of a storage tank,
namely bottoms, sediment and water. Laboratories sometimes quantify
and report this information when examining oil in service.
Carbon Residue
The measure of the coke forming tendency of oils at high temperatures.
Cavitation
The formation of an air or vapor pocket (or bubble) due to lowering of
pressure in a liquid, often as a result of a solid body, such as a propeller or
piston, moving through the liquid; also, the pitting or wearing away of a
solid surface as a result of the collapse of a vapor bubble. Cavitation can
occur in a hydraulic system as a result of low fluid levels that draw air into
the system, producing tiny bubbles that expand explosively at the pump
outlet, causing metal erosion and eventual pump destruction. Cavitation
can also result when reduced pressure in lubricating grease dispensing
systems forms a void, or cavity, which impedes suction and prevents the
flow of greases.
Centipoise (cP)
A dynamic viscosity measurement unit, used to report absolute viscosity.
Centistoke (cSt)
A kinematic viscosity measurement unit.
Chromatography
A process in which a chemical mixture carried by a liquid or gas is separated
into components as a result of differential distribution of the solutes as they
flow around or over a stationary liquid or solid phase.
Cloud Point
The temperature at which waxy crystals in an oil or fuel form a cloudy
appearance when cooled under standard conditions.
Condition Monitoring
Determining the condition of a machine by interpretation of measurements
taken either periodically or continuously while the machine is running.
Consistency
A basic property describing the softness or hardness of a grease, i.e., the
degree to which a grease resists deformation under the application of
force. Consistency is usually measured by means of a cone penetration test
such as ASTM D217. The consistency of a grease depends on the viscosity
of the base oil and the type and proportion of the thickener. It can also be
affected by recent agitation; to take this phenomenon into consideration,
grease is usually subjected to working (a standard churning process) prior
to measuring its penetration value.
Contaminant
Any foreign or unwanted substance that can have a negative effect on
system operation, life or reliability.
Corrosion
A chemical or electrochemical reaction between a material, usually a metal
surface, and its environment that can produce a deterioration of the
material and its properties.
Corrosion Inhibitor
An additive for protecting lubricated metal surfaces against chemical attack
by water or other contaminants. There are several types of corrosion
inhibitors. Polar compounds wet the metal surface preferentially,
protecting it with a film of oil. Other compounds may absorb water by
incorporating it in a water-in-oil emulsion so that only the oil touches the
metal surface. Another type of corrosion inhibitor combines chemically
with the metal to present a non-reactive surface.
Dark Metallo-Oxide Particles

Partially oxidized ferrous wear particles indicating high heat during
generation most likely due to lubricant starvation.
Demulsibility
The ability of a fluid that is insoluble in water to separate from water with
which it may be mixed in the form of an emulsion.
Demulsifier
An additive that promotes oil water separation in lubricants that are
exposed to water or steam.
Deposits
Oil-insoluble materials that result from oxidation and decomposition of
lube oil and contamination from external sources and engine blow-by.
These can settle out on machine or engine parts. Examples are sludge,
varnish, lacquer and carbon.
Detergent
An important component of engine oils and some industrial lubricants, such
as paper machine oils and hydraulic fluids; helps control deposits by
preventing contaminants of combustion from directly contacting metal
surfaces and, in some cases, by neutralizing acids. A detergent is usually a
metallic (commonly barium, calcium or magnesium) compound, such as a
sulfonate, phosphonate, thiophosphonate, phenate, or salicylate. Because
of its metallic composition, a detergent leaves a slight ash when the oil is
burned. A detergent is normally used in conjunction with a dispersant.
Dielectric Strength
A measure of the ability of an insulating material to withstand electric stress
(voltage) without failure. Fluids with high dielectric strength (usually
expressed in volts or kilovolts) are good electrical insulators. (ASTM D877.)
Dispersant
An additive that helps prevent deposits by holding the insoluble products of
oil oxidation and fuel combustion in suspension in the oil.
Distillation Method for Water

A method involving distilling the fluid sample in the presence of a solvent
that is miscible in the sample but immiscible in water. The water distilled
from the fluid is condensed and segregated in a specially-designed receiving
tube or tray graduated to directly indicate the volume of water distilled.
Dropping Point
The temperature at which grease passes from a semi-solid to a liquid state
as specified under ASTM D566. Considered to be temperature where
thickener system fails.
Elastohydrodynamic (EHL or EHD) Lubrication

A lubrication phenomenon occurring during elastic deformation of two
non-conforming surfaces under high load. A high load carried by a small
area (as between the ball and race of a rolling contact bearing) causes a
temporary increase in lubricant viscosity as the lubricant is momentarily
trapped between slightly deformed opposing surfaces.
Emission Spectroscopy
A method of chemical analysis that uses the intensity of light emitted from
a flame, plasma, arc, or spark at a particular wavelength to determine the
quantity of an element in a sample.
Emulsibility
The ability of a non-water-soluble fluid to form an emulsion with water.
Emulsifier
An additive that promotes the formation of a stable mixture, or emulsion,
of oil and water. Common emulsifiers are: metallic soaps, certain animal
and vegetable oils, and various polar compounds.
Emulsion
A two-phase liquid system in which small droplets of one liquid are
immiscible in, but uniformly dispersed throughout, a second, continuous
phase. Generally of a milky or cloudy appearance, emulsions may be of two
types; oil-in-water (where water is the continuous phase) and water-in-oil
(where water is the discontinuous phase). Oil-in-water emulsions are used
as cutting fluids because of the need for the cooling effect of the water.
Water-in-oil, or invert, emulsions are used where the oil, not the water,
must contact a surface - as in rust preventives, non-flammable hydraulic
fluids, and compounded steam cylinder oils (see Compounded oil); such
emulsions are sometimes referred to as invert emulsions. Emulsions are
produced by adding an emulsifier.
Extreme Pressure (EP) Additive

A lubricant additive that prevents sliding metal surfaces from seizing under
conditions of extreme pressure. At the high local temperatures associated
with metal-to-metal contact, an EP additive combines chemically with the
metal to form a surface film that prevents the welding of opposing
asperities, and the consequent scoring that is destructive to sliding surfaces
under high loads. Reactive compounds of sulfur, chlorine, or phosphorus
are used to form these inorganic films.
False Brinelling
A form of wear categorized under frictional corrosion, occurs with mild
adhesion and small amplitude oscillations.
Fatigue Wear
Wear of a solid surface caused by fracture arising from material fatigue.
Ferrography
A method of particle analysis using precision magnets to strip iron-laden
and other susceptible particles from a used lubricating oil for study; results
indicate extent of equipment wear and likelihood of imminent failure.
Direct-reading ferrography uses optical sensors to measure the density of
particles collected and the ratio of large particles to small (fatigue-related
catastrophic failure generally is characterized by generation of particles
larger than 10-15 microns). Analytical ferrography employs microscopic
and photographic evaluation of wear particles. The test provides in-depth
analysis of particle composition (e.g., steel, copper, bronze) and type of
wear (e.g., corrosion, metal-to-metal contact).
Fire Point
The temperature to which a combustible liquid must be heated so that the
released vapor will burn continuously when ignited under specified
conditions.
Flash Point
The temperature to which a combustible liquid must be heated to give off
sufficient vapor to form momentarily a flammable mixture with air when a
small flame is applied under specified conditions. (ASTM D92.)
Fretting
Small amplitude oscillatory motion, usually tangential, between two solid
surfaces in contact.
Friction
Resistance to sliding exhibited by two surfaces in contact with each other.
Basically there are two frictional properties exhibited by any surface; static
friction and kinetic friction.
FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared) Spectroscopy

A molecular analysis of lubricant where infrared light absorption is used for
assessing additive depletion, contaminant buildup (soot and incorrect oils)
and base stock degradation (oxidation, nitration and sulfation.
Fungicide
A substance that kills, prevents or retards the growth of fungi. Fungicides
and biocides are most often used with fluids like soluble oils that contain
water.
Gas Chromatography
A form of chromatography using an inert gas as the carrier medium. See
Chromatography.
Hydrolysis
Breakdown process that occurs in anhydrous hydraulic fluids as a result of
heat, water, and metal catalysts (iron, steel, copper, etc.)
Hydrolytic Stability
The ability of a lubricant to resist chemical decomposition (hydrolysis) in the
presence of water.
Hydrostatic Lubrication
A form of lubrication in which the lubricant is supplied under sufficient
external pressure to separate the opposing and static (non-moving)
surfaces by a fluid film.
Immiscible
Incapable of being mixed without separation of phases. Water and
petroleum oil are immiscible under most conditions, although they can be
made miscible with the addition of an emulsifier.
Infrared Spectroscopy
An analytical method using infrared absorption for assessing the properties
of used oil and certain contaminants suspended therein. See FTIR.
Inhibitor
An additive that improves the performance of a petroleum product through
the control of undesirable chemical reactions.
Insolubles
A test for contaminants in used lubricating oils, such as test method ASTM
D893. In this method, the oil is first diluted with pentane, causing the oil to
lose its solvency for certain oxidation resins, and also causing the
precipitation of such extraneous materials as dirt, soot, and wear metals.
These contaminants are called pentane insolubles. The pentane insolubles
may then be treated with toluene, which dissolves the oxidation resins
(benzene was formerly used). The remaining solids are called toluene
insolubles. The difference in weight between the pentane insolubles and
the toluene insolubles is called insoluble resins.
Interfacial Tension (IFT)

The energy per unit area present at the boundary of two immiscible liquids.
It is usually expressed in dynes/cm (ASTM D971.)
ISO Cleanliness Code (ISO 4406)

A coding system used in defining the quantity of solid particles in the fluid
used in a given hydraulic fluid power system. ISO Codes relate to the ≥4
µm, ≥6 µm and ≥14 µm particle size ranges.
ISO Viscosity Grade

A designation corresponding to the mid-point of a viscosity range expressed
in centistokes (cSt) at 40°C. For example, a lubricant with an ISO grade of
32 has a viscosity within the range of 28.8-35.2 cSt, the mid-point of which
is 32.
Karl Fischer Titration

A titration method in analytical chemistry that uses coulometric or
volumetric titration to determine trace amounts of water in a sample.
Previously ASTM D1744, now commonly ASTM D6304.
Kinematic Viscosity
A measure of viscosity derived from the time taken for a fixed volume of oil
2
to flow through a capillary tube. Common units are mm /s or centistokes
(cSt).
Lacquer
A deposit resulting from the oxidation and polymerization of fuels and
lubricants when exposed to high temperatures. Similar to, but harder, than
varnish.
Laminar (reworked) Particles

Particles are large and thin and are most likely due to thicker wear particles
having been squeezed through a rolling contact.
Micrometer (µm)
See Micron.
Micron
A unit of length equal to one millionth of a meter or 39 millionths of an inch
(.000039"). Contaminant size is usually described in microns. A micron is
also known as a micrometer, and expressed as µm.
Microscopy
A method of particle counting which measures or sizes particles using an
optical microscope.
Molybdenum Disulfide
A black, lustrous powder (MoS2) that serves as a dry-film lubricant in
certain high-temperature and high-vacuum applications. It is also used in
the form of pastes to prevent scoring when assembling press-fit parts, and
as an additive to impart residual lubrication properties to oils and greases.
Molybdenum disulfide is often called moly or molysulfide.
Neutralization Number
A number used as a measure of the acidic or basic constituents. This term
is ambiguous and now obsolete. (See Acid Number and Base Number)
Nitration
Nitration products are formed during the fuel combustion process in
internal combustion engines. Most nitration products are formed when an
excess of oxygen is present. These products are highly acidic, form deposits
in combustion areas and rapidly accelerate oxidation.
Oxidation
The chemical combination of a substance with oxygen. All petroleum
products are subject to oxidation, with resultant degradation of their
composition and performance. The process is accelerated by heat, light
metal catalysts (e.g., copper), and the presence of water, acids, or solid
contaminants.
Oxidation Inhibitor
An additive that increases oxidation resistance, thereby lengthening the
service or storage life of a lubricant; also called anti-oxidant. An oxidation
inhibitor may work in one of these ways: (1) by combining with and
modifying peroxides (initial oxidation products) to render them harmless,
(2) by decomposing the peroxides, or (3) by rendering an oxidation catalyst
inert.
Paper Chromatography
A method which involves placing a drop of fluid on a permeable piece of
paper and noting the development and nature of the halos, or rings,
surrounding the drop through time. The origins of this test can be traced to
the 1940s, when railroads used the "blotter spot" tests.
Particle count
A test quantifying the number of particles present greater than a particular
micron size per unit volume of fluid, often stated as particles per milliliter.
Patch test
A method by which a specified volume of fluid is filtered through a
membrane filter of known pore structure. All particulate matter in excess of
an "average size," determined by the membrane characteristics, is retained
on its surface. Thus, the membrane is discolored by an amount
proportional to the particulate level of the fluid sample. Visually comparing
the test filter with standard patches of known contamination levels
determines acceptability for a given fluid.
pH
A measure of alkalinity or acidity in water and water-containing fluids. pH
can be used to determine the corrosion-inhibiting characteristic in water-
based fluids. Typically, pH > 8.0 is required to inhibit corrosion of iron and
ferrous alloys in water-based fluids.
Pour Point
The lowest temperature under which an oil will flow when cooled under
prescribed conditions.
Pour Point Depressant
An additive which retards the adverse effects of wax crystallization, and
lowers the pour point.
PPM
Parts per million is used to express concentration, generally by weight, as in
mg/kg.
Rolling Contact Fatigue

Damage process in a triboelement subjected to repeated rolling contact
loads, involving the initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks in or under
the contact surface, eventually culminating in surface pits or spalls.
Rust Inhibitor
A type of corrosion inhibitor used in lubricants to protect surfaces against
rusting.
Rust Prevention Test

A test for determining the ability of an oil to aid in preventing the rusting of
ferrous parts in the presence of water.
Saturation Level
The amount of water that can dissolve in a fluid.
Saybolt Universal Viscosity (SUV) or Saybolt Universal Seconds, (SUS)

The time in seconds required for 60 cubic centimeters of a fluid to flow
through the orifice of the Standard Saybolt Universal Viscometer at a given
temperature under specified conditions. (ASTM D88.)
Spectrographic Analysis
A technique for detecting and quantifying metallic elements resulting from
wear, contamination, or additives. The oil sample is energized to make
each element emit or absorb a quantifiable amount of energy, which
indicates the element's concentration in the oil. (See Emission
Spectroscopy)
Static Friction
The force just sufficient to initiate relative motion between two bodies
under load. The value of the static friction at the instant relative motion
begins is termed break-away friction.
Sulfated Ash
The ash content of fresh, compounded lubricating oil as determined by
ASTM D874. Indicates level of metallic additives in the oil.
Surfactant
Surface-active agent that reduces interfacial tension of a liquid. A
surfactant used in a petroleum oil may increase the oil's affinity for metals
and other materials, or help reduce foam stability.
Tackifier (Tackiness Additive or Agent)

A high molecular weight, fluid polymer added to lubricants to improve
adhesiveness.
Thermal Stability
The ability of a fuel or lubricant to resist oxidation under high temperature
operating conditions.
Thermography
The use of infrared thermography whereby temperatures of a wide variety
of targets can be measured remotely and without contact. This is
accomplished by measuring the infrared energy radiating from the surface
of the target and converting this measurement to an equivalent surface
temperature.
Varnish
A hard coating formed from oil oxidation products, that bakes on to
surfaces during high-temperature operation of automotive engines and
industrial machinery. Varnish can accelerate cylinder wear. Varnish
formation can be reduced with the use of a detergent-dispersant and an
oxidation inhibitor in the oil.
Viscometer or Viscosimeter
An apparatus for determining the viscosity of a fluid.
Viscosity
A measurement of a fluid's resistance to flow. The common metric unit of
absolute viscosity is the poise, which is defined as the force in dynes
required to move a surface one square centimeter in area past a parallel
surface at a speed of one centimeter per second, with the surfaces
separated by a fluid film one centimeter thick. Since viscosity varies
inversely with temperature, its value is meaningless until the temperature
at which it is determined is reported.
Viscosity, Absolute
The ratio of the shearing stress to the shear rate of a fluid. It is usually
expressed in centipoise.
Viscosity, Kinematic
The absolute viscosity divided by the density of the fluid. It is usually
expressed in centistokes.
Viscosity, SUS
Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS), which is the time in seconds for 60
milliliters of oil to flow through a standard orifice at a given temperature.
(ASTM D88)
Viscosity Index (VI)

An empirical, unitless number indicating the effect of temperature on the
kinematic viscosity of an oil. Liquids change viscosity with temperature,
becoming less viscous when heated; the higher the VI of an oil, the lower its
change in viscosity with temperature. The VI of an oil -- with known
viscosity at 40°C -- is determined by comparing the oil with two standard
oils having an arbitrary VI of 0 and 100, respectively, and both having the
same viscosity at 100°C as the test oil.
Viscosity Index Improver

A polymeric additive designed to increase the viscosity index of an oil. Also
known as a viscosity modifier.
ZDDP
An antiwear additive found in many types of hydraulic and lubricating
fluids. Zinc dialkyldithiophosphate.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section 1: Introduction ....................................................................... 2

Part of this comprehension also comes from knowing the basic

Once the test itself is understood, in general, the results are

This book provides guidance regarding all of these principles.

Basic Oil Analysis Tests

Oil analysis is a quick and easy way to monitor the health of

Lubricating oil circulating inside any piece of equipment over a

By identifying and measuring these particles, an indication of

Fluid Properties. The assessment of lubricant condition checks

Contamination. Contaminant ingress from the surrounding

Wear Debris. An unhealthy machine generates wear particles at

The following table provides an overview of which tests produce

Fluid Properties Contamination Wear Debris

Significance. Elemental spectroscopy assists decision makers in

Advantages. Very repeatable, proven technology.

Disadvantages. Cannot detect particles greater than 10 microns

Application. All industrial lubricants.

Operating Principle. Infrared radiation is passed through an oil

Significance. Molecular analysis of lubricants and hydraulic

• Oxidation. At elevated temperatures, oil exposed to

Advantages. Provides information on the overall degradation

Disadvantages. Imprecise quantification of water and glycol levels.

Applications. All industrial lubricants.

Operating Principle. Fluid Flow

Pore blockage particle counters are not affected by air bubbles

Advantages. Excellent for “clean” systems (turbines, hydraulics

Disadvantages. Abnormal wear can be masked on systems with

Application. Suitable where equipment manufacturer provides

Number of Particles per ml

TestOil Particle Count 40,000 80,000 23

Operating Principle. (ASTM D445) A sample is brought up to

Significance. Viscosity is measured at 40°C for industrial

Description. Organic acids, a by-product of oil oxidation,

Applications. All lubricating systems where extended drain

Advantages. A sudden or significant rise in acid number is an

TestOil also utilizes FTIR

Significance. The amount of reserve alkalinity in a lubricant is

Applications. Diesel, gasoline and some LPG engine oils.

Advantages. A sudden or significant drop in base number is an

Operating Principle. A drop of oil is placed on a hotplate that

Significance. A crackle test is a good screening test to use to

Advantages. This is a very low cost test. It is a good way to

Disadvantages. The crackle test can generally only detect

Applications. All lubricants that are non-water based.

The limitations of the crackle test were documented in a recent

Mineral Gear 62 240-1190 240 1190

Synthetic Gear 86 100-460 100 460

AW Hydraulic 86 320-750 320 750

Polyol Ester 36 340-1830 340 1830

Phosphate Ester 37 450-1140 450 1140

Engine 40 320-580 320 580

Wind Turbine (Optigear) 35 780-1070 780 1070

Combined 493 100-1830 100 1830

Significance. Water seriously damages the lubricating

Advantages. Accurate to 0.001%. Quantifies emulsified,

Disadvantages. Sulfur, acetones and ketones can sometimes

Applications. All lubricants, especially in systems sensitive to

Operating Principle. A sample

Significance. Fuel dilution in engine oils is measured by this

Application. Diesel and gasoline engine oils.

Operating Principle. A wear

Significance. This test gives a direct measure of the amount of