Superconductivity

Chapter 5: Superconductivity

 History

 Introduction of Superconductivity

 Properties of superconductor

Electrical Resistance/ Resistivity

Effect of magnetic field

Impurity effect

Isotopic mass effect

Pressure/ Stress effect

Critical Current Density

Persistent Current

Meissner effect

 Mechanism of Superconductivity : BCS Theory

 Penetration depth : Magnetic field

 Josephson's junction and its application

 Application of superconductors

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 Superconductivity

History
 Superconductivity was discovered in 1911 by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, the Dutch
physicist known for his research in to phenomena at extremely low temperature.
 In 1908, Onnes had become the first person to liquefy helium.
 He was investigating the electrical properties of various substances at liquid helium
temperature (4.2o K), when he noticed that the resistivity of the mercury dropped down
abruptly at 4.2 K to a value below the resolution of his instruments.
 In 1933, W. Meissner and R. Oschenfeld discover that a metal cooled into the
superconducting state in a weak magnetic field expels the magnetic field from its interior.

Figure 1: Resistance of mercury with respect to temperature.

Introduction to Superconductivity
 Superconductivity is a phenomena observed in certain metals, alloys and ceramics in
which electrical current flows without any resistance for a long time. It is observed when
material is cooled below certain temperature known as “Critical Temperature”.
Superconductors
 Superconductors are the materials which has almost zero resistance for the electrical
current, when it is cooled below certain temperature known as critical temperature.
 Eg: Mercury (Hg), Zinc (Zn), Vanadium (V), Niobium (Nb), Aluminum (Al), Cadmium
(Cd), Lithium (Li), FeSe Cupates superconductors, etc…

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 Superconductivity

Critical Temperature (TC)

 It is a temperature below which material’s electrical resistivity drops down about to zero
or material will exists in its superconductor state. It is also called transition temperature”.

Residual
Resistivity

Figure 2: Resistivity vs. Temperature for normal conductor and superconductor.

 The above graph shows that the resistivity of the normal metal decreases gradually/ slowly
with respect to temperature.
 Whereas, the resistivity of the superconductor drops down suddenly as it reaches the critical
temperature (TC).
 At TC or below TC superconductors remains in its superconducting state (almost zero
resistance).
Properties of Superconductors
1) Electrical Resistance / Resistivity
 The equation of the resistivity is given below:
m
ρ=
ne τ
Where m = mass of electrons
n = density of the electrons (free electrons)
e = Charge of electrons
τ = relaxation time (time between two collisions)

 From above equation, when temperature increases, τ decreases, hence ρ increases. In other
words, we can say that when temperature increases, vibrations of electrons increases which

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 Superconductivity

results in the less relaxation time between two collisions, due to which electrical resistivity of
the superconductor increases.

T ↑→ τ↓→ ρ ↑

2) Effect of Magnetic field

 When a superconductor is placed in a magnetic field below its transition temperature TC,
it will convert in to normal state from its superconducting state.
 “The minimum magnetic field at which superconductivity of superconductor destroys is
called critical magnetic field (HC).”

T
H = H ( ) 1−
T
where HC(0) is critical field at 0K.

Figure 3: Magnetic field with respect to temperature for superconductor materials.

3) Effect of Impurity.
 When impurities were added to the superconductor, its superconductivity does not lost,
but the value of TC lower down.
4) Isotope effect.

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 Superconductivity

 The value of critical temperature TC of superconductor varies with isotopic mass. The
variation of TC with its isotopic mass is known as isotopic effect. The relation between
isotopic mass and critical temperature TC can be given by:

1
∝
√

 {*Isotopes: Isotopes are the chemical element which has same number of protons but
different number of neutrons/ nucleon. OR Isotopes are the chemical element having
similar atomic number but different atomic mass number.}
5) Effect of Pressure and Stress.
 Some of the materials are found to exhibits superconductivity when pressure is increased
on them. On increasing the pressure, lattice vibrations are reduced and due to those,
electrons can move freely, hence resistance decreases.
 Cesium (Cs) is found to exhibit superconductivity at TC = 1.5K under pressure of 110K
Bar.

6) Critical Current Density (JC).

 When current through the superconductor exceeds critical current density (JC), its
superconductivity will disappear. This occurs because when current passes through the
sample it generates magnetic field, which at sufficiently high current density, exceeds the
critical magnetic field (HC) value. At this point magnetic field lines start to penetrate
sample and hence superconductor will transit in its normal state.
 Therefore critical current density can be defined as the maximum current through the
superconducting material without destroying superconductivity.
 Critical current density is a function of a temperature. As sample’s temperature reduced it
can carry more current.
 Consider a thin, long cylindrical superconductor wire of radius r, the relation between J C
and HC is given by:
I = 2πrH
 Similarly, the relation between JC and IC is given by:
I
J =
A

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 Superconductivity

 where A is the cross section area of the superconductor.

2
=

2
=

7) Persistent Current
 When current flow passes through superconducting ring, at a temperature equal to or less
than the TC value, it is observed that the current flowing through the material without any
significant loss in it.
 “This steady current flow of current in a superconductor ring without any potential
driving force is called persistent current.”
8) Meissner Effect.
 Meissner effect was discovered by W. Meissner and R. Ochsenfeld in Germany in
1933. It basically explains the effect of applied magnetic field on a superconductor
material. When superconducting material is placed in a magnetic field above critical
magnetic field (H> HC) at room temperature, magnetic field lines penetrate through the
sample as shown in figure (a).

 When the temperature is lowered below TC, and magnetic field H <HC, superconducting
material found to oppose all the magnetic field lines penetrating through it as shown in
figure (b). “The total expulsion of all the magnetic field lines by a superconducting
material is called Meissner effect”

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 Superconductivity

 [Lenz’s Law:- When an emf is generated by a change in magnetic flux according to

Faraday’s Law the polarity of the induced emf is such that it produces a current whose
magnetic field opposes the change which produces it.]
 This process occurs due to generation of surface current, which in turns result in the
magnetization M within the superconductor. Hence, the induced magnetization and
applied field are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, and hence they cancel each
other within the entire material. Therefore below TC a superconductor is a perfectly
diamagnetic substance i.e χm = −1.
 Meissner effect is exhibited by the superconducting materials only when the applied field
is less than HC.
 Prove that χm (Magnetic Susceptibility) is −1 for superconductors.
= ( + )
 From figure 2, for superconductor B = 0, as it is in superconducting state because H < H c
and T ≤TC)
( + )= 0
 But ≠ 0 (It has a value 4π × 10 H/m)
+ = 0
= −

= −1

= −1
 Thus, superconductors are perfectly diamagnetic materials.

Three Important Factors of Superconductors

 Critical Magnetic Field (HC)
 Critical Temperature (TC)
 Critical Current Density (JC)
 For a material to be in a superconducting state, it is necessary to have all the above
mentioned factors below their critical values.
 The values of the HC and JC are maximum when T = 0K, where as higest value of TC
occurs when H and J are at zero value.

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 In the below graph, the material is in a superconducting state within the surface, and in
normal state outside the surface. So it’s called “Critical Surface”.

Types of Superconductors
 Type I superconductors are those superconductors which loose their superconductivity very easily
or abruptly when placed in the external magnetic field. As you can see from the graph of intensity
of magnetization (M) versus applied magnetic field (H), when the Type I superconductor is
placed in the magnetic field, it suddenly or easily looses its superconductivity at critical magnetic
field (Hc) (point A).

 After Hc, the Type I superconductor will become conductor.

 Type I superconductors are also known as soft superconductors because of this reason
that is they loose their superconductivity easily.
 These are usually made up of pure metals. Type I superconductors perfectly
obey Meissner effect.
 Example of Type I superconductors: Hg, Pb, Zn
 Due to the low critical magnetic field, type-I superconductors have limited technical
applications.
 Type II superconductors are those superconductors which loose their superconductivity
gradually but not easily or abruptly when placed in the external magnetic field. As you
can see from the graph of intensity of magnetization (M) versus applied magnetic field

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 Superconductivity

(H), when the Type II superconductor is placed in the magnetic field, it gradually looses
its superconductivity. Type II superconductors start to loose their superconductivity at
lower critical magnetic field (HC1) and completely loose their superconductivity at upper
critical magnetic field (HC2).
 The state between the lower critical magnetic field (HC1) and upper critical magnetic field
(HC2) is known as vortex state or intermediate state.
 After HC2, the Type II superconductor will become normal conductor.
 Due to the high critical magnetic field, type-II superconductors have wider technical
applications.

 Type II superconductors are also known as hard superconductors because of this reason
that is they loose their superconductivity gradually but not easily.
 Type II superconductors obey Meissner effect but not completely.
 These are usually made up of alloys. Example of Type II superconductors: NbTi, Nb3Sn
 Application of Type II superconductors: Type II superconductors are used for strong field
superconducting magnets.
Mechanism of Superconductivity – BCS Theory
 [(1) Fermions: Atoms are made of fermions, but themselves may be fermions and
bosons. Fermion is a name given to a particle with a odd half integer spin. Electrons,
protons, neutrons are fermions. (2) Bosons: Bosons are those particles which have an
integer spin.]

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 Superconductivity

 In 1957, Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer (BCS) proposed a theory that explained the
microscopic origins of superconductivity, and could quantitatively predict the properties
of superconductors.
 Mathematically, BCS theory is complex, but relies on an earlier 'discovery' by Cooper
(1956), who showed that the ground state of a material is unstable with respect to pairs of
'bound' electrons.
 These pairs are known as Cooper pairs and are formed by electron-phonon interactions -
an electron in the cation lattice will distort the lattice around it, creating an area of greater
positive charge density around itself.
 Another electron at some distance in the lattice is then attracted to this charge distortion
(phonon) - the electron-phonon interaction.
 The electrons are thus indirectly attracted to each other and form a Cooper pair - an
attraction between two electrons mediated by the lattice which creates a 'bound' state of
the two electrons.

 In an equilibrium condition, a balance between attraction and repulsion is established and

the two electrons combine to form a cooper pair.
 At normal temperatures, the attractive force is too small and pairing of electrons does not
take place.
 However at lower temperature such pairing is energetically advantageous.
 In superconductors dense cloud of cooper pairs forms collective state & motion of all the
copper pairs is correlated.
 Thus, the superconducting state is an ordered state of conduction electron.

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 Superconductivity

 The BCS theory also explains the isotope effect, in which the temperature at which
superconductivity appears is reduced if a heavier atom of the elements is replaced by the
parent atom.

 The electrons of a cooper pair have a lower energy than two unpaired electrons. The
theory predicts the existence of an energy gap between the ground state and first excited
state.
 The energy gap represents the energy required to break up a cooper pair.
 Hence, larger energy gaps correspond to more stable superconductors.
 According to BCS theory, the energy gap at 0 K is:
Eg(0) = 2Δ ~ 3.52kTc

E E

Δ
Δ

Advantages:

 Provides an explanation of the superconductivity of Type I superconductors.

 Explains superconductivity within the realms of classical mechanics.
Disadvantages:
 Does not explain the superconductivity of Type II superconductors.
 Does not predict the effects of superconductivity.

Penetration Depth (London Penetration Depth)

 As discussed in the Meissner effect that one of the conditions of the superconducting state is
that Magnetic flux density (B) = 0 inside the superconductors that is the magnetic flux cannot
penetrate inside the superconductor. But experimentally it is not so.
 The magnetic flux does not suddenly drop to zero inside the surface. The phenomenon of
flux penetration inside the superconductors was explained by H. London and F. London.

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 Superconductivity

 Magnetic field when applied to the superconductor material, the applied field does not
suddenly drop to zero at the surface. The field decays exponentially according to formula.

H(x) = H(0)e

 Where H(0) is the field applied at the surface at x = 0 and x is the distance from the surface.
The length λ is called “London Penetration Depth”.
 London Penetration Depth is the effective depth to which a magnetic field penetrates a
superconductor.
 It is independent of frequency of magnetic field but it depends on temperature strongly.
 The temperature dependence of λ is given by the relation

(0)
( )=

1−

 where λ(T) and λ(0) are the penetration depth at T and 0 K.

 From above equation one can see that λ increase with the increase in temperature and at
critical temperature it becomes infinite.
 At T = TC the material goes into the normal state, hence magnetic field penetrates the whole
specimen.
Josephson Junction & its applications.
 In 1962 Josephson predicted that cooper pairs could tunnel through an insulating layer, which
separates two superconductors.
 The superconductor – insulator – superconductor layer constitute the Josephson junction as
shown in figure.
 The insulating layer is of the order of 1nm thickness.
 Josephson predicted that the tunneling can occur without any resistance, hence give rise to
direct current when the voltage applied across the junction is zero and alternating current
when the applied voltage is a DC voltage.

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 Superconductivity

The dc Josephson Effect

 Two superconductors separated by a thick insulating layer, say 10 nm thickness, are two
independent superconductors without any joint properties.
 When the insulator layer is thin say 1 nm, they become a system of coupled conductors.
 The cooper pairs tunnel through barrier as a single unit.
 Consider a Josephson junction consisting of two superconducting metal films separated by
thin oxide barrier of 10-20 Angstrom. Let it be connected in a circuit as shown in figure.
 The cooper pair in a superconductor can be represented by a wave function, which is same
for all cooper pairs.
 The cooper pairs tunnel from one side of the junction to the other side easily.
 The effect of the insulating layer is that it introduces a phase difference between the wave
function of cooper pairs on other side.
 Because of this phase difference, a supper current appears across the junction even though
the applied voltage is zero.
 This is known as dc Josephson Effect.
 The super current through the junction is given by :
Is = IC sin Φ0
 Where Φ0 is the phase difference between the wave function and Ic is the critical current at
zero voltage condition.

The ac Josephson Junction Effect

 If we apply a dc voltage across the Josephson junction, it introduces an additional phase on

cooper pairs during tunneling.

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 Superconductivity

 As a result an outstandingly new phenomenon will be observed. The dc voltage generates an

alternating current I given by

I = IC sin (∅0 + Δ∅0)

S1 S2

 Because of the dc voltage V applied across the barrier, the energies of cooper pair on both
sides differ in energy by 2eV.
 Using the quantum mechanical calculations, it can be shown that

2eV
Δ∅ = 2πt
h
2eV
= I sin ∅ + 2πt
h

 The current given in above equation represents the alternating current with frequency

2eV
υ=
h

 Above equation shows that a photon of frequency υ is emitted or absorbed when cooper pair
cross the junction.
 Thus, when a dc voltage is applied across the Josephson junction, an ac current is produced
by the junction. This is known as ac Josephson Effect.

SQUID: Josephson junctions are used in sensitive magnetometer called SQUID – Super
Conducting Quantum Interference Device.

 It is formed by connecting two Josephson junction in parallel.

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 Superconductivity

 When the current passed into this arrangement, it splits flowing across the two opposite arm.
The current through the circuit will have a periodicity which is very sensitive to the magnetic
flux passing normally through the closed circuit.
 As a result very small magnetic flux can be detected with this device.
 It can be used to measure voltages as small as 10−15 V and magnetic field as small as 10−21T.
 It is used in measuring rock magnetism and continental drift.
 The human brain generates magnetic fields of about 10−14wb/m2, to detect them SQUID are
used in brain imaging.

Applications of Superconductors
1. Superconducting Magnet:
 When current flows through a coil it generates magnetic fields.
 If the coil is replaced by a superconductor, it generates large magnetic fields.
 In the conventional high field electromagnets, the effect of joule heating is major problem,
while in superconductors, current flow without resistive loss and joule heating.
2. Diagnostic equipments:
 High magnetic fields are required in many areas of research. Superconducting solenoids
produce strong magnetic fields, which are small in size.
 It does not need either high power supplies or the means of removal of joule heating.
 The development of superconductor has improved the field of MRI, as a superconducting
magnet can be smaller and more efficient than an equivalent conventional magnet.
3. Magnetic Levitation:

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 Superconductivity

 “It is the process by which an object is suspended above another object with no other
support, but magnetic fields”.
 In this method magnetic levitation occurs when superconductor is placed in an external
magnetic field.
 Due to Meissner effect, the magnetic field lines are opposed or repelled by superconducting
materials, which produces levitation.
 Maglev train is the example of this concept in which the train float on the guide way without
contact.
 Two types of maglev trains are available. Electromagnetic suspension uses the attractive
force between the magnets present on the train sides, underside and on the guide way to
levitate the train.
4. Cryotrons
 The application of a magnetic field greater than its critical magnetic field changes the
superconducting state to normal state and removal of magnetic field brings back to
superconducting state.
 This fact is used in developing the cryotron switches.
5. Power Transmission – Low Loss Line
 The most obvious application of superconductors is in power transmission.
 If the national electric grid is made of superconducting wires rather than aluminum, there
would be no need to transform the electricity to a higher voltage and than back down again.
6. Low Loss transformers and Electrical Machines
 Superconducting coils in transformers and electrical machines generate much more stronger
magnetic fields than magnetic circuits employing ferromagnetic materials.
 The normal eddy current losses and hysteresis losses will not be present in the
superconducting device and hence the size of the motors and generators will change
drastically.

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