BASIC THEORIES AND FRAMEWORKS IN ETHICS

The study of ethics or morality today is generally divided into three main areas, namely:
1) meta-ethics, 2) normative ethics, and 3) applied ethics.

Three Main Areas of Ethics or Morality

META-ETHICS
consists in the attempt to answer the fundamental philosophical questions about
the nature of ethical theory itself (Klement, n.d.).

Classifications of Meta-ethics

1. Cognitivism and Non-cognitivism

Cognitivism is a view that ethical judgments are propositions, hence, they can
either be true or false. Non-cognitivism is a view that ethical judgments cannot be
true or false, but they are most likely expressions of emotions or exclamations.
(Klement, n.d.)

2. Subjectivism and Objectivism

Subjectivism is an ethical view that morality depends on the individual’s attitudes,
beliefs, desires, etc., rather than anything external. Objectivism is an ethical view
that morality is absolute (objective) wherein it is based on moral facts and
principles, rather than anything from the individual’s attitudes, beliefs, desires,
etc. (Klement, n.d.)

NORMATIVE ETHICS
the study of what makes actions right or wrong, what makes situations or events
good or bad and what makes people virtuous or vicious (Klement, n.d.)

Classifications of Normative Ethics

1. Deontology
Deontology is a theory that bases morality on moral rules or duties (De Guzman,
2018). In other words, a moral deontologist will utilize established rules or duties to
distinguish what is right and wrong.

2. Teleology
Teleology is a theory that determines the moral value of actions by their outcomes or
results (De Guzman, 2018). So, an action is good if it is done or in pursuit of a moral
goal or end.

3. Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism, sometimes called consequentialism, is a theory that bases morality on
the consequences of actions. So, an action is good if it produces the “best”
consequences among the rest of the alternative actions.

4. Virtue Ethics
Virtue ethics is a theory that is character-based rather than act-based like
deontology or teleology. When we say that it is character-based, it means
that we judge or determine goodness (or badness) in the person by judging
 the overall character or virtues that he/she possesses.

APPLIED ETHICS
consists in the attempt to answer difficult moral questions actual people face in their
lives (Klement, n.d.). The moral questions addressed under Applied Ethics are mostly about
the social issues that we usually experience in the present time. According to De Guzman,
J.M. et.al., Applied Ethics is classified into the following sub-fields (De Guzman, 2018):

1. Bioethics - abortion, euthanasia, surrogate motherhood, cloning and

genetic manipulation, mutilation, etc.

2. Human Sexual Ethics - human sexuality, pre-marital sex, extra-marital sex,

pornography, contraception, loveless and casual sex, rape, etc.

3. Environmental Ethics - animal welfare and rights, environmental sanitation,

pollution control, kaingin, cyanide fishing, etc.

4. Business Ethics - harassment, job discrimination, employer-employee

relationship, whistle blowing, unprofessionalism, false advertising, etc.

5. Social Ethics - poverty, child labor, war on drugs, death penalty, racial
discrimination, gender discrimination, etc.

VIRTUE ETHICS

Gallinero states that virtue ethics refers to the theories that put emphasis on the
role of character and virtue in living one’s life rather than in doing one’s duty or in
acting to bring about good consequences (Gallinero, 2018).

Aristotle and St. Thomas Aquinas are two of the main proponents of virtue ethics.
Most of the virtue ethics that we apply today lay their foundation or draw
inspiration from the views of these two philosophers.

Who is Aristotle?

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) is an Ancient Greek philosopher who has significant

contributions to almost any area of study such as Logic, Biology, Aesthetics and
Ethics. More information about Aristotle is discussed in our textbook, page 74.

Telos

Telos is a Greek term which means “end” (or purpose). According to Aristotle,
“every action and pursuit is thought to aim at some good…” (Stumpf, S.E., 2005).
As persons with a capacity for rational thinking, we always have telos which is a
goal that we have to fulfill.
Virtue as Habit

According to Gallinero, in the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle explains that a

person acquires character excellence by habituation. Hence, we can say that
virtues are positive or good acts that are habitually put into action which in turn
develops the character of the person (Gallinero, 2018).

According to Aristotle, there are two kinds of virtues, namely: 1) Moral virtues,
and 2) Intellectual virtues.

In terms of moral virtues, we must always remember that we should always act in
a moderate way, that is, to act in a way that is too much nor too little (neither in
excess nor in deficiency). For Aristotle, a virtuous act is the “golden mean”
between two extremes – by which these extremes are considered as undesirable
actions or commonly termed as vices.

Happiness as Virtue

For Aristotle, happiness or “eudaimonia” is the summum bonum or the supreme

good. Happiness as the supreme good is ultimately interpreted as our telos (we
do not want a telos that is not good and does not bring happiness). Furthermore,
according to Aristotle, living a virtuous life “is the best life because it contributes
to the happiness or eudaimonia of the person” (Gallinero, 2018).

ST. THOMAS AQUINAS AND NATURAL LAW

St. Thomas Aquinas

Known as the Angelic Doctor and Prince of Scholastics, Thomas Aquinas (1225-
1274) is an Italian philosopher and theologian who ranks among the most
important thinkers of the medieval time period. His influence on Western thought
is considerable, especially on modern philosophy. His great works include
Summa Theologica and Summa Contra Gentiles. The two books are
combinations of philosophy and theology where he discussed about the role of
natural laws, virtues and happiness in moral philosophy. (De Guzman, 2018)

Natural Law

According to St. Thomas, Natural Law is based on the two fundamental authority
the Bible and Aristotle. Aquinas described natural law as a moral code existing
within the purpose of nature, created by God. For him, morality is accessible
through natural order given by God. It is universal and relevant to all situations
and accessible to all. It is unchanging and for all time, whether or not they believe
in God. The Aquinas’ basic moral law can be best described by the following,
“Good is to be done and pursued… and evil to be avoided. All the other precepts
of the law of nature are based on this. (Do good and avoid evil).

Four primary types of law according to St. Thomas Aquinas

 Eternal Law refers to the rational plan of God by which all creation is
ordered.

Natural Law is that aspect of the eternal law which is accessible to

human reason.

Human Law refers to the positive natural laws. This also includes the civil
and criminal laws as formulated in the light of proper and practical
reason and moral laws. Human laws that are against the natural
law are not binding and not real laws, and people are not obliged
to obey those unjust laws.

Divine Law is a law of revelation, disclosed through sacred text or

Scriptures and the Church which is also directed toward man’s
eternal end” (De Guzman, 2018).

Furthermore, Aquinas agreed with Aristotle that as human reason dictates

(natural law), happiness or eudaimonia is our natural telos. In order to achieve
true happiness, humans must follow certain natural laws – these are the Primary
precepts (which ensure self-preservation such as reproduction, education,
peaceful living in a society and worshipping God) and the Secondary precepts
(the ways in which the primary precepts can be put into practice).

Happiness as Constitutive of Moral and Cardinal Virtues

St. Thomas Aquinas “believes that all actions are directed towards ends and that
eternal happiness is the final end. He also thinks that happiness is not equated
with pleasure, material possessions, honour or any sensual good, but consists in
activities in accordance with virtues. A person needs a moral character cultivated
through the habit of choice to realize real happiness” (De Guzman, 2018).

According to De Guzman, Aquinas categorized habits (as virtues) into acquired

habits and infused habits. Aquinas further categorized infused virtues into two
kinds – the moral and the theological virtues (De Guzman, 2018).

Four Basic Kinds Moral Virtues

Prudence – this virtue is an exercise of understanding that helps us know

the best means in solving moral problems in which we encounter in the
concrete circumstances. It is acting in the right time, place, manner,
intention, person, and situations. Knowing the best means, and without
acting carelessly without thinking, will incline us to apply them immediately
with certainty. (Gallinero, 2018)

Justice – The habit is an exercise of the will to give or render what is due
to another. It may be in the form of material or immaterial things, to the
person who rightly owns or belong it. Each one must respect and give due
to what is rightly belongs to another person. No one is allowed to violate
any of these rights and privileges that is due to other people. (Gallinero,
 2018)

Fortitude – The habit of the will to exercise courage and bravery despite
facing grave danger especially when serious injury or threat to life is at
stake. (Gallinero, 2018)

Temperance – The habit is an exercise of the will to demonstrate proper

control and restrain in the midst of strong attraction to pleasurable acts.
The key word here is moderation. Getting indulged into strong pleasures
has undesired consequences, either excess or disorder. (Gallinero, 2018)

How happiness becomes constitutive of moral and cardinal virtues?

For, Aquinas, Happiness entails the wholeness/totality of human being that

involves body and soul to be united with the highest good or the summum
bonum, no other than God himself who is in heaven. Man’s ultimate fulfilment of
his nature is to live as being God’s creature through the exercise of virtues and in
accordance to man’s final purpose. The Divine plan of God is for man to act to his
ultimate purpose/end. Man should not hinder his future union with God in heaven.
(Gallinero, 2018)

KANT AND RIGHTS

Immanuel Kant and Rights Theory

Immanuel Kant – (1724-1804) is a German thinker regarded by many as the most

significant philosopher in the modern era. His major contributions to Ethics can be
found in his two works: The Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals and The
Critique of Practical Reason.

Kantian Ethics

Kant’s ethics is based primarily on an a priori foundation. His ethical theory uses
reason alone. He rejects ethical judgments that are based on feelings (De
Guzman, 2018). Genuine morality is based on the moral law, which is valid for all
people because it is grounded completely on rational exercise. Kant’s test for the
rational consistency of a moral principle is the categorical imperative. (Mariano,
2016)

Kant’s Moral Theory

Only the good will is absolutely good. A good will is good, not because of its
effect, but is good in itself. A good will is good because it is done out of duty
(Mariano, 2016).

“Kant believes that one of the functions and capacities of our reason is to produce
a will which is good not as a means to further end, but good in itself”…therefore, it
is only when we recognize that we ought to do an act because it is our duty,
understand the nature of this obligation, and act upon it that we are said to
perform an authentically moral act”. Kant’s theory of moral judgement
emphasizes on the ethical relevance of good will and acting from a sense of duty
(De Guzman, 2018).

Categorical Imperative

Kant regards man as a rational being acting on a principle/maxim. This

maxim is rightly called the Categorical Imperative.

Kant’s 3 Ethical Propositions

1. An act must be done from duty in order for it to have an inner moral worth.

2. An act done from sense of duty derives its moral worth, not from the purpose,
which is to be attained by it, but from the maxim by which it is determined.

3. Duty is the necessity of acting from respect for the law

Kant’s Categorical Imperative

The supreme principle of the moral law is the categorical imperative
Versus hypothetical imperatives, which can either be imperative of skill or
imperative of prudence

Kant’s Formulations of the Categorical Imperative

1. Act only on that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should
become a universal law. (Principle of Universality)

2. Act as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of any other
person or in that of any other, in every case as an end in itself, not as means
only. (Principle of Humanity as End-in-Itself)

3. Act so that your will is what makes universal law. (Principle of Autonomy)

Different Kinds of Rights

The principle of rights theory is the notion that in order for a society to be
efficacious, “government must approach the making and enforcement of laws
with the right intentions in respect to the end goals of the society that it governs.
Members of society agree to give up some freedoms for the protection enjoyed
by organized society, but governments cannot infringe upon the rights that
citizens have been promised.” (De Guzman, 2018)

Rights based ethics is a broad moral theory in which Kant’s principle of

right theory is included. The concepts of rights based ethics is that “there are
some rights, both positive and negative, that all humans have based only on the
fact that they are human. These rights can be natural or conventional. That is,
natural rights are those that are moral value while conventional are those
created/crafted by humans and reflects society’s values. (De Guzman, 2018)

Legal Rights
Legal rights refer to all the rights that you have (as stated in any existing
law) as a citizen of the Philippines, or any particular country.

Moral Rights
Moral rights refer to those rights attributed to all moral entities (Gallinero,
2018). These rights are independent and precisely existed before any legal rights.

Human Rights
“They are best thought of as being both moral and legal rights. The
legitimacy claims of human rights are connected to their status as moral rights.
Nonetheless, the practical efficacy of human rights is essentially dependent upon
their developing into legal rights” (De Guzman, 2018).

UTILITARIANISM

Origins and Nature of Theory

Utilitarianism is a theory that bases morality on the consequences of actions. It is

derived from the Latin term “utilis” which means useful, hence, what is useful is
good and that morality is determined by the consequence of your actions. Jeremy
Bentham and John Stuart Mill, who are both British philosophers, are the main
proponents of utilitarianism.

Jeremy Bentham

Classical Version Of Utilitarianism by Bentham

1. The basis for an act to be treated as morally right or wrong is in its

consequence they produced. It is known as consequentialism. The consequence
is judged as right or wrong only when there is the presence of happiness.
Happiness is the determining factor and basis for the morality of an act in
utilitarian point of view. The end or telos of every act is to produce happiness.

2. What matters in every act that we do would be the amount of

pleasure/happiness produced. The greatest happiness produced should be
chosen over other choices.

3. Thus, it follows that human beings are inclined more to achieving happiness
and as much as possible avoid what is painful. Bentham emphasizes the quantity
of happiness and pleasure in every consequence of an action.

John Stuart Mill

John Stuart Mill “made the doctrine the subject of his philosophical treatise
(Utilitarianism) published in 1863. Like Bentham, he advocates ‘the greatest
happiness principle’ which states that it is the greatest happiness of the greatest
number that is the measure of right and wrong”. (De Guzman, 2018)

“Mill differs fundamentally from Bentham on two central aspects. First, Mill rejects
the purely quantitative treatment of the principle of utility; second, he introduces
the so-called ‘secondary principles’ which set the tone for a contemporary variant
form of the theory called rule utilitarianism”. Mill is considered as qualitative
hedonist. (De Guzman, 2018)

Business’s Fascination and Utilitarianism

When it comes to decision making related to business and the corporate world,
three views are being looked into, namely: economic, legal, and ethics. One of
the ethical theories used in the business and corporate world is the utilitarianism
of Bentham (Gallinero, 2018).

The role of utilitarianism in the moral decision making in business is on the extent
of pleasure and pain to the people. “If the benefit is lesser than the amount spent,
then it is worth it, therefore, it is pain” (Gallinero, 2018).

Justice and Fairness: Promoting the Common Good

John Rawls and the Theory of Justice

He is one of the important political philosopher during the 20th century. His main
work is A Theory of Justice published in 1971. This work has addressed some of
the social issues especially in the name of justice between the state and the
citizens and among the citizens. He received his academic training at Princeton
University, and later part of his career he became a philosophy professor at
Harvard University. (Gallinero, 2018)

“Rawls’ proposes justice as fairness as an ethical framework. This framework

focuses on how justice should be distributed that would yield fairness for those
who have more and those who have less. The term fairness refers not to equality
but equity” (Gallinero, 2018).

Two Principles Of Justice And Fairness

1. “Each person is to have equal right to the most extensive scheme of equal
basic liberties compatible with a similar scheme of liberties for others”.

2. “Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both a)
reasonably expected to be to everyone’s advantage, and b) attached to positions
and offices open to all”.
 The nature of the theory

A common view about a just society is that every member treats each other in a
just way. We want to treat others justly and we want others to treat us exactly the
same way too. Rawls has in mind about an ideal and just society where there is
justice. Justice is the first virtue of a social institution. Justice as fairness to
society and its members, and among each members. (Gallinero, 2018)

Distributive justice

This means “everyone in the society has to share both the burden and the benefit
of whatever the society offers. What is the content of benefit and burden? This
can be answered depending on the following kinds of society – egalitarian,
capitalist and socialist” (Gallinero, 2018).

Types of Egalitarian
1. Economic Egalitarianism (or Material Egalitarianism) is where the participants of a society are
of equal standing and have equal access to all the economic resources in terms of economic
power, wealth and contribution. It is a founding principle of various forms of Socialism.

2. Moral Egalitarianism is the position that equality is central to justice, that all individuals are
entitled to equal respect, and that all human persons are equal in fundamental worth or moral
status.

3. Legal Egalitarianism - the principle under which each individual is subject to the same laws,
with no individual or group or class having special legal privileges, and where the testimony of
all persons is counted with the same weight.

4. Political Egalitarianism is where the members of a society are of equal standing in terms of
political power or influence. It is a founding principle of most forms of democracy.

5. Luck Egalitarianism is a view about distributive justice (what is just or right with respect to the
allocation of goods in a society) espoused by a variety of left wing political philosophers, which
seeks to distinguish between outcomes that are the result of brute luck (e.g. misfortunes in
genetic makeup, or being struck by a bolt of lightning) and those that are the consequence of
conscious options (e.g. career choices, or fair gambles).

6. Gender Egalitarianism (or Zygarchy) is a form of society in which power is equally shared
between men and women, or a family structure where power is shared equally by both parents.

7. Racial Egalitarianism (or Racial Equality) is the absence of racial segregation (the separation
of different racial groups in daily life, whether mandated by law or through social norms).

8. Opportunity Egalitarianism (or Asset-based Egalitarianism) is the idea that equality is possible
by a redistribution of resources, usually in the form of a capital grant provided at the age of
majority, an idea which has been around since Thomas Paine (1737-1809).

9. Christian Egalitarianism holds that all people are equal before God and in Christ, and
specifically teaches gender equality in Christian church leadership and in marriage.
 RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE STATE AND CITIZENS TO EACH OTHER

Responsibilities of the State to the citizens

a. To defend human's basic needs and security
b. To support human's quest for natural well-being
c. To see the administration of justice on fair basis for all
d. To help in the education and cultural life of the people
e. To defend and advance freedom of the citizens.

Responsibilities of Citizens to the State

a. Support and defend the Constitution.
b. Stay informed of the issues affecting the community.
c. Participate in the democratic process.
d. Respect and obey state rules, local laws, and ordinances.
e. Respect the rights, beliefs, and opinions of others.
f. Participate in the various affairs of local community.
g. Pay income and other taxes honestly, and on time, to the state, and local authorities.
h. Serve as reliable witness when called upon.
i. Defend the country if the need should arise.

Globalization is "moving from a world with borders to a world without." In other words,
globalization is the worldwide movement toward economic, financial, trade, and
communications, interconnection, interdependence, interaction and integration. It is the
integration of national economies through trade, investment, capital flow, labor migration, and
technology, removal of barriers between national economies to encourage the flow of goods,
services, capital, and labor.

CONCEPT OF GLOBALIZATION ACCORDING TO JAN SCHOLTE

Internationalization
- refers to ‘cross-border relations between countries. These relations include trade, finance,
communication which create international interdependence among nations and peoples.

Liberalization
- focuses on "open, borderless world economy." Trade and foreign exchange as well as
travel barriers are abolished or reduced, making it possible to participate in the world as a
whole.

Universalization
- refers to the "various ways in which a synthesis of cultures has taken place, etc. such as
having a common calendar, shared common technology.

Modernization or westernization
- refers to the ways that 'social structures of modernity' capitalism, science, movies, music
have spread throughout the world.

Deterritorialization
- means that in a highly globalized world "social space" is no longer wholly mapped in
terms of territorial places... and borders. Corporations and non-government organizations
transcend local geographic constraints.
Moral Challenges of Globalization
-the rise of radical inequality, the problem of managing global environment to prevent
global ecological collapse, and the intrusion of international economic organizations on indebted
nations.
The Moral Challenges of Globalization
1. to expand moral and ethical consciousness;
2. to observe global ethics;
3. to find common grounds among pluralistic societies and build on what is morally best
for all parties and not what is legal or lawful, and
4. to engage in a genuine dialogue with fundamentalists toward mutual understanding
and affirmation.

Global Problems/Issues

1. Global poverty
2. Migration
3. Environmental ethics
4. Pluralism vs. Fundamentalism

THE PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION AND INCLUSIVE GROWTH

Principles of Taxation

As stated in the 1987 Constitution, Article X - Section V, the government has the
power to create sources of revenues and to levy taxes, fees and charges. The
government cannot support its existence and perform its duties such as projects
for the betterment of the land and its people without this power of taxation.

“The basis of taxation is necessity and reciprocal duties. There can be no

government without the monetary aspects for its operations. This responsibility
springs from the concept of rights and duties” (Gallinero, 2018).

The Role of Economics and Inclusive Growth

“The goal of every economic growth is to increase the production of scares

resources so that every people’s wellbeing shall be sustained. This happens only
when the resources are well- distributed for the macro-level, which is the
(economic growth from regional, national and international level), down to micro-
level, which is (economic growth from the personal level that addresses their
aspirations, capabilities, productivities and opportunities)”

THREE UNIVERSAL VALUES SHARED BY ALL CULTURE

1. caring for the young

2. murder is wrong
3. telling the truth
 Challenges of Filinnials

There are 5 generations existing in our time, they are the

Baby Boomers (traditionalists)

 who were born from 1946 and 1964
 achievement-oriented
 dedicated
 career-focused
 Self-Assured
 Goal-centric

Generation X
 who were born from 1965 to 1980
 self-sufficient
 entrepreneurial, educated and independent thinkers
 value diversity, challenges, and responsibility.
 enjoy creative input and rescourceful.

Generation Y or Millennials
 who were born from 1981 to 2000
 are also called the “digital pioneers”.
 they grew up in the digital age or the internet era.
 technologically savvy
 value straightforward management and recognition
 desire diverse work and collaboration
 transparent
 attracted to positions that offer a work-life balance, flexibility and career
advancement

Generation Z
 who were born in 2001 to present.
 “digital natives”
 This generation is the era of mobile technologies such as smartphones,
tablets, iPad, etc.
 pragmatic and financially-minded
 politically progressive

YOLO (You Only Live Once), a catchphrase among millennials and fillennials strengthens the
millennials to live life to the full. However, for others YOLO thinking makes them more daring
and reckless with life itself.

The Religious Response: The Role of Religion in Ethics

Religion is a “specific fundamental set of beliefs and practices generally agreed

upon by a number of persons or sects” (dictionary.com).

Religion is not ethics. Any religion will assert that its religious codes and practices
(including religious moral codes and moral practices) represent a clear road to salvation
or enlightenment. Ethics on the other hand can be used by anyone regardless of religion,
and even those who do not belong to any religious affiliation (Gallinero, 2018).

Although religion and ethics are not the same, the role of religion is important in a
globalized world. Inter-religious dialogues are now being done thereby eliminating the gap
or disharmony among religions and “working together to promote peace, justice and
social harmony” (Banchoff, 2008).

Ethics determines what is good and bad, moral and immoral through the light of
reason.

Religion determines what is moral and immoral based on revelation.

It is not true that theists don't use reason when they determine what is right and
wrong. In fact, theists may want to examine their views of revelation based on
reason.

Religion is in support of ethics not contrary to ethics.