Modelling and

Applications in
Mathematics Education
New ICMI Study Series IKj
VOLUME 10
Published under the auspices of the International Commission on
Mathematical Instruction under the general editorship of

Michele Artigue, President Bernard R. Hodgson, Secretary-General

The titles published in this series are listed at the end of this volume.
Werner Blum
Peter L. Galbraith
Hans-Wolfgang Henn
Mogens Niss
(Editors)

Modelling and
Applications in
Mathematics Education

ith
The 14^^ ICMI Study

^ Spri
ringer
Werner Blum Hans-Wolfgang Henn
University of Kassel/ Germany University of Dortmund/ Germany

Peter L. Galbraith Mogens Niss

The University of Queensland/ Australia Roskilde University/ Denmark

Library of Congress Control Number: 2006932713

ISBN-13: 978-0-387-29820-7
ISBN-10: 0-387-29820-7

e-lSBN-13: 978-0-387-29822-1
e-lSBN-10: 0-387-29822-3

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TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

whom and for what purpose?

3.2.3 TORULFPALM 201
Features and impact of the authenticity of appHed mathe-
matical school tasks
3.2.4 RALPH SCHWARZKOPF 209
Elementary modelling in mathematics lessons: The inter-
play between "real-world" knowledge and "mathematical
structures"

3.3 MODELLING COMPETENCIES 217

3.3.0 BRIAN GREER & LiEVEN VERSCHAFFEL 219

Modelling compentencies - overview
3.3.1 HERBERT HENNING & MIKE KEUNE 225
Levels of modelling competencies
3.3.2 MIHAELA SINGER 233
Modelling both complexity and abstraction: A paradox?
3.3.3 DIRK DE BOCK, WIM VAN DOOREN & DIRK JANSSENS 241
Studying and remedying students' modelling competen-
cies: Routine behaviour or adaptive expertise
3.3.4 KEN HOUSTON 249
Assessing the "phases" of mathematical modelling
3.3.5 ZALMAN USISKIN 257
The arithmetic operations as mathematical models

3.4 APPLICATIONS & MODELLING FOR MATHEMATICS 265

3.4.0 ERIC MuLLER & HUGH BURKHARDT 267

Applications and modelling for mathematics - overview
3.4.1 MALCOLM SWAN, ROSS TURNER & CAROLINE YOON, WITH 275
ERIC MULLER
The roles of modelling in learning mathematics
3.4.2 LYNN ARTHUR STEEN & Ross TURNER WITH HUGH 285
BURKHARDT
Developing mathematical literacy
Chapter 3.3.1
LEVELS OF MODELLING COMPETENCIES

Herbert Henning and Mike Keune

Department of Mathematics, Otto-von-Guericke Universitdt Magdeburg, Germany, Email:
herbert.henning@mathematik.uni-magdeburg.de / Okumenisches Domgymnasium
Magdeburg, Germany, Email: keune@domgymnasium-magdeburg.de

Abstract: The concept of a competence-oriented approach towards modelling is exam-

ined and a level-oriented description of modelling competencies introduced.
The characteristic abilities associated with each level are listed and some illus-
trative examples are provided. The level-oriented description is related to the
concept of mathematical literacy and briefly compared with other descriptions
of modelling competence.

1. COMPETENCE-ORIENTED APPROACH
In this paper we follow Weinert's (2001) definition of competence as the
sum of available or leamable abilities and skills together with willingness to
solve upcoming problems and to act responsibly and critically concerning
the solution. Klieme et al. (2003), reporting on the development of national
educational standards in the Federal Republic of Germany, suggest that we
expect education, through the learning processes involved, to provide indi-
viduals with the abilities necessary to act independently and responsibly in
society.
If you look at the teaching and learning of modelling there are at least
two possible approaches. One approach aims at describing necessary abili-
ties, skills and attitudes of students. Results gained from this approach are
called component descriptions. On the other hand, the examination of com-
petencies in terms of complexity of modelling processes results in level de-
scriptions. Klieme et al. (2003, p. 61) call these two types of description
"Komponentenmodelle" and "Stufenmodelle". Here we follow these distinc-
226 Chapter 3.3.1

tions between a list of abilities, skills and attitudes (components) and the ex-
amination of different levels of these abilities, skills and attitudes, consider-
ing these two perspectives as complementary means for the description of
modelling competencies.

2. COMPONENT-ORIENT DESCRIPTIONS OF
MODELLING COMPETENCIES
Following a definition of the term modelling competences by MaaB
(2004), we include in the term modelling competences those abilities, skills,
attitudes that are important for the modelling process and the willingness of
students to deploy them. Similarly, Blum (2002) defined modelling compe-
tence as the ability to structure, mathematize, interpret and solve problems
and, in addition, the ability to work with mathematical models, validate the
models, analyze them critically and assess models and their results, commu-
nicate the models and observe and self-adjustingly control the modelling
process.

3, LEVEL-ORIENTED DESCRIPTION OF MODEL-

LING COMPETENCIES
Here we introduce a level-oriented description of the development of
modelling competencies, characterized in three levels:

Level 1: Recognition and understanding of modelling

Level 2: Independent modelling
Level 3: Meta-reflection on modelling

Competence, as a theoretical construct, cannot be observed directly. One

can only observe students' behaviour and actions as they solve problems, for
example. Competence is understood here as a measurable variable, in the
sense that level of competence can be inferred by observing the behaviour of
students.
In a pilot study (Henning & Keune, 2004; Henning et al., 2004; Keune et
al., 2004) students' behaviour was observed as they worked on modelling
problems, with the goal of reaching conclusions concerning their levels of
modelling competencies. The theoretical assumption here was that at the first
level procedures and methods can be recognized and understood, as a pre-
requisite to being able to independently solve problems at the second level.
3.3.1. LEVELS OF MODELLING COMPETENCIES 227

Conscious solving of problems in the sense of this paper requires, accord-

ingly, knowledge of the procedure. Furthermore, the authors make the as-
sumption that meta-reflection on modelling would at the very least require
both familiarity with modelling and personal experience.
Within this perspective the levels of modelling competencies could be
considered as one dimension of at least three dimensions in which a model-
ling activity takes place, the other two being level of complexity (contexts,
methods, technical skills), and educational level.

4. CHARACTERISTIC ABILITIES
Level 1 - Recognize and understand modelling
Characterized by the abilities to recognize and describe the modelling
process, and to characterize, distinguish, and localize phases of the model-
ling process.
Level 2 - Independent modelling
Characterized by the abilities to analyze and structure problems, abstract
quantities, adopt different perspectives, set up mathematical models, work
on models, interpret results and statements of models, and validate models
and the whole process.
Pupils who have reached this second level are able to solve a problem in-
dependently. Whenever the context or scope of the problem changes, then
pupils must be able to adapt their model or to develop new solution proce-
dures in order to accommodate the new set of circumstances that they are
facing.
Level 3 - Meta-reflection on modelling
Characterized by the abilities to critically analyze modelling, formulate
the criteria of model evaluation, reflect on the purposes of modelling, and
reflect on the application of mathematics.
At this third level of competency, the overall concept of modelling is
well understood. Furthermore, the ability to critically judge and recognize
significant relationships has been developed. Consideration concerning the
part played by models within various scientific areas of endeavour as well as
their utilization in science in general is present. This implies that finished
models are examined and any inferences drawn from them evaluated
(Jablonka, 1996), while at the same time criteria for model evaluation are
scrutinized (Henning & Keune, 2002).
228 Chapter 3.3.1

5. MATHEMATICAL LITERACY AND MODEL-

LING COMPETENCIES

The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) gives a

precise definition of the term mathematical literacy as "an individual's ca-
pacity to identify and understand the role that mathematics plays in the
world, to make well-founded mathematical judgements and to engage in
mathematics, in ways that meet the needs of that individual's current and
future life as a constructive, concerned and reflective citizen." (Organization
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 1999, p. 41). The
concept of mathematical literacy connects the development of mathematical
structures with the treatment of realistic tasks. This connection can be con-
sidered as analyzing, assimilating, interpreting and validating a problem - in
short, modelling. Within this perspective modelling competencies form a
part of mathematical literacy and the examination of modelling competen-
cies are helpful in clarifying the mathematical literacy of students.
For example, in the work of Haines et al. (2001) a component-oriented
approach to modelling skills is applied. They distinguish between modelling
competences and skills based on the phases of the modelling process, which
also affords a framework for assessment (Houston, this volume, Chapter
3.1.4).
Based on the work of Niss (1999, 2003), Blomh0j & Jensen (this volume,
Chapter 2.2) characterize modelling competences within three dimensions.
According to them, the competences acquired by students can vary in terms
of "technical level", "radius of action" and "degree of coverage".
Our level-oriented description of modelling can be considered as another
perspective on modelling competencies. It can be used as a descriptive, nor-
mative and meta-cognitive aid when assessing student performance, plan-
ning lessons, and selecting teaching contents.

6. EXAMPLES
The following three examples for assessing level of modelling competen-
cies are based on PISA study examples (OECD, 2003) which have been re-
formulated.
3.3.1. LEVELS OF MODELLING COMPETENCIES 229

WATERTANK
During a math class students are asked to describe a watertank as it is
filled. The tank is one meter wide, empty at the beginning and is filled with
one liter of water per second. The students receive further informations from
the teacher as to the shape and measurements of the tank.
Here you see one student's results. He sketched the tank of water and de-
picted in a graph how the water-level changed over time.

Height

\ / Time
V Watertank

Al) How could the student have established the course of the graph?
A2) Are there other informations which the student did not use?
The teacher judges that the results so far are good and encourages the
student to find a formula for calculating the water-level.
A3) What steps would the student have to take in order to set up a formula
for calculating the water-level?

Figure 3.3. J-L Watertank

While solving the water tank problem the students have to demonstrate
their ability to recognize that the water tank as depicted is a compound ob-
ject, that material thickness does not play a role in the solution of the prob-
lem, that a qualitative graphical model is used and that the quantitative data
given are not used in the model. These are abilities situated at level one in
terms of our description.
The second example is appropriate for assessing competencies from the
second level (set up and work with models).
230 Chapter 3,3,1

SCHOOL PARTY
It has been announced that a famous band is going to play in the gym at a
school party in our school. Almost all the students from your school and
many students from neighboring schools would like to come to the concert.
From the organizers of the party you receive the task of calculating the
maximium possible number of spectators for the gym.
Bl) Plan how you will proceed with solving the problem and write out the
steps needed for the solution.
B2) Complete the task which the organizers gave you. If any details are
missing, figure them out by estimating.
The organizers would like you to show your work to the heads of the
school in a short presentation.
B3) Make up a sheet of key points which you would like to tell the heads of
the school.

Figure 3.3.1-2. School party

The third example is based on the PISA study problem entitled: "Rising
Crimes" and has been reformulated to assess competencies at level three.

ALARM SYSTEMS
Every year the police record statistics of the number of house-burglaries
in their city. From these statistics a manufacturer of alarm systems has
picked out the following years.

year 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1984

number of crimes 110 200 330 480 590 550

The manufacturer has used this data to make the following statement in
his advertisements; Every 10 years the number of burglaries doubles or
tribles! Buy an alarm system now before your house is robbed too!
CI) Is the first sentence of the advertising slogan correct? Support your
answer.
C2) Why could the manufacturer have specifically chosen this data
3.3.1. LEVELS OF MODELLING COMPETENCIES 231

Imagine that your parents work for the police and tell you that the police
aren't going to record these statistics in the future.

C4) Explaine briefly the advantages/disadvantages of this type of statistics.

Figure 3.3. J-3, Alarm systems

In this problem pupils are asked to demonstrate their ability to reflect

critically on the modelling process and its use in a real world application.
Furthermore, they are tested on their ability to evaluate the use of models in
general. When considering models and the modelling process, one must be
incessantly aware of the possible misuse of mathematics, as well as the so-
cial relevance of models, their interpretations, and the predictions that they
can make.

7. CONCLUSION
A level-oriented description of modelling competencies has been pre-
sented and compared with other descriptions of modelling competencies, and
it has been put into the framework of mathematical literacy. Important issues
for further research are the examination of the level-orientated description at
different educational levels and the role of the context of the modelling
tasks.

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