Modelling and

Applications in
Mathematics Education
New ICMI Study Series IKj
VOLUME 10
Published under the auspices of the International Commission on
Mathematical Instruction under the general editorship of

Michele Artigue, President Bernard R. Hodgson, Secretary-General

The titles published in this series are listed at the end of this volume.
Werner Blum
Peter L. Galbraith
Hans-Wolfgang Henn
Mogens Niss
(Editors)

Modelling and
Applications in
Mathematics Education

ith
The 14^^ ICMI Study

^ Spri
ringer
Werner Blum Hans-Wolfgang Henn
University of Kassel/ Germany University of Dortmund/ Germany

Peter L. Galbraith Mogens Niss

The University of Queensland/ Australia Roskilde University/ Denmark

Library of Congress Control Number: 2006932713

ISBN-13: 978-0-387-29820-7
ISBN-10: 0-387-29820-7

e-lSBN-13: 978-0-387-29822-1
e-lSBN-10: 0-387-29822-3

Printed on acid-free paper.

© 2007 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.

All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without
the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233
Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with
reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed is forbidden.
The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks and similar terms,
even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to
whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights.
While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the
date of going to press, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any
legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no
warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

springer.com
TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE xi

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1 MoGENS Niss, WERNER BLUM & PETER GALBRAITH 3

Introduction

2 PLENARIES 33

2.1 CLAUDIALSINA 35
Less chalk, less words, less symbols ... more objects, more
context, more actions
2.2 MORTEN BLOMH0J & TOMAS HOJGAARD JENSEN 45
What's all the fuss about competencies?
2.3 JERE CONFREY & ALAN MALONEY 57
A theory of mathematical modelling in technological settings
2.4 HELEN M . DOERR 69
What knowledge do teachers need for teaching mathematics
through applications and modelling?
2.5 PETER GALBRAITH 79
Beyond the low hanging fruit
2.6 BRIAN GREER, LIEVEN VERSCHAFFEL & 89
SWAPNA MUKHOPADHYAY
Modelling for life: Mathematics and children's experience
2.7 GABRIELE KAISER & KATJA MAASS 99
Modelling in lower secondary mathematics classroom - prob-
lems and opportunities
2.8 HENRY POLLAK 109
Mathematical modelling - A conversation with Henry Pollak
Chapter 2.7
MODELLING IN LOWER SECONDARY
MATHEMATICS CLASSROOM - PROBLEMS
AND OPPORTUNITIES

Gabriele Kaiser and Katja MaaB

Faculty of Education, University of Hamburg, Germany, Email: gabriele.kaiser@uni-
hamburg.de/Mathematicallnstitute, University of Education, Freiburg, Germany, Email:
Katja.Maass@ph'freiburg.de

Abstract: The paper deals with the gap between the relevance of applications and model-
ling in didactical discussions and its minor importance in everyday mathemat-
ics teaching. Results of our own empirical studies that describe mathematical
beliefs of teachers and students as being central obstacles are presented. Fur-
ther, the studies demonstrate the possibility to change these beliefs as well as
ways to promote modelling competencies.

1. INTRODUCTION
Empirical studies have shown that applications and modelling only play a
minor role in everyday mathematics teaching. This situation has not yet
changed decisively, although many teaching materials have been developed
over the last decades and are available. This is not exclusively a typical
German situation. A number of empirical and international comparative
studies indicate that applications and modelling are less significant in every-
day school life in many countries, although there are country specific differ-
ences.
In the following, we present the results of our own studies which point
out problems and opportunities of integrating modelling and application in
lower secondary mathematics classroom. The results of the first study refer
to students (MaaB, 2004), while the results of the second study focus on
teachers (Komella, 2003; Ross, 2002).
100 Chapter 2 J

2. RESULTS OF AN EMPIRICAL STUDY FOCUS-

SING ON MATHEMATICS STUDENTS
This study deals with the following questions:
1. How far do students' mathematical beliefs change when modelling prob-
lems are included in ordinary mathematics lessons?
2. How far do such lessons enable students to carry out modelling processes
on their own?
3. What kind of connections exist between the students' mathematical be-
liefs and their modelling competencies?

2.1 Theoretical frame

To answer these questions, the theoretical approach focuses on discus-
sions about applications of mathematics and discussions about beliefs.
First to the discussion of modelling and modelling competencies: We de-
scribe a modelling process as a process in which a non-mathematical prob-
lem is solved through the application of mathematics (cf. Blum, 1996).
Competencies for modelling include abilities to model problems as well as
the willingness to implement them.
Secondly, we refer to the conception of mathematical beliefs which are
described as an individual's stable knowledge of certain objects and affairs
as well as of corresponding attitudes and emotions (Pehkonen & Tomer,
1996). Considering possible connections between beliefs and learning proc-
esses, the search for methods to change beliefs is a central problem which
has not yet been solved. An important contribution to characterize students'
beliefs was given by Grigutsch (1996). He categorizes students' beliefs
mainly by four aspects of mathematical belief systems which refer to
mathematics as a field of science. Mathematics can be understood as a sci-
ence which mainly consists of problem solving processes (aspect of process),
a science which is relevant for society and life (aspect of application), an
exact, formal and logical science (aspect of formalism) or a collection of
rules and formulas (aspect of scheme). The first two aspects are called dy-
namic beliefs, the last two static beliefs.
Based on this theoretical background, this study aimed to show the ef-
fects of modelling lessons on students in a comprehensive manner.

2.2 Methodological approach

Classroom setting
During the data collection period of 15 month (April 2001 - June 2002),
six modelling units were integrated into two parallel classes, age 13-14, in
2J, MODELLING IN LOWER SECONDARY MATHEMATICS 101

a Gymnasium (i.e. school type for higher achieving students). For example,
in three of these units the students had to answer the following questions:
1. How large is the surface of a 'Porsche'?
2. How can different rates of various mobile phone contracts be compared
depending on customers' habits?
3. Is it possible to heat the water required in Stuttgart-Waldhausen by solar
collectors on the roof of houses?

Theoretical basis and methods in data collection

Aiming at an explanation of complex relations in the context of everyday
life and at a contribution to an empirically founded theory, the study is a
qualitative study which theoretically starts off mainly from the Grounded
Theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Furthermore, a long-lasting incorporation
of modelling tasks into everyday mathematics teaching practice became pos-
sible because in this study the researcher and the teacher were represented by
the same person according to Action Research (Altrichter & Posch, 1998).
In order to meet the complexity of the research's objectives, a variety of
methods in data collection were used (questionnaires, interviews, learner's
diaries, tests, concept maps). Based on computer-aided data evaluation, ty-
pologies were created to explain interrelations between phenomena. The
main tool to elucidate the results was the construction of ideal types as de-
scribed by Weber (see Kelle & Kluge, 1999).

2.3 Results of the study

The following results are based on the data-evaluation of 35 students and
their development during the whole period of the study. First, the recon-
structed types of reaction will be explained. Then we will refer to the prob-
lems and possibiUties of integrating modelling into mathematics classes.

Types of reaction
Mathematical belief systems
The results of this study show, on the one hand, that the aspects reported
by Grigutsch exist in the students' mind. On the other hand, it became clear,
that those aspects do not sufficiently describe the students' mathematical
belief systems. Many students seemed to have no idea how to characterize
mathematics as a science. Their thinking primarily concentrated on the les-
sons taught and their own role in these lessons. These beliefs will be called
'non subject-based'.
Among others, the following beliefs were reconstructed:
102 Chapter 2 J

Cognitive shaped non subject-based beliefs:

• Beliefs about the short duration of teaching units within the mathematics
classes: *Exercises in maths lessons should only last one hour.'
• Beliefs about a minor importance of words in the exercises: Tow have to
write in German, in mathematics you have to calculate*.
• Beliefs about the necessity of learning: ^Either one is able to deal with
mathematics or not, learning is useless.'
Affective shaped non subject-based beliefs:
• Beliefs about teaching methods: 7 liked the lesson because we were al-
lowed to work in groups. *
• Beliefs about the atmosphere within mathematics classes: 7/ is absolutely
shit that some students cannot respect Mrs Maafi' orders. Then she gets
angry and the atmosphere gets really bad.'
• Beliefs about understanding: 'Today I understood everything. And when
you understand something, you like it. *
These non subject-based beliefs seem to be so important for some stu-
dents that subject-based beliefs, as described by Grigutsch (1996), could not
be reconstructed. Altogether, the reconstruction of students' individual
mathematical belief systems shows a complex structure of different beliefs.
However, frequently one subject-based or non subject-based aspect turned
out to be the most important. Furthermore, the results indicate that almost all
components of the belief system are responsible for the way students act in a
typical manner. The interrelation between belief system and the students'
actions can be described by six ideal types.
Ideal type A+B: Students with a process-oriented or an application-
oriented mathematical belief system have a positive attitude towards model-
ling examples. The application-oriented beliefs increased during the study.
At the end of the study, one student with a process-oriented belief system
who, at the beginning, had hardly any application-oriented beliefs answered
to the question "Do you think that you can use the things you learned during
the modelling units?" 7 think it can't do any harm, because knowledge is
always regarded positively. Moreover, I have learned to react independently
and to see whether anybody wants to cheat me.'
Ideal type F: Students with an affective-shaped non subject-based
mathematical belief system who have also the impression to understand the
content quite well, regard the modelling examples as positive. They develop
application-oriented beliefs.
One student answered the question 'What did you learn from modelling
examples?' as follows: 'A lot! 1. Mathematics is everywhere. 2. Maths les-
sons can be fun. 3. Everybody needs mathematics. 4. Which mobile phone
contract I have to choose... 5. Well, many important things. *
2J, MODELLING IN LOWER SECONDARY MATHEMATICS 103

Ideal type C+D+E: Students with a scheme-oriented, a formalism-

oriented or a cognitive-shaped non subject-based belief system reject model-
ling examples in an emotional way. No or only very few application-oriented
beliefs are developed until the end of the study.
Students answered the question about what they have learned, as follows:
'Modelling examples don't belong into maths lessons because you don't
have to calculate,,. I have learnt nothing, * 7 have learnt that maths lessons
can be horrifying,'
On the question "When do you need mathematics in life?" one student
answered: It depends on the profession. As an engineer you need geometry,
as a shop assistant you need plus, minus, times and divided by, *

ModeUing competencies
Reaction pattems of the students can be reconstructed from mathematical
competencies as well as mathematical beliefs which have great influence on
the acquisition of modelling competencies. In an idealized way, four types of
modellers can be distinguished:
Reality-distant modellers have a positive attitude towards context-free
mathematics and reject modelling examples. As consequence an affective
barrier is set up which mainly results in a lack of competency to solve prob-
lems closely connected to context-related mathematics which means that
they have problems with the construction of real models, with their valida-
tion and partially also with the interpretation of the results.
Mathematics-distant modellers clearly give preference to the context of
real-world problems and show only low performance in mathematics les-
sons. These students are very enthusiastic about modelling examples. They
are able to construct real models and validate solutions quite well. Lack of
ability is found in constructing mathematical models, in finding a mathe-
matical solution and in interpreting complex solutions.
Reflected modellers have positive attitudes towards mathematics itself
as well as towards modelling examples. They show an appropriate perform-
ance in mathematics. Deficits within the modelling process are hardly to be
found.
Uninterested modellers are neither interested in the context of real-
world problems nor in mathematics itself. They have deficits in mathemati-
cal con^etencies. While dealing with modelling problems, problems occur
in every part of the modelling process.

Problems and opportunities

Which problems may occur?
The negative reactions of those students whose belief system can be
characterized as scheme- or formalism-orientated or as cognitive shaped
104 Chapter 2 J

non subject-based might prevent many teachers from integrating modelling

problems in their classes after a first effort. Thus, students' beliefs might
even prevent a broad implementation of realistic tasks in everyday mathe-
matics teaching.

What opportunities are offered by the integration of modelling examples

in daily school routine?
The integration of modelling examples in mathematical lessons can lead
to the development of students' application-oriented beliefs as we have seen
above.
Students at lower secondary level are able to develop modelling compe-
tencies which include meta-knowledge of modelling processes. Therefore,
students become qualified to model unknown real world problems by them-
selves and to question critically already accomplished modelling. At the end
of the study almost every student was able to deal with simple modelling
tasks even when the context of the task was unknown to him/her. Many of
them were even able to deal with complex modelling problems.
Modelling problems provide an important educational contribution to
mathematics lessons which meet the individual abilities of (many) more stu-
dents (than in usual mathematics lessons). The open formulation of model-
ling problems and the necessity to simplify the complex reality enables stu-
dents to develop solutions by themselves, according to their capabilities. The
results of this study show that strong students choose more challenging mod-
els while weaker students prefer simpler ways to achieve their final solution.
The positive attitude towards modelling examples evoked by the connec-
tion to reality and the unusual success of weaker students allows an affective
access to mathematics and, from a long-term perspective, may positively
improve the acquirement of mathematical competencies.

3. RESULTS OF AN EMPIRICAL STUDY FOCUS-

SING ON MATHEMATICS TEACHERS
The second study gives insight to the teachers' perspectives. Many teach-
ers think it deskable to discuss contextual and modelling problems in les-
sons, but a look at teaching practice makes it clear that contextual and mod-
elling problems play only a rather minor role. For this reason, within the
framework of our study we will examine the question 'what are the mathe-
matical beliefs of teachers towards applications and modelling tasks?'
2.7. MODELLING IN LOWER SECONDARY MATHEMATICS 105

3.1 Frame and design of the study

The study was conducted within the evaluation of a pilot programme by
the German government together with the federal states which was aimed at
increasing the efficiency of mathematical and scientific teaching. This inno-
vative programme, carried out during the period 1998 - 2003, aimed at fun-
damental changes in mathematics teaching: namely, a change of the tasks as
practised in lessons and a change of the dominating learning and teaching
structures focused on a stronger integration of applications and modelling
examples. Over the whole time teachers were offered further education pro-
grammes, both by internal and external initiatives. Furthermore, the partici-
pating teachers were asked to try out already existing material and to de-
velop new material through teamwork. Teachers were given access to a great
amount of material - developed all over Germany within this innovation pro-
gramme - through a special server: (http://blk.mat.uni-bayreuth.de).
The study, whose results will be described, is restricted to the evaluation
of this programme at the six participating schools in Hamburg. Due to organ-
isational constraints, the evaluation is limited to a period of only one year.
This short time implied that really great effects of change could not be ex-
pected.
The evaluation study started when the students of the 6 participating
schools attended year 7 and 8 and ended when they were in year 8 and 9.
The study is divided up into different components: In the first the develop-
ment of mathematical literacy as well as students' beliefs are examined. Due
to lack of space, we do not refer to this part of the study (see Kaiser & Wil-
lander, 2005). In the second qualitatively oriented component the mathe-
matical belief systems of the teachers involved were examined.
The theoretical approach of his study, like that of the first study, uses the
approach of Grigutsch (1996) about the classification of mathematical belief
systems, that is; process-oriented and application-oriented mathematical be-
liefs as dynamic belief systems; and formalism-oriented and scheme-
oriented mathematical beliefs as static mathematical belief systems (for de-
tails concerning teachers see Grigutsch, Raatz, & TSmer, 1998). Beliefs are
characterised as stable patterns of conviction.
Results of empirical studies show how strongly mathematical beliefs
about mathematics and mathematics teaching control the pedagogical behav-
iour of teachers. Mathematical innovations like the introduction of applica-
tions and modelling bring up the question how much there is a possibility for
change.
There exists nearly no empirical study which investigates the difficulties
in changing beliefs. However, well known studies that analyse the difficul-
ties of changing attitudes - a psychological construct closely related to the
concept of beliefs - show that beliefs are not easily modifiable. Ambrose
106 Chapter 2 J

(2004) points out for example that the changes in the belief systems of
teachers are more incremental than monumental. In this context, Pehkonen
(1994) distinguishes between "surface beliefs" which are not deeply rooted
within the belief system, and "deep beliefs" that are functioning as central
anchor points. Pehkonen (1994) points out that these deep beliefs need to be
changed because they are motivating teachers during their mathematics les-
sons.
Methodologically, the study is qualitatively oriented and applying meth-
ods from qualitative social science. Furthermore, the applied empirical
methods concerning choice of sample, data analysis and data interpretation
are based on the theoretical attempts of the Grounded Theory (Strauss &
Corbin, 1998).
In this study, all teachers involved in mathematics teaching of year 7 and
8 students of the six participating schools have been asked about their
mathematical beliefs at the beginning of the project and after one year. This
has been done in written form via open and closed items. Altogether 41
teachers participated at the beginning and 29 at the second questioning. With
8 teachers, who were chosen for certain theoretical criteria, partly standard-
ised interviews were done, 4 at the beginning and 4 at the end of the study
(for details see Ross, 2002; Komella, 2003).

3.2 Results of the study

The written questioning at the beginning of the study shows a clear
dominance of static beliefs about the nature of mathematics, in other words
for these teachers mathematics mean exact mathematical thinking and exact
ways of working as it is described in the formalism-oriented approach.
In one of the in-depth interviews a teacher describes his view about
mathematics as follows: Mathematics is at first a Jormal language', in con-
trast to colloquial language *not redundant*, 'precise' and 'logical*. Ac-
cording to this teacher's opinion there is only a weak relation between
mathematics and everyday teaching: 'For me mathematics is ,.. not always,
sometimes yes,.... has also a relation to life. *
Besides the formalistic position there are also scheme oriented under-
standings. Within these understandings, mathematics is reduced to the accu-
mulation of rules and formulae. Mathematics is - as expressed in an inter-
view - 'the logical sequence of formulae*. Non-mathematical applications
do not form a constitutive part of mathematics. In mathematics lessons stu-
dents learn 'the basic conditions of mathematics*, 'and everything else
comes from the other subjects, there one continues to calculate. *
This goes along with the fact that there is only seen a weak relation be-
tween mathematical subject knowledge and the real world. In the interview.
2J. MODELLING IN LOWER SECONDARY MATHEMATICS 107

one teacher explained that mathematics might even be replaced by playing

chess because mathematics is aimed at developing thinking competencies.
Mathematical beliefs for which the aspect of application plays a central
role, could only seldom be reconstructed. In one of the in-depth interviews it
becomes clear that for teachers with such an orientation the aspect of appli-
cation has a fundamental meaning: *What shall I do with mathematics, if I
cannot apply it somehow for my life?' However, not its usefulness, but the
training of 'critical questioning' is as important as the training of thinking
abilities.
Beliefs about the nature of mathematics teaching were also dominated by
static understandings. Likewise, the beliefs about the goals of mathematics
teaching are predominated by schematic aspects. Dynamic ideas only prevail
with beliefs about the learning of mathematics.
Taken together, it becomes obvious that for the whole group of ques-
tioned teachers applications and modelling play only a minor role in their
beliefs about mathematics and mathematics teaching.
In the follow-up study conducted one year later, only slight changes
could be observed: Altogether, the beliefs about the nature of mathematics
and the nature of mathematics teaching changed slightly towards a greater
relevance of application and modelling examples. The results of the in-depth
interviews are as follows: Teachers with mathematical beliefs, in which the
aspect of application only plays a minor role, interpreted application oriented
beliefs about the nature of mathematics or the nature of mathematics teach-
ing in a way by which they became appropriate for their own mathematical
beliefs. In detail: Teachers with a process oriented understanding of mathe-
matics and mathematics teaching stress the many chances which exist for
developing solutions and reduce applications and modelling to this aspect. In
contrast to that, teachers with schematic mathematical beliefs restrict appli-
cations and modelling to examples that enable easy mathematisations or lead
directly to a formula. For teachers with formalistic beliefs, the context nearly
does not play any role.

4. PROSPECTS AND POSSIBLE CONSEQUENCES

On the one hand, the studies demonstrate that it is possible to integrate
modelling examples into mathematics lessons, on the other hand, they make
clear that it is extremely important to do so in a consequent way. The intense
disapproval reaction of students with scheme and formalism oriented
mathematical beliefs, as described in the first study, demonstrate how rele-
vant it is to tackle applications and modelling examples as an integral part of
mathematics teaching, starting at primary level. Furthermore, the studies
show that the students' partly disapproval reaction must not lead to the ne-
108 Chapter 2.7

gleet of applications and modelling. If one adapts oneself to these reactions,

one can meet them in an adequate manner. In addition to a change in the
mathematical beliefs of the students, a very positive development of the stu-
dents' modelling competencies could be observed. Students developed espe-
cially a high level of meta-cognitive competencies which are generally re-
garded as an undeniable component of modelling competencies.
The results of both studies support the findings and assumptions from
other studies. Specifically the result that teachers and their beliefs about
mathematics must be regarded as essential reasons for the low realisation of
applications and modelling in mathematics teaching. In order to promote real
world and modelling examples within the mainstream mathematics educa-
tion, it will be necessary to integrate real world examples and modelling
courses in pre-service and in-service education for teachers.

REFERENCES
Altrichter, H., & Posch, P. (1998). Lehrer erforschen ihren Unterricht. Bad Heibrunn: Klink-
hardt.
Ambrose, R.(2004). Initiating change in prospective elementary school teachers' orientations
to mathematics teaching by building on beliefs. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Educa-
tion, 1,91-119.
Blum, W. (1996). Anwendungsbeztige im Mathematikunterricht - Trends und Perspektiven.
In G. Kadunz et al. (Eds.), Trends und Perspektiven. (pp. 15-38) Wien: HOlder-Pichler-
Tempsky.
Grigutsch, S. (1996). Mathematische Weltbilder von SchUlem, Struktur, Entwicklung, Ein-
flussfaktoren. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Gerhard-Mercator-Universitat, Gesamt-
hochschule Duisburg, Duisburg, Germany.
Grigutsch, S., Raatz, U., &TOmer,G. (1998). Einstellungen gegenuber Mathematik bei Ma-
thematiklehrem. Journal fur Mathematik-Didaktik, 19,3-45.
Kaiser, G., & Willander, T. (2005). Development of mathematical literacy: results of an em-
pirical study. Teaching Mathematics and its Applications, 24(2-3), 48-60.
Kelle, U., & Kluge, S. (1999). Vom Einzelfall zum Typus Opladen: Leske und Budrich.
Komella, M. (2003). Beliefs als Barrieren von Innovationen im Bildungswesen. Pehkonen, E.
(1994). On teachers' beliefs and changing mathematics teaching. Journal fUr Mathematik-
Didaktik, 15, 177-209.
Pehkonen, E., &TOmer,G. (1996). Mathematical beliefs and different aspects of their mean-
ing. Zentralblatt fur Didaktikder Mathematik, 28, 101-108.
Ross, N. (2002). Lehrerkonzeptionen von Aufgabenkultur im Mathematikunterricht Hamburg.
Unpublished master thesis. University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany.
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998), Basics of Qualitative Research. Newbury Park: Sage.