94 LOGIC AND M ATH EM ATICAL EXPRESSIO N S [Int., §2]
, §2]
Finally, you may want to skim through the book rapidly from beginning
to end, looking just at the statements of theorems, or at the discussions
between theorems, to get an overall impression of the whole subject. Then
you can go back to cover the material more systematically.
Any of these ways is quite valid, and which one you follow depends on
your taste. When you take a course, the material will usually be covered in
the same order as the book, because that is the safest way to keep going
logically. Don’t let that prevent you from experimenting with other ways.
§2. LOGIC
We always try to keep clearly in mind what we assume and what we
prove. By a “ proof” we mean a sequence of statements each of which is
either assumed, or follows from the preceding statements by a rule of
deduction, which is itself assumed. These rules of deduction are essentially
rules of common sense.
We use “ I f . . . , then” sentences when one statement implies another.
For instance, we use sentences like:
(1) If 2x = 5, then x = - •
2 2
This is a true statement, patterned after the general sentence structure:
If A , then B.
The converse o f this statements is given by:
If B 9 then A .
Thus the converse of our assertion (1) is:
(2 ) If x = - , then 2x = 5.
2 2
We see that the converse is also true.
94 LOGIC AND M ATH EM ATICAL EXPRESSIO N S [Int.
Finally, you may want to skim through the book rapidly from beginning
to end, looking just at the statements of theorems, or at the discussions
between theorems, to get an overall impression of the whole subject. Then
you can go back to cover the material more systematically.
Any of these ways is quite valid, and which one you follow depends on
your taste. When you take a course, the material will usually be covered in
the same order as the book, because that is the safest way to keep going
logically. Don’t let that prevent you from experimenting with other ways.
§2. LOGIC
We always try to keep clearly in mind what we assume and what we
prove. By a “ proof” we mean a sequence of statements each of which is
either assumed, or follows from the preceding statements by a rule of
deduction, which is itself assumed. These rules of deduction are essentially
rules of common sense.
We use “ I f . . . , then” sentences when one statement implies another.
For instance, we use sentences like:
(1) If 2x = 5, then x = - •
This is a true statement, patterned after the general sentence structure:
If A , then B.
The converse o f this statements is given by:
If B 9 then A .
Thus the converse of our assertion (1) is:
(2 ) If x = - , then 2x = 5.
We see that the converse is also true.
[Int., §2] LOGIC 95 [Int., §2] LOGIC 95
Whenever we meet such a situation, we can save ourselves space, and Whenever we meet such a situation, we can save ourselves space, and
simply say: simply say:
5 5
(3) 2x = 5 if and only if x = - • (3) 2x = 5 if and only if x = - •
2 2
Thus Thus
“ A only if B ” means “ If A , then B ” . “ A only if B ” means “ If A , then B ” .
However, using “ only if” by itself rather than in the context of “ if and only if” However, using “ only if” by itself rather than in the context of “ if and only if”
always sounds a little awkward. Because of the structure of the English always sounds a little awkward. Because of the structure of the English
language, one has a tendency to interpret 66A only if B ” to mean “ if B , then language, one has a tendency to interpret 66A only if B ” to mean “ if B , then
A ” . Consequently, we shall never use the phrase “ only if” by itself, only as A ” . Consequently, we shall never use the phrase “ only if” by itself, only as
part of the full phrase “ A if and only if B ” . part of the full phrase “ A if and only if B ” .
Example. The assertion: “ If x = —3, then x 2 = 9” is a true statement. Example. The assertion: “ If x = —3, then x 2 = 9” is a true statement.
Its converse: Its converse:
“ If x2 = 9, then x = - 3 ” “ If x2 = 9, then x = - 3 ”
is a false statement, because x may be equal to 3. Thus the statement: is a false statement, because x may be equal to 3. Thus the statement:
“ x2 = 9 if and only if x = - 3 ” “ x2 = 9 if and only if x = - 3 ”
is a false statement. is a false statement.
Example. The statement: Example. The statement:
“ If two lines are perpendicular, then they have a point in common” “ If two lines are perpendicular, then they have a point in common”
is a true statement. Its converse: is a true statement. Its converse:
“ If two lines have a point in common, then they are perpendicular” “ If two lines have a point in common, then they are perpendicular”
is a false statement. is a false statement.
Example. The statement: Example. The statement:
“ Two circles are congruent if and only if they have the same radius” “ Two circles are congruent if and only if they have the same radius”
is a true statement. is a true statement.
We often give proofs by what is called the “ method o f contradiction” . We often give proofs by what is called the “ method o f contradiction” .
We want to prove that a certain statement A is true. To do this, we suppose We want to prove that a certain statement A is true. To do this, we suppose
that A is false, and then by logical reasoning starting from the supposition that A is false, and then by logical reasoning starting from the supposition
that A is false, we arrive at an absurdity, or at a contradiction of a true that A is false, we arrive at an absurdity, or at a contradiction o f a true
statement. We then conclude that our supposition “ A is false” cannot hold, statement. We then conclude that our supposition “ A is false” cannot hold,
whence A must be true. An example of this occurred when we proved that whence A must be true. An example of this occurred when we proved that
96 LOGIC AND M ATH EM ATICAL EXPRESSIO N S [Int., §2]
\ /2 is not a rational number. We did this by assuming that y /2 is rational,
then expressing it as a fraction in lowest form, and then showing that in fact,
both numerator and denominator o f this fraction must be even. This contra-
dicted the hypothesis that y /2 could be a fraction, in lowest form, whence we
concluded that y /2 is not a rational number.
Some assertions are true, some are false, and some are meaningless.
Sometimes a set o f symbols is meaningless because some letters, like x, or a.
appear without being properly qualified. We give examples o f this. When
we write an equation like 2x = 5, as in (1), the context is supposed to make
it clear that x denotes a number. However, if there is any chance o f doubt.
this should always be specified. Thus a more adequate formulation of (1 >
would be:
5 5
(4) If x is a real number and 2x = 5, then x = - •
2 2
Similarly, a more adequate formulation o f (2 ) would be:
5 5
(5) Let x be a real number. Then 2x = 5 if and only if x = - •
The symbols
2x = 5
by themselves are called an equation. As it stands, this equation simply
indicates a possible relationship, but to give it meaning we must say some-
thing more about x. For instance:
a) There exists a number x such that 2x = 5.
b) For all numbers x , we have 2x = 5.
c) There is no number x such that 2x = 5.
d) If x is a real number and 2x = 5, then x < 7.
O f these statements, (a) is true, (b) is false, (c) is false, and (d) is true. We
can also use the symbols “ 2x = 5” in a context like:
e) Determine all numbers x such that 2x = 5.
This sentence is actually a little ambiguous, because of the word “ determine’\
In a sense, the equation itself, 2x = 5, determines such numbers x. We have
tried to avoid such ambiguities in this book. However, the context of a
chapter can make the meaning o f this sentence clear to us as follows:
f) Express all rational numbers x such that 2x = 5 in the form m/ n.
where m, n are integers, n 0.
96 LOGIC AND M ATH EM A TICAL EXPRESSIO N S [Int., §2]
\ /2 is not a rational number. We did this by assuming that y /2 is rational,
then expressing it as a fraction in lowest form, and then showing that in fact,
both numerator and denominator o f this fraction must be even. This contra-
dicted the hypothesis that y /2 could be a fraction, in lowest form, whence we
concluded that y /2 is not a rational number.
Some assertions are true, some are false, and some are meaningless.
Sometimes a set o f symbols is meaningless because some letters, like x, or a.
appear without being properly qualified. We give examples of this. When
we write an equation like 2x = 5, as in (1), the context is supposed to make
it clear that x denotes a number. However, if there is any chance o f doubt.
this should always be specified. Thus a more adequate formulation of (1 >
would be:
(4) If x is a real number and 2x = 5, then x = - •
Similarly, a more adequate formulation of (2 ) would be:
(5) Let x be a real number. Then 2x = 5 if and only if x = - •
The symbols
2x = 5
by themselves are called an equation. As it stands, this equation simply
indicates a possible relationship, but to give it meaning we must say some-
thing more about x. For instance:
a) There exists a number x such that 2x = 5.
b) For all numbers x , we have 2x = 5.
c) There is no number x such that 2x = 5.
d) If x is a real number and 2x = 5, then x < 7.
O f these statements, (a) is true, (b) is false, (c) is false, and (d) is true. We
can also use the symbols “ 2x = 5” in a context like:
e) Determine all numbers x such that 2x = 5.
This sentence is actually a little ambiguous, because of the word “ determine’\
In a sense, the equation itself, 2x = 5, determines such numbers x. We have
tried to avoid such ambiguities in this book. However, the context of a
chapter can make the meaning o f this sentence clear to us as follows:
f) Express all rational numbers x such that 2x = 5 in the form m/ n.
where m, n are integers, n 0.
[Int., §2] LOGIC 97 [Int., §2] LOGIC 97
This is what we would understand when faced with sentence (e), or with a This is what we would understand when faced with sentence (e), or with a
similar sentence like: similar sentence like:
g) Solve for x in the equation 2x = 5. g) Solve for x in the equation 2x = 5.
In writing mathematics, it is essential that complete sentences be used. In writing mathematics, it is essential that complete sentences be used.
Many mistakes occur because you allow incomplete symbols like Many mistakes occur because you allow incomplete symbols like
2x = 5 2x = 5
to occur, without the proper qualifications, as in sentences (a), (b), (c), (d), to occur, without the proper qualifications, as in sentences (a), (b), (c), (d),
(e), (f), (g). (e), (f), (g).
Example. The symbols “ x 2 = 2” by themselves are merely an equation. Example. The symbols “ x 2 = 2” by themselves are merely an equation.
The sentence: The sentence:
“ There exists a rational number x such that x 2 = 2.” “ There exists a rational number x such that x 2 = 2.”
is false. The sentence: is false. The sentence:
“ There exists a real number x such that x2 = 2.” “ There exists a real number x such that x2 = 2.”
is true. is true.
E quality E quality
We shall use the word “ equality” between objects to mean that they are We shall use the word “ equality” between objects to mean that they are
the same object. Thus when we write the same object. Thus when we write
2 + 3 = 6 — 1, 2 + 3 = 6 — 1,
we mean that the number obtained by adding 2 and 3 is the same number as we mean that the number obtained by adding 2 and 3 is the same number as
that obtained by subtracting 1 from 6. It is the number 5. that obtained by subtracting 1 from 6. It is the number 5.
We use the word “ equivalent” in several contexts. First, if A and B are We use the word “ equivalent” in several contexts. First, if A and B are
assertions (which may be true or false), we say that they are equivalent to assertions (which may be true or false), we say that they are equivalent to
mean: mean:
A is true if and only if B is true. A is true if and only if B is true.
For instance, the following two assertions are equivalent in this sense: For instance, the following two assertions are equivalent in this sense:
The number x satisfies the equation 2x + 5 = 3 . The number x satisfies the equation 2x + 5 = 3 .
The number x is equal to —1. The number x is equal to —1.
We shall use the word “ equivalent” in other contexts, but will explain We shall use the word “ equivalent” in other contexts, but will explain
these as the need arises. these as the need arises.
98 LOGIC AND M ATHEM A TICAL EXPRESSIO NS [Int., §2]
We DO NOT USE THE W ORD “ EQ U ALITY” AS IT IS SOME-
TIM E S USED, for instance in elementary geometry. The following two
triangles are not equal:
Fig. 1-1
They are, however, congruent, and under a suitable definition of equivalence
for triangles, we might even say that they are equivalent. Note that the
areas of these triangles are equal. In the same vein, the following line segments
are not equal:
Fig. 1-2
However, their lengths are equal.
The mathematics which we discuss in this book, like most mathematics,
has many applications and counterparts in the physical world. For instance,
numbers can be used to measure length, area, speed, density, etc. For clarity,
we try to use language in such a way that the mathematical notions are not
usually identified with their physical counterparts. Thus we use words like
“ correspond” , or “ represent” 9 when we wish to associate a physical quantity
with a mathematical one. In line with this, we can deal with mathematical
objects on two levels: the purely logical level of axioms, deductions, and
proofs; and the mixed physical level. Often, it is quite tedious and not
necessarily illuminating to insist that we follow only the strictly logical
procedures. It is useful and perhaps more pleasant to follow our physical
intuition for certain arguments. We shall see examples of both types of
arguments when we discuss geometry in its intuitive setting and its analytical
setting.
98 LOGIC AND M ATHEM A TICAL EXPRESSIO NS [Int., §2]
We DO NOT USE THE W ORD “ EQ U ALITY” AS IT IS SOME-
TIM E S USED, for instance in elementary geometry. The following two
triangles are not equal:
Fig. 1-1
They are, however, congruent, and under a suitable definition of equivalence
for triangles, we might even say that they are equivalent. Note that the
areas of these triangles are equal. In the same vein, the following line segments
are not equal:
Fig. 1-2
However, their lengths are equal.
The mathematics which we discuss in this book, like most mathematics,
has many applications and counterparts in the physical world. For instance,
numbers can be used to measure length, area, speed, density, etc. For clarity,
we try to use language in such a way that the mathematical notions are not
usually identified with their physical counterparts. Thus we use words like
“ correspond” , or “ represent” 9 when we wish to associate a physical quantity
with a mathematical one. In line with this, we can deal with mathematical
objects on two levels: the purely logical level of axioms, deductions, and
proofs; and the mixed physical level. Often, it is quite tedious and not
necessarily illuminating to insist that we follow only the strictly logical
procedures. It is useful and perhaps more pleasant to follow our physical
intuition for certain arguments. We shall see examples of both types of
arguments when we discuss geometry in its intuitive setting and its analytical
setting.
[Int., §3] SETS AND ELEMENTS 99 [Int., §3] SETS AND ELEMENTS 99
§3. SETS AND ELEMENTS §3. SETS AND ELEMENTS
Following mathematical terminology, a collection of objects is called a Following mathematical terminology, a collection of objects is called a
set. The objects in this set are called the elements of the set. set. The objects in this set are called the elements of the set.
The set of all real numbers is denoted by R. To say: The set of all real numbers is denoted by R. To say:
“ jc is an element of R ” “ jc is an element of R ”
means the same thing as to say means the same thing as to say
“ x is a real number” . “ x is a real number” .
Let S and T be sets. We say that S is a subset of T if every element of Let S and T be sets. We say that S is a subset of T if every element of
S is also an element of T. For instance: S is also an element of T. For instance:
The set of rational numbers is a subset of the set of real numbers. The set of rational numbers is a subset of the set of real numbers.
The set of integers is a subset of the set of rational numbers. The set of integers is a subset o f the set of rational numbers.
The set of integers is a subset of the set of rational numbers. It is also a The set of integers is a subset of the set of rational numbers. It is also a
subset of R (i.e. a subset of the real numbers). subset of R (i.e. a subset of the real numbers).
The set of boys is a subset of the set of all children. The set of boys is a subset of the set of all children.
The set of all real numbers x such that 2x + 3 < 5 is a subset of the real The set of all real numbers x such that 2x + 3 < 5 is a subset of the real
numbers. numbers.
As a matter of convention, we allow a subset of a set S to be all of S. As a matter of convention, we allow a subset of a set S to be all of S.
Thus any set is a subset o f itself. The sentence: Thus any set is a subset o f itself. The sentence:
“ For any set S, S is a subset o f S” “ For any set S, S is a subset o f S”
is a true sentence. is a true sentence.
A set is often described by stating the conditions under which something A set is often described by stating the conditions under which something
is an element o f the set. Sometimes we state such conditions so that there is an element of the set. Sometimes we state such conditions so that there
are no elements in the set. are no elements in the set.
Example. There is no element in the set of all numbers x which satisfy Example. There is no element in the set of all numbers x which satisfy
the conditions the conditions
x < 0 and x > 0. x < 0 and x > 0.
There is no element in the set of all positive numbers x which satifsy There is no element in the set of all positive numbers x which satifsy
the conditions the conditions
2* 1 2* 1
iT ~ l “ d * < 2' iT ~ l “ d * < 2'
100 LOGIC AND M ATHEM ATICAL EXPRESSIO NS [Int., §4] 100 LOGIC AND M ATHEM ATICAL EXPRESSIO NS [Int., §4]
Whenever this happens, that a set has no elements, we say that the set is Whenever this happens, that a set has no elements, we say that the set is
em pty. Thus the set o f numbers x such that 2x > 1 and x < —3 is empty. em pty. Thus the set o f numbers x such that 2x > 1 and x < —3 is empty.
Let S, S' be sets. Often, to prove that S = S', we prove that S is a subset Let S, S' be sets. Often, to prove that S = S', we prove that S is a subset
of S' and that S' is a subset of S. of S' and that S' is a subset of S.
Exam ple. Let S be the set of numbers x such that 1 ^ x ^ 2. Let T be Exam ple. Let S be the set of numbers x such that 1 ^ x ^ 2. Let T be
the set of all numbers 5x with all x in S. We contend that T is the set of the set of all numbers 5x with all x in S. We contend that T is the set of
numbers y with 5 ^ y ^ 10. First note that if x is in S, then 5x satisfies numbers y with 5 ^ y ^ 10. First note that if x is in S, then 5x satisfies
the inequalities the inequalities
5 ^ 5x ^ 10. 5 ^ 5x ^ 10.
Hence if T ' is the set o f all numbers y satisfying 5 ^ y ^ 10, we see that Hence if T ' is the set o f all numbers y satisfying 5 ^ y ^ 10, we see that
T is contained in T'. Conversely, let y be a point o f T', i.e. assume that T is contained in T'. Conversely, let y be a point o f T', i.e. assume that
5 ^ y ^ 10. 5 ^ y ^ 10.
Let x = y / 5. Then x is in S and y = 5x. Hence T ' is contained in T. This Let x = y / 5. Then x is in S and y = 5x. Hence T ' is contained in T. This
proves that T = T'. proves that T = T'.
§4. INDICES §4. INDICES
In a sentence like In a sentence like
“ Let x, y be numbers” “ Let x, y be numbers”
it is a convention of mathematical language to allow the possibility that x = y. it is a convention of mathematical language to allow the possibility that x = y.
Similarly, if we say Similarly, if we say
“ Let P, Q be points in the plane” “ Let P, Q be points in the plane”
we do not exclude the possibility that P = Q. If we wish to exclude this we do not exclude the possibility that P = Q. If we wish to exclude this
possibility then we say so explicitly. For instance, we would say: possibility then we say so explicitly. For instance, we would say:
“ Let x, y be distinct numbers” “ Let x, y be distinct numbers”
or or
“ Let x, y be numbers, x ^ y ” “ Let x, y be numbers, x ^ y ”
or or
“ Let P, Q be points, such that P Q” . “ Let P, Q be points, such that P Q” .
Similarly, we may wish to speak of several numbers instead of two numbers Similarly, we may wish to speak of several numbers instead o f two numbers
like x, y . Thus we might say like x, y . Thus we might say
“ Let x, y, z be numbers” , “ Let x, y, z be numbers” ,
[Int., §4] NOTATION 101 [Int., §4] NOTATION 101
without excluding the possibility that some of these numbers may be equal without excluding the possibility that some of these numbers may be equal
to each other. It is clear that we would soon run out of letters of the alphabet to each other. It is clear that we would soon run out of letters of the alphabet
in enumerating numbers just with letters, and hence we use a notation with in enumerating numbers just with letters, and hence we use a notation with
subscripts, as exemplified in the following sentences. subscripts, as exemplified in the following sentences.
“ Let xi, X2 be numbers.” “ Let xi, X2 be numbers.”
“ Let xi, X2, X3 be numbers.” “ Let xi, X2, X3 be numbers.”
“ Let xi, X2, X3, X4 be numbers.” “ Let xi, X2, X3, X4 be numbers.”
Finally, in the most general case we have the corresponding sentence: Finally, in the most general case we have the corresponding sentence:
“ Let xi, . . . , xn be numbers.” “ Let xi, . . . , xn be numbers.”
We repeat that in such a sentence, it is possible that xt = Xj for some pair of We repeat that in such a sentence, it is possible that xt = Xj for some pair of
subscripts i, j such that i j. Such subscripts are also called indices. subscripts i, j such that i j. Such subscripts are also called indices.
Objects indexed by integers from 1 to n (or sometimes from 0 to li) are Objects indexed by integers from 1 to n (or sometimes from 0 to li) are
called a sequence of objects or, more precisely, a finite sequence. Thus in a called a sequence of objects or, more precisely, a finite sequence. Thus in a
finite sequence of numbers, denoted by finite sequence of numbers, denoted by
{* 1, . . . , x n} {* 1, . . . , x n}
we associate a number Xj to each integer j satisfying 1 ^ j ^ n. Thus, con- we associate a number Xj to each integer j satisfying 1 ^ j ^ n. Thus, con-
sidering a sequence as above amounts to considering a first number xi, a sidering a sequence as above amounts to considering a first number xi, a
second number X2, and so forth, up to an rc-th number x n . second number X2, and so forth, up to an rc-th number x n .
Exam ple. For each integer j we let xy = ( —I)*'. Then Exam ple. For each integer j we let xy = ( —I)*'. Then
X i = —1, x2 = 1, x3 = - 1 , X4 = 1, xn = ( - l ) n. X i = —1, x2 = 1, x3 = - 1 , X4 = 1, xn = ( - l ) n.
Observe how in this sequence the numbers xy take on the values 1 or —1. Observe how in this sequence the numbers xy take on the values 1 or —1.
Example. We shall study polynomials later, and we shall write a polynomial Exam ple. We shall study polynomials later, and we shall write a polynomial
in the form in the form
anxn + an_ixn 1 + ••• + ao- anxn + an_ixn 1 + ••• + ao-
The sequence of coefficients is the sequence The sequence of coefficients is the sequence
ill, . . . , • ill, . . . , •
For instance, the sequence of coefficients of the polynomial For instance, the sequence of coefficients of the polynomial
4x3 — 2x2 + 4x — 5 4x3 — 2x2 + 4x — 5
is the sequence { —5, 4, —2, 4}. We have is the sequence { —5, 4, —2, 4}. We have
ao = —5, a\ — 4, «2 = —2, <23 = 4. ao = —5, a\ — 4, «2 = —2, <23 = 4.
102 LOGIC AND M ATH EM A TICAL EX PRE SSIO N S [Int., §4]
§5. NOTATION
The notation used in giving an account of a mathematical theory is
important. It is very useful that the printed page should look appealing
visually as well as mathematically.
It is also important that notation be fairly consistent, namely that certain
symbols be used only to denote certain objects. For instance, we use lower
case letters like a, 6, c, x, y , z to denote numbers. We use capital letters like
A , By Py Qy Xy Y to denote mostly points, although we also use A , B , to
denote angles. When we do that, we reserve P, Q, for points. Within any
given section, we try not to mix the two. Although one should of course
always specify what a letter stands for, it is convenient if the use of letters
follows a pattern, so that one knows at one glance what certain letters
represent.
Notation can be slick. You will see in the chapters on coordinates that
the notation of points and vectors is fairly slick. Sometimes, notation can
be too slick. I hope that this is not the case in those chapters.
We usually reserve letters like /, g 9 F , G for functions or mappings.
We cannot observe complete uniformity in this respect; otherwise, we would
run out o f letters very soon. For instance, we use (a), (b), (c), . . . to denote
a sequence of exercises, not numbers.
We use m, n to denote integers, except in cases where they are used as
abbreviations for words. For instance, m is sometimes used as an abbreviation
to denote the measure of an angle A, which we write m( A).
In any book, it is impossible to avoid some mistakes, some confusion,
some incorrectness of language, and some misuse of notation. If you find
any such things in the present book, then correct them or improve them for
yourself, or write your own book. This is still the best way to learn a subject,
aside from teaching it.
102 LOGIC AND M ATH EM A TICAL EX PRE SSIO N S [Int., §4]
§5. NOTATION
The notation used in giving an account of a mathematical theory is
important. It is very useful that the printed page should look appealing
visually as well as mathematically.
It is also important that notation be fairly consistent, namely that certain
symbols be used only to denote certain objects. For instance, we use lower
case letters like a, 6, c, x, y , z to denote numbers. We use capital letters like
A , By Py Qy Xy Y to denote mostly points, although we also use A , B , to
denote angles. When we do that, we reserve P, Q, for points. Within any
given section, we try not to mix the two. Although one should of course
always specify what a letter stands for, it is convenient if the use of letters
follows a pattern, so that one knows at one glance what certain letters
represent.
Notation can be slick. You will see in the chapters on coordinates that
the notation of points and vectors is fairly slick. Sometimes, notation can
be too slick. I hope that this is not the case in those chapters.
We usually reserve letters like /, g 9 F , G for functions or mappings.
We cannot observe complete uniformity in this respect; otherwise, we would
run out of letters very soon. For instance, we use (a), (b), (c), . . . to denote
a sequence of exercises, not numbers.
We use m, n to denote integers, except in cases where they are used as
abbreviations for words. For instance, m is sometimes used as an abbreviation
to denote the measure of an angle A, which we write m( A).
In any book, it is impossible to avoid some mistakes, some confusion,
some incorrectness of language, and some misuse of notation. If you find
any such things in the present book, then correct them or improve them for
yourself, or write your own book. This is still the best way to learn a subject,
aside from teaching it.