FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

(CDI)

DEFINITION OF TERMS

•Abatement – Any act that would remove or neutralize a fire hazard.

•Administrator – Any person who acts as agent of the owner and manages the use of a
building for him.

•Blasting Agent – Any material or mixture consisting of a fuel and oxidizer used to
set off explosives.

•Biomass – Is the name given to such replaceable organic matter as wood, garbage
and animal manure that can be used to produce energy.

•Cellulose Nitrate Or Nitro Cellulose – A highly combustible and explosive compound

produced by the reaction of nitric acid with a cellulose material.

• Cellulose Nitrate Plastic (Pyroxylin) – Any plastic substance, materials or

compound having cellulose nitrate (nitro cellulose) as base.

•Combustible, Flammable or Inflammable – Descriptive of materials that are easily

set on fire.

•Combustible Fiber – Any readily ignitable and free burning fiber such as cotton,
oakum, rags, waste cloth, waste paper, kapok, hay, straw, Spanish moss, excelsior
and other similar materials commonly used in commerce.

•Combustible Liquid – Any liquid having a flash•point at or above 37.8_C (100_F).

•Corrosive Liquid – Any liquid which causes fire when in contact with organic
matter or with certain chemicals.

•Curtain Board – A vertical panel of non-combustible or fire resistive materials

attached to and extending below the bottom chord of the roof trusses, to divide the
underside of the roof into separate compartments so that heat and smoke will be
directed upwards to a roof vent.

•Cryogenic – Descriptive of any material which by its nature or as a result of its

reaction with other elements produces a rapid drop in temperature of the immediate
surroundings.

•Damper – A normally open device installed inside an air duct system which
automatically closes to restrict the passage of smoke or fire.

•Distillation – The process of first raising the temperature in separate the more
volatile from the less volatile parts and then cooling and condensing the resulting
vapor so as to produce a nearly purified substance.

•Duct System – A continuous passageway for the transmission of air.

•Dust – A finely powdered substance which, when mixed with air in the proper
proportion and ignited will cause an explosion.

•Electrical Arc – An extremely hot luminous bridge formed by passage of an electric

current across a space between two conductors or terminals due to the incandescence
of the conducting vapor.
•Ember – A hot piece or lump that remains after a material has partially burned,
and is still oxidizing without the manifestation of flames.

•Finishes – Materials used as final coating of a surface for ornamental or

protective purposes.

•Fire – A rapid, self-sustaining oxidation process accompanied by the evolution of

heat and light of varying intensity; an active chemical reaction that takes place
between fuel, heat and oxygen in the form of light and noticeable heat. A chemical
reaction; the rapid oxidation of a fuel producing heat and light; an oxidation
taking place with a rate rapid enough to produce heat and light.

•Fire Trap – A building unsafe in case of fire because it will burn easily or
because it lacks adequate exits or fire escapes.

•Fire Alarm – Any visual or audible signal produced by a device or system to warm
the occupants of the building or fire fighting elements of the presence or danger
of fire to enable them to undertake immediate action to save life and property and
to suppress the fire.

•Fire Door – A fire resistive door prescribed for openings in fire separation walls
or partitions.

•Fire Hazard – Any condition or act which increases or may cause an increase in the
probability of the occurrence of fire, or which may obstruct, delay, hinder or
interfere with fire fighting operations and the safeguarding of life and property.

•Fire Lane – The portion of a roadway or public way that should be kept opened and
unobstructed at all times for the expedient operation of fire fighting units.

•Ember – Any device intended for the protection of buildings or persons to include
but not limited to built-in protection system such as sprinklers and other
automatic extinguishing system, detectors for heat, smoke and combustion products
and other warning system components, personal protective equipment such as fire
blankets, helmets, fire suits, gloves and other garments that may be put on or worn
by persons to protect themselves during fire.

•Fire Safety Constructions – Refers to design and installation of walls, barriers,

doors, windows, vents, means of egress, etc. integral to and incorporated into a
building or structure in order to minimize danger to life from fire, smoke, fumes
or panic before the building is evacuated. These features are also designed to
achieve, among others, safe and rapid evacuation of people through means of egress
sealed from smoke or fire, the confinement of fire or smoke in the room or floor of
origin and delay their spread to other parts of the building by means of smoke
sealed and fire resistant doors, walls and floors. It shall also mean to include
the treatment of buildings components or contents with flame retardant chemicals.

•Flash Point – The minimum temperature at which any material gives off vapor in
sufficient concentration to form an ignitable mixture with air.

•Forging/Forcing – A process where a piece of metal is heated prior to changing its

shape or dimensions.

•Fulminate – A kind of stable explosive compound which explodes by percussion.

•Hazardous Operation/Process – Any act of manufacturing, fabrication, conversion,

etc., that uses or produces materials which are likely to cause fires or
explosions.
•Horizontal Exit – Passageway from one building to another or through or around a
wall in approximately the same floor level.

•Hose Box – A box or cabinet where fire hoses, valves and other equipment are
stored and arranged for fire fighting.

•Hose Reel – A cylindrical device turning on an axis around which a fire hose is
wound and connected.

•Hypergolic Fuel – A rocket or liquid propellant which consists of combinations of

fuels and oxidizers which ignite spontaneously on contact with each other.

•Industrial Baking And Drying – The industrial process of subjecting materials to

heat for the purpose of removing solvents or moisture from the same, and/or to fuse
certain chemical salts to form a uniform glazing the surface of materials being
treated.

•Jumper – A piece of metal or an electrical conductor used to bypass a safety

device in an electrical system.

•Occupancy – The purpose for which a building or portion thereof is used or

intended to be used.

•Occupant – Any person actually occupying and using a building or portions thereof
by virtue of a lease contract with the owner or administrator or by permission or
sufferance of the latter.

•Organic Peroxide – A strong oxidizing organic compound which releases oxygen

readily. It causes fire when in contact with combustible materials especially under
conditions of high temperature.

•Overloading – The use of one or more electrical appliances or devices which draw
or consume electrical current beyond the designed capacity of the existing
electrical system.

•Owner – The person who holds the legal right of possession or title to a building
or real property.

•Oxidizing Material – A material that readily yields oxygen in quantities

sufficient to stimulate or support combustion.

•Pressurized Or Forced Draft Burning Equipment – Type or burner where the fuel is
subjected to pressure prior to discharge into the combustion chamber and/or which
includes fans or other provisions for the introduction of air at above normal
atmosphere pressure into the same combustion chamber.

•Public Assembly Building – Any building or structure where fifty (50) or more
people congregate, gather, or assemble for any purpose.

•Public Way – Any street, alley or other strip of land unobstructed from the ground
to the sky, deeded, dedicated or otherwise permanently appropriated for public use.

•Pyrophoric – Descriptive of any substance that ignites spontaneously when exposed

to air.

•Refining – A process where impurities and/or deleterious materials are removed

from a mixture in order to produce a pure element of compound. It shall also refer
to partial distillation and electrolysis.
•Self-Closing Doors – Automatic closing doors that are designed to confine smoke
and heat and delay the spread of fire.

•Smelting – Melting or fusing of metallic ores or compounds so as to separate

impurities from pure metals.

•Sprinkler System – An integrated network of hydraulically designed piping

installed in a building, structure or area with outlets arranged in a systematic
pattern which automatically discharges water when activated by heat or combustion
products from a fire.

•Standpipe System – A system of vertical pipes in a building to which fire hoses

can be attached on each floor, including a system by which water is made available
to the outlets as needed.

•Tetrahedron of Fire – a geometric representation of what is required for fire to

exist, namely, fuel, an oxidizing agent, heat, and an uninhibited chemical reaction

•Vestibule – A passage hall or antechamber between the outer doors and the interior
parts of a house or building.

•Vertical Shaft – An enclosed vertical space of passage that extends from floor to
floor, as well as from the base to the top of the building.

* Fire in Legend and Religion

• In Persian literature – Fire was discovered during a fight of a hero with a

beast. A stone that the hero used as a weapon missed the monster and struck a rock.
Sparks was seen and human saw fire for the first time.

• In Greek mythology, Prometheus was bestowed with god like powers when he stole
the gods’ fire to give it to humanity.

• Fire played a central role in religion. It has been used as a god and recognized
as a symbol of home and family in many cultures. Fire has also been a symbol of
purification and immortality.

* Important Personalities and their Invention

1. John Walker – He was an English Pharmacist who invented the first match in 1827.
The tip of this match was coated with a mixture of antimony sulfide and potassium
chlorate that was held on the wooden matchstick by gum Arabic and starch.

2. Antoine Lavoisier – A French chemist who proved in 1777 that burning is the
result of the rapid union of oxygen with other substance. As the substances burn,
heat and light are produced.

3. Thomas Alva Edison – An American inventor who was able to send an electric
current through a carbon filament until the filament become so hot that it gave off
light.

* Elements of Fire or the Triangle of Fire

1. Fuel – anything that will burn when heated with sufficient oxygen

2. Oxygen – the common oxidizing agent; aids in combustion; comes from the
atmosphere we breath; the atmosphere contains: 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen and 1%
impurities
3. Heat – source of ignition

* Properties of Fire:

A. Physical Properties of Matter Related to Fire

1. Specific gravity – The ratio of the weight of a solid or substance to the weight
of an equal volume of water.

2. Vapor density – The weight of a volume of pure gas compared to the weight of a
volume of dry air at the same temperature and pressure.

3. Vapor pressure – The force exerted by the molecules on the surface of the liquid
at equilibrium.

4. Temperature – the measure of thermal degree of the agitation of molecules of a

given substance; the measure of the molecule activity within a substance.

5. Boiling point – Is the constant temp. at which the vapor pressure of the liquid
is equal to the atmospheric pressure.

6. Fire points – Is the lowest temp. of a liquid in an open container at which

vapors are evolved fast enough to support continuous combustion.

7. Flash point – Is the temp. At which flammable liquids from a vapor air mixture
that ignites.

8. Auto-ignition point/kindling temp.

B. Chemical Properties of Fire:

1. Endothermic Reaction – changes whereby energy (heat) is absorbed or is added

before the reaction takes place.

2. Exothermic reaction – are those that release or give off energy (heat) thus they
produce substances with less energy than the reactants.

3. Oxidation – It is defined, as a chemical change in which combustible material

(fuel) and an oxidizing agent, like oxygen react.

4. Combustion – burning

5. Flame

* Fire Tetrahedron

1. Oxygen (Oxidizing Agent) - a colorless, odorless gas and one of the compositions
of air which is approximately 21% percent by volume.

2. Fuel – the material or substance being oxidized or burned in the combustion

process. Fuel sources: a) Solid – molecules are closely packed together; b) Liquid
– molecules are loosely packed; c) Gas – molecules are free to move

3. Heat – the energy component of the fire tetrahedron; when heat comes into
contact with a fuel, the energy supports the combustion reaction; heat energy is
measured in units of Joules (J), however it can also be measured in Calories (1
Calorie = 4.184 J) and BTU's (1 BTU = 1055 J)

* Types of Energy (common sources of heat)

A. Chemical Energy – the most common source of heat in combustion reactions

B. Electrical Energy – can generate temperature high enough to ignite any

combustible material near the heated area.

Examples:

A. over current or overload

B. sparking
C. lightning
D. Arcing
E. static

C. Nuclear Energy – generated when atoms either split apart (fission) or combine
(fusion)

Example :
A. fission heats water to drive steam turbines
and produce electricity
B. solar energy is a product of a fusion reaction

D. Mechanical Energy – an energy created by friction and compression:

A. Heat of friction - the movement of two surfaces against each other, thus
producing sparks

B. Heat of compression - heat is generated when a gas is compressed in a container

or cylinder

• Temperature – a measure of the degree of molecular activity of a material

compared to a reference point; a measure of the degree of molecular activity of a
material compared to a reference point; measured in degrees Farenheit or degrees
Celsius

º C º F Response
37 98.6 Normal human oral/body temperature
44 111 Human skin begins to feel pain
48 118 Human skin receives a first degree burn injury

55 131 Human skin receives a second degree burn injury

62 140 A phase where burned human tissue becomes numb

72 162 Human skin is instantly destroyed

100 212 Water boils and produces steam
140 284 Glass transition temperature of polycarbonate
230 446 Melting temperature of polycarbonate
250 482 Charring of natural cotton begins
300 572 Charring of modern protective clothing fabrics begins

600 1112 Temperatures inside a post-flashover room fire

4. Self-sustained Chemical Reaction - Combustion is a complex reaction that

requires a fuel (in the gaseous or vapor state), an oxidizer, and heat energy to
come together in a very specific way. Once flaming combustion or fire occurs, it
can only continue when enough heat energy is produced to cause the continued
development of fuel vapors or gases. Scientists call this type of reaction a “chain
reaction”. A chain reaction is a series of reactions that occur in sequence with
the result of each individual reaction being added to the rest.

* What Are The Classes Of Fire Extinguishers?

There are mainly four classes of fire extinguishers – A, B, C and D – and each
class can put out a different type of fire.

Class A extinguishers will put out fires in ordinary combustibles such as wood and
paper

Class B extinguishers are for use on flammable liquids like grease, gasoline and
oil

Class C extinguishers are suitable for use only on electrically energized fires

Class D extinguishers are designed for use on flammable metals

Class E – fires involving electrically energised equipment.

Class F – fires involving cooking oils and fats.

It should be operated using the P.A.S.S. technique

P. Pull the pin on the fire extinguisher in order to break the tamper seal.

A. Aim the fire extinguisher low, with the nozzle pointed at the base of the fire.

S. Squeeze the handle of the fire extinguisher to release the extinguishing agent.

S. Sweep the nozzle from side to side while pointed at the base of the fire until
it is extinguished.

If the fire re-ignites, repeat the last 3 steps.

* Stages of Fire

1. Ignition – describes the period when the four elements of the fire tetrahedron
come together and combustion begins

2. Growth – shortly after ignition, a fire plume begins to form above the burning
fuel. As the plume develops, it begins to draw or entrain air from the surrounding
space into the column.

3. Flashover – the transition between the growth and the fully developed fire
stages and is not a specific event such as ignition. During flashover, conditions
in the compartment change very rapidly as the fire changes from one that is
dominated by the burning of the materials first ignited to one that involves all of
the exposed combustible surfaces within the compartment.

4. Fully-developed – occurs when all combustible materials in the compartment are

involved in the fire

5. Decay – as the fire consumes the available fuel in the compartment, the rate of
heat released begins to decline.

* Three (3) Stages of Fire

1. Incipient phase – Initial stage of fire. Characteristics:

A. normal room temperature
B. thermal updraft rise accumulates at higher point
C. Producing C02, CO, SO2, water and other gases
D. oxygen plentiful
E. temperature at 1000 F

2. Free Burning Phase – A phase of burning in which materials or structures are

burning in the presence of adequate oxygen. Characteristics:

A. fire has involved more fuel

B.heat accumulates at upper area
C. area is fully involved
D. oxygen supply has depleted
E. Temperature exceeds 1,330 F

3. Smoldering – final phase of burning wherein flame ceases but dense smoke and
heat completely fill the confined room

* The three groups of combustible materials basing on the three states of matter
are:

1. Solid Combustible Materials – Includes inorganic or organic, natural or

synthetic, and metallic solid materials.

2. Liquid Combustible Materials – Includes all flammable liquid fuels and

chemicals.

3. Gaseous Substances – Includes those toxic/hazardous gases that are capable of

ignition.

* Classification of Combustible Materials:

1. Class A Fuel – ordinary combustible materials that are usually made of organic
substances such as wood and wood-based products; includes some of those synthetic
and/or inorganic materials like rubber, leather and plastics.

2. Class B Fuel – materials which are in the form of flammable liquids such as
alcohol, acidic solutions, oil, and other chemicals such those liquid petroleum
products.

3. Class C Fuel – normally fire resistant materials; these are material used in
electrical wiring and other electrical appliances.

4. Class D Fuel – combustible metallic substances such as magnesium, titanium;

zirconium, sodium and potassium.

* Factors affecting the combustibility of wood and wood-based products:

1. Physical form
2. Heat conductivity
3. Rate of Combustion
4. Moisture content - water content
5. Rate and Period of heating
6. Ignition Temperature

* Two (2) General Groups of Liquid Fuels:

1. Flammable Liquids – liquids have a flash point below 37.8 degree Celsius (100
degree Fahrenheit)

2. Combustible Liquids – liquids have flash point at or above 37.8 degree Celsius.
(100 degree Fahrenheit )

* Classification of Gases:

A. Based on Source:

1. Natural Gas – The gas used to heat buildings, cook food, and provide energy for
industries. It consists chiefly of methane, a colorless and odorless gas. Natural
gas is usually mixed with compounds of the foul-smelling element sulfur so gas
leaks can be detected. Butane and propane, which make up a small proportion of
natural gas, become liquids when placed under large amount of pressure. When
pressure is released, they change back into gas. Such fuels often called liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG) or liquefied natural gas (LNG), are easily stored and shipped
as liquid.

2. Manufactured Gas – This gas like synthetic liquid fuels is used chiefly where
certain fuels are abundant and others are scarce. Coal, petroleum and Biomass can
all be converted to gas through heating and by various chemical procedures. Gas can
also produce by treating such biomass as animal manure with bacteria called
ANAEROBES. The bacteria expel methane as they digest the waste.

B. Based on or According to Physical Properties:

1. Compressed Gases – are those in normal atmospheric temperature pressure inside

its container. Its pressure is dependent on how much gas is inside the container.

2. Liquefied Gases – are those in normal atmospheric pressure partly in liquid

state and partly in solid state under pressure inside the container. Its pressure
is dependent upon the temperature of the liquid.

3. Cryogenic Gases – are liquefied gases that exist in its container at temperature
far below normal atmospheric temperature, usually slightly above its boiling point
with low moderate pressure.

C. Based on Usage:

1. Fuel gases – flammable gases used for burning with air to produce heat and
utilized as power, light sources, etc..

2. Industrial gases – a large number of gases used in industrial processes such as

those used in welding and cutting of metals. (Oxygen, acetylene), refrigeration,
chemical processing, water treatment, etc.e.g. Freon, ammonia, sulfur dioxide,
hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine and fluorine.

3. Medical gases - those used for treatment such as for anesthesia, and for
respiratory therapy. E.g. Chloroform, nitrous oxide, oxygen.

* Modes of Heat Transfer

1. Conduction – heat transfer within solids or between contacting solids. When a

hot object transfers its heat, conduction has taken place. The transfer could be to
another object or to another portion of the same object. As we have discovered and
will be constantly reinforced about, combustion occurs on the molecular level. When
an object heats up, the atoms become agitated and begin to collide with one
another. A chain reaction of molecules and atoms, like wave energy, occurs and
causes the agitated molecules to pass the heat energy to areas of non-heat.
2. Convection – heat transfer by the movement of liquids or gasses. Air that is
hotter than its surroundings rises. Air that is cooler than its surroundings sinks.
Air is made up of many molecules floating about freely. Even so, it still has
weight. Some molecules are made up of the same element. For example, oxygen in its
natural state will combine with another oxygen atom to form a stable oxygen
molecule. In a given volume, air at a given temperature will have the same density.
density. When heated, as in conduction theory, the molecules become agitated and
begin to collide with one another. In the process, the molecules are demanding more
space to accommodate the vibrations and they push into one another as they seek
that space. When that happens, the density of a given volume is reduced and it
weighs less. Because it weighs less, it rises until it reaches equilibrium-the
level at which the weight is the same as the surrounding atmosphere.

3. Radiation – heat transfer by electromagnetic waves. The last form of heat

transfer occurs by radiation. As we have already seen, heat energy can be
transmitted directly when molecules collide with one another and cause the waves of
heat energy to travel.

4. Flame Contact – heat may be conducted from one body to another by direct flame
contact

* Classifications of Fire

A. Based on Cause

1. Natural Fire – providential involves fires without direct human intervention.

Examples:

A. Earthquake
B. Typhoon
C. Lightning
D. Spontaneous combustion arising from the storage of combustible materials in
poorly ventilated places
E. Explosion from petroleum products, alcohol and other substances
F. Sun rays focused on glasses which may serve as a convex lens

2. Accidental Fire:

A. Carelessly discarded cigarettes

B. Careless disposition of readily combustible materials
C. Poorly managed or defective heating facilities
D. Overheating, spark and electrical defects
E. Overload electric circuits/ Octopus connections
F. Children playing matches
E. Use of candles

3. Intentional Fire/Incendiary – Is one deliberately set under circumstances in

which the person knows that the fire should not be set.

4. Undetermined – whenever the cause cannot be proven, the proper classification is

undetermined

B. Based on Burning Fuel

1. CLASS A – ordinary solid materials such as wood, paper, fabrics, etc.; this will
be indicated by deep cited fire, leaves ashes and embers (glowing coals) after
burning.
2. CLASS B – flammable liquids such as gasoline, lube oil, kerosene, paint thinner,
etc.

3. CLASS C – electrical appliances; causes electric shock.

4. CLASS D – metal fire such as magnesium (white element burning with dazzling
light), sodium
(a silver white metallic element), etc.; creates violent reaction.

5. CLASS E – flammable gases such as LPG, LNG, etc.; also creates violent reaction.

* Fire Classes in the United Kingdom and Europe

A – ordinary combustibles
B – flammable or flammable liquids
C – flammable gasses
D – combustible metals
E – (this class is no longer existing in Europe)
F – cooking oils and fats

* Fire Classes in Australia and Asia

A – everyday combustibles
B – combustible or combustible liquids
C – combustible gasses
D – combustible metals
E – electrical equipment
F – cooking fats and oils

* Fire Classes in the U.S.A. (NFPA)

A – regular combustibles
B – flammable liquids and gasses
C – electrical appliances
D – combustible metals
K – cooking oils and fats

* Fire Extinguishing Agent

Class A – water (all agents)

Class B – foam/carbon dioxide (all agents)
Class C – carbon dioxide/powder (never use water, soda acid and foam)
Class D – special powder
Class E – all agents

* Types of Dry Chemical Extinguisher

1. Ammonium phosphate – also known as "tri-class", "multipurpose" or "ABC" dry

chemical, used on class A, B, and C fires. It receives its class A rating from the
agent's ability to melt and flow at 177 °C (350 °F) to smother the fire. More
corrosive than other dry chemical agents. Pale yellow in color.

2. Foam-Compatible – which is a sodium bicarbonate (BC) based dry chemical, was

developed for use with protein foams for fighting class B fires. Most dry chemicals
contain metal stearates to waterproof them, but these will tend to destroy the foam
blanket created by protein (animal) based foams. Foam compatible type uses silicone
as a waterproofing agent, which does not harm foam. Effectiveness is identical to
regular dry chemical, and it is light green in color (some ANSUL brand formulations
are blue). This agent is generally no longer used since most modern dry chemicals
are considered compatible with synthetic foams such as AFFF.

2. MET-L-KYL – Is a specialty variation of sodium bicarbonate for fighting

pyrophoric liquid fires (ignite on contact with air). In addition to sodium
bicarbonate, it also contains silica gel particles. The sodium bicarbonate
interrupts the chain reaction of the fuel and the silica soaks up any unburned
fuel, preventing contact with air. It is effective on other class B fuels as well.
Blue/Red in color.

3. Potassium bicarbonate & Urea Complex (aka Monnex) – used on Class B and C fires.
More effective than all other powders due to its ability to decrepitates (where the
powder breaks up into smaller particles) in the flame zone creating a larger
surface area for free radical inhibition.

4. Potassium bicarbonate (aka Purple-K) – used on class B and C fires. About two
times as effective on class B fires as sodium bicarbonate, it is the preferred dry
chemical agent of the oil and gas industry. The only dry chemical agent certified
for use in ARFF by the NFPA. Violet in color.

5. Potassium Chloride or Super-K dry chemical – was developed in an effort to

create a high efficiency, protein-foam compatible dry chemical. Developed in the
60s, prior to Purple-K, it was never as popular as other agents since being a salt,
it was quite corrosive. For B and C fires, white in color.

6. Sodium bicarbonate – “regular" or "ordinary" used on class B and C fires, was

the first of the dry chemical agents developed. It interrupts the fire's chemical
reaction, and was very common in commercial kitchens before the advent of wet
chemical agents, but now is falling out of favor, as it is much less effective than
wet chemical agents for class K fires, less effective than Purple-K for class B
fires, and is ineffective on class A fires. White or blue in color.

* Methods of Extinguishment

1. Cooling – heat absorption.

2. Smothering – by expelling oxygen
3. Separation – the removal of the fuel.
4. Inhibition or the interruption of chemical chain reaction

* Strategies Used in Firefighting:

1. Locate the fire

2. Extinguish the fire
3. Confine the fire
4. Exposures

* Factors to Consider in Extinguishment:

1. Time
2. Weather (temperature, humidity, wind)
3. Fire ( ex. Extent, location, bldg construction, contents involved)
4. Occupancy
5. Ventilation (used for clearing the bldg of smoke and gases)

* Types of Ventilation:

A. Vertical ventilation – must be worked from the top to bottom

B. Cross or horizontal ventilation – used if gases have not reached the higher
level through the opening of windows

C. Mechanical force ventilation – a method whereby a device such as smoke ejector

is utilized to remove faster excessive heat and dense smoke

* Factors to determine the location for the opening:

1. Location of intensity of fire

2. Direction of wind
4. Highest point on the roof
5. Existing exposure
Extent of fire
6. Obstruction

* Additional Basic Tactics used in Extinguishing Fire

1. Rescue – any action taken by the firefighters to remove occupants/ persons from
building/ hazards to a safety place

2. Overhaul – a complete and detailed checked of the structures and materials

involved in the fire to make sure that every spark and ember has been extinguished
and to have assurance against re-ignition

3. Salvage – an action taken by the firefighters in preventing excessive damage by

fire, water with the use of salvage cover or by removing materials out from the
burning building

• Ladder Terminology

1. Bed ladder – the lowest section of an extension ladder

2. Fly ladder – the top section of an extension ladder
3. Butt – the bottom end of a ladder
4. Heel – the part of the ladder that touches the ground
5. Halyard – a rope or cable used to raised the fly ladder
6. Pawl or dog – the mechanism located at the end of the fly ladder that locks to
the bed ladder
7. Rung – the cross member of the ladder that is used for climbing
8. Top or tip – it is the top part of the ladder
9. Hooks – part of a ladder that is used to hook over a roof peak, sills, or walls
where the heel does not rest on a foundation. (roof type ladders)
10. Stops – made of metal or wood blocks used to prevent the fly of an extension
ladder from extending out further from the ladder
11. Guides – light metal strips of an extension ladder that guides the fly ladder
while it is being raised or lowered

* Types of Ladder

1. Ground ladders (10 to 55 ft. long)

2. Aerial ladders

* Purposes of Ladders

1. for rescue
2. to stretch line into a fire building
3. to provide ventilation by giving access to places that are hard to reach

* Forms of ground ladders

1. Wall
2. Hook or straight ladder
3. Extension
4. Attic ladder

ARSON INVESTIGATION📎

• Arson – the willful and malicious burning of all kinds of buildings and
structures including personal properties.

• Attempted Arson – In attempted arson, it is not necessary that there be a fire

before the crime is committed. No hard and fast rule is laid down by the law as to
the requirements for attempted arson. The peculiar facts and circumstances of a
particular case should carry more weight in the decision of the case. Thus, a
person intending to burn a wooden structure, collects some rags, soaks them in
gasoline and places them beside the wooden wall of the building. When he is about
to light a match to set fire to the rags, he is discovered by another who chases
him away.

- The crime committed is attempted arson, because the offender begins the
commission of the crime directly by overacts (placing the rags soaked in gasoline
beside the wooden wall of the building and lighting a match) but he does not
perform all the acts of execution (the setting of the fire to the rags) due to the
timely intervention of another who chases away) the offender.

• Frustrated Arson – In frustrated arson, the fact of having set fire to some rags
and jute sacks soaked in kerosene oil and placed near the partition of the entire
soil of an inhabited house, should not be qualified as a consummated arson, in as
much as no part of the house had begun to burn, although fire would have started in
the said partition had it not been extinguished on time. The crime committed was
frustrated arson.

* Note : yes meron po sa book as a general rule meron safe to follow kung hindi
maglalagay ng additional facts sa valdez such as sementado yan house or may bagyo o
malakas yan hangin just follow the valdez principle. US VS VALDEZ pag lumabas lang
yung situation na ganyan sa Question frustrated ang sagot. PERO No such thing as
frustrated arson Mere preparatory acts are generally not punishable by the RPC
walang Case satin sa Pilipinas or sa RPC wala attempted at consumated lang Please
correct me if I am wrong.

• Consummated Arson – The offender did in fact set fire to the roof of the house
and said house was partially burned. The crime was consummated arson,
notwithstanding the fact that the fire afterwards extinguished for once it has been
started, the consummation of the crime of arson does not depend upon the extent of
the damage caused. Setting fire to the contents of a building constitutes the
consummated crime of setting fire to a building even if no part of the building was
burned.

* Elements of Arson

1. Actual burning took place

2. Actual burning is done with malicious intent
3. The actual burning is done by person(s) legally and criminally liable

* Laws on Arson

1. Article 320 – 326 of the Revised Penal Code – defines arson, its forms and
penalties

2. PD 1613 – the law amending the law on arson; defining the prima facie evidence
of arson

3. RA 7659 – An Act to Impose Death Penalty on Certain Heinous Crimes, amending for
that purpose the Revised Penal Code as amended, other special laws, and for other
purposes

4. RA 6975 Sec. 54 – provides that the Fire Bureau shall have the power to
investigate all causes of fires and if necessary file the proper complaint with the
City/Provincial Prosecutor who has jurisdiction over the case

5. RA No. 9514 – known as the "Revised Fire Code of the Philippines of 2008".

• What Constitutes Arson?

1. Burning
2. Willfulness – means intentional and implies that the act was done purposely and
intentionally
3. Malice – denotes hatred or ill will or a desire for revenge; deliberate
intention of doing unjustified harm for the satisfaction of doing it
4 Motive – the moving cause which induces the commission of a crime; something that
leads or
influences a person to do something

5. Intent – the purpose or design with which the act is done and involves the will;
an essential element of crime, motive is not

• Why is arson very hard to investigate?

Arson is one of the most difficult offenses to investigate because the arsonist can
be able to set a fire and escape undetected. The fire can consume the scene and
destroy much physical evidence of the offense. Harder forms of evidence are often
buried in debris and grossly altered in appearance.

• What Constitutes Burning?

1. The mere fact that a building is scorched or discolored by heat is not

sufficient nor will bare intention or even an attempt to burn a house amount to
arson, if no part of it is burned.

2. Yet, if there is actual ignition of any part of the building, arson is

committed, although there be no flame or the fire immediately goes out of itself.

3. To burn means to consume by fire and in the case of arson, if the wood is
blackened but no fibers are wasted, there is no burning, yet the wood need not be
in flame or blaze, and the burning of any part, however, small is sufficient to
constitute arson, and if the house is charred in a single place so as to destroy
the fibers of the wood, it is sufficient to constitute arson.

* Some of the Burn Indicators

1. Alligatoring: Checking of charred wood, giving it the appearance of alligator

skin. Large rolling blisters indicate rapid, intense heat; small, flat alligatoring
indicates long low heat.

2. Crazed and fractured glass: Crazing refers to the cracking of glass into smaller
segments or subdivision in an irregular pattern. Crazing into small segment or
pieces suggest that the item was subjected to a rapid and intense heat build up. It
also suggests that the item may be located at or close to the point of origin. A
glass item that inhibits a larger crazing pattern implies that it may have been in
an area some distance away from the point of origin.

3. Depth of char: This is the depth of burning of wood – used to determine length
of burn and thereby locate the point of origin.

4. Distorted light bulbs: Incandescent light bulbs can sometimes show the direction
of heat impingement. As the side of the bulb facing the source of heat is heated
and softened, the gases inside a bulb can begin to expand and bubble out of the
softened glass. This is traditionally been called a pulled light bulb.

5. Line of demarcation: Boundary between charred and uncharred material. On floor

or rugs, a puddle – shaped line of demarcation is believed to indicate a liquid
fire accelerant. In a cross section of wood, a sharp, distinct line of demarcation
indicates a rapid intense fire.

6. Sagged furniture spring: Because the heat required for furniture spring to
collapse from their own weight (1, 150 degrees Fahrenheit) and because of the
insulating effect of the upholstery, sagged spring are believed to be possible only
in either the fire originating inside the furniture or an external fire intensified
by a fire accelerant.

7. Spalling: Is a condition ordinarily associated with masonry and cement building

materials. It may appear as a distinctive discoloration of bricks or concrete; in
some cases, the surface of the building may be pitted and rough. This is because an
intense fire may cause the moisture inside the masonry or brick element to convert
to steam.

8. Freezing of leaves: Drying of leaves in a forest fire into their position at the
time of the fire. Because leaves turn during the day to face the sun, their
position indicates the time of day the fire occurred.

* Basis of Liability in Arson:

1. Kind and character of the building, whether of public or private ownership.

2. Its location, whether in an uninhabited place or in a populated place.
3. Extent of damage caused; and
4. The fact of its being inhabited or not.

* Some of the Arson Evidence that the Investigator should seek at the Fire scene
are the following:

1. Unusually rapid spread of the fire.

2. Where it originated?

3. Separate fires – when two or more separate fires break-out within a building,
the fire is certainly suspicious.

4. Unusual odors – the odor of gasoline, alcohol, kerosene and other inflammable
liquids are indicated by their characteristics and oftentimes, arsonists are
trapped because of this tell tale signs.

5. Objects that appear to be foreign to the scene such as cans, candles, matches,
explosives, electrical appliances such as irons, heating elements, clocks, radios,
flammables, trailers, etc.

6. Charring pattern may indicate fire characteristics. The fact that the fire feeds
on combustible while propagating itself, indicates that the char will generally be
deepest from where the fire originates. When a fire is extinguished quickly, the
charring is only slightly below the surface. Fire burning for a longer period of
time will indicate a char that is deep and pronounced. These facts are most
apparent in the charring of wood as a fire burns. The charring from fire on woods
looks like the hide of a black alligator. Fire extinguished quickly on wood will
show a large alligatoring pattern that has not penetrate the wood to any extent.
Fire burning for a long period of time on wood will show small alligatoring pattern
but the char will go deep into the wood. The direction of fire can also be taken
into consideration with charring. The exposed side of combustible will have a
deeper char than the unexposed side.

7. Evidence of forcible entry or lack of same may be important depending on the

circumstances at the time of the fire. If the investigator determines there was no
forcible entry and finds that the building was secured prior to discovery of the
fire, he can reasonably suspect there is possibility that the person who sets the
fire entered the building with a key. Doors and windows showing signs of forced
entry may point to arson preceded by burglary or arson by someone without a key to
the premises.

* Motive of Arson Can Be Established By:

1. Economic Gain

A. Insurance fraud with the assured directly benefiting:

1. Desire to move – the premises may no longer be desirable because of the

condition of the building, the fact that the quarters are outgrown or because of
the locality.

2. Disposing of Merchandise – the stocks on hand may have lost value by reason of
the seasonal nature of the business, obsolesce, scarcity of materials necessary to
complete the contracts, overstock in the absence of expected order or a changing
market.

3. Property Transaction – the business itself may no longer be desirable because of

impending liquidation, settlement of an estate of which it is a part, the need for
cash, prospective failure, the comparatively greater value of the land, or the
comparatively greater value of the insurance benefits.

B. Profit by the Perpetrator other than the assured:

1. Insurance agents wishing business

2. Insurance adjusters desiring to adjust a loss by securing a contract
3. Business competitors
4. Persons seeking jobs as protection personnel
5. Salvagers
6. Contractors wishing to rebuild or wreck

2. Concealment of Crime – the arsonists may set fire to a building in order to

conceal a projected or past crime. He may wish to divert attention in order to loot
the burning premises or steal in other places. The burning may be for the purpose
of destroying evidences.

3. Punitive Measure – An arsonist may use fire as a means of punishing another

person for reason of jealousy, hatred or revenge.

4. Intimidation or Economic Disabling – The fire may be used as a weapon of the

saboteurs, the strikers or the racketeers to intimidate or to disable economically
as a step toward forcing submission to certain demands.
5. Pyromania – Is the uncontrollable impulse of a person to burn anything without
motivation. Pyromaniacs usually do not run away from the scene of the crime,
usually alone and feel satisfied watching the flame

* Types of Pyromaniacs:

A . Abnormal Youth – Epileptics, imbeciles and morons may set fire without knowing
the seriousness of the act.

B. The Hero Type – a person may set fire on a building, subsequently pretends to
discover it and turn in the alarm so that he will appear a hero to the public. A
person may burn a building and endeavor to achieve spectacular rescue in order to
attract the attention of spectators.

C. Alcoholics and Drug Addicts – persons who subject themselves to intense

artificial stimulants such as narcotics sometimes develop a strong urge toward
incendiaries.

D. Sexual Deviates – some sex perverts derive sexual stimulation from setting a
fire and watching the flame. Frequently, he is chronic masturbator who stimulates
and enhances his sexual gratification by means of arson.

6. Public Disturbance – an offender may resort to arson as a means of a public

disturbance because a fire attracts people and destruction causes confusion that
gives rise to attendant problems that divert police attention.

7. Vandalism – Is a general term denoting intentional burning to destroy

properties.

* In determining motive, a fire investigator concentrates on three major factors:

1. Points of origin of the fire

2. Modus operandi of the arsonist
3. Identify of persons who might benefits from the fire.

* Incendiary Materials

Materials used to start a fire; combustible fuels:

1. Arson Chemicals (liquids) – are incendiary materials often used by arsonists as

accelerants. Possess excellent properties. Examples: alcohol, benzene, petroleum
ether, gasoline, kerosene, naptha, turpentine.

2. Gases – as acetylene, butane, CO, ethylene, hydrogen, natural gas, propane,

these are common gases resulting in fires from explosion. These when mix with air
possess excellent in ignition properties and when present in an enclosed area can
lead to explosion.

3. Solids – as chlorates, perchlorates, chromates, bichromates, nitrates,

permanganates – are typical families of oxidizing agents which give off oxygen on
decomposition thus aiding in combustion.

* Collection of Liquid Samples for Accelerant Testing

1. Liquid accelerants may be collected with

A. New syringe
B. Siphoning device
C. Evidence container itself
D. Sterilize cotton balls or gauge pads may also be used to absorbed the liquid

2. Where liquid accelerants are believed to have become trapped in porous materials
such as concrete floor:

A. Lime
b. Diatomaceous earth
c. flour

3. Collection of liquid evidence absorbed by solid materials including soils and

sand:

A. Scooping
B. Scraping
C. drilling
D. Core drilling

4. Collecting of Solid samples for accelerant testing

• Solid accelerant may be common household materials and compounds or dangerous

chemicals. When collecting solid accelerants:

A. The fire investigator must ensure that the solid accelerant is maintained in
physical state in which is found

B. Some incendiary materials remain Corrosive and Reactive

C. Ensure the corrosive nature of these residue does not attack the packaging
container

5. Collection of Gaseous samples

* Method of Collection:

A. Use of commercially available mechanical

sampling device

B. Utilization evacuated air sampling cans. These cans are specifically designed
for taking gaseous samples

C. Use of clean glass bottled filled with distilled water. Distilled water use as
it has had most of the impurities removed from it. This method simply require the
investigator poured the distilled water out of its bottle in the atmosphere to be
sampled. As distilled water leaves the bottle it is replaced by the gaseous sample

6. Collection of Electrical Equipments and Components

Before wires are cut, a photograph should be taken of the wires, and the both ends
of the wire should be tagged and cut so that they can be identified as one of the
following:

A. The device or appliance to which it was attached or from which it was severed

B. The circuit breaker or fuse number or location to which the wire was attached or
from which it was severed

C. The wire’s path or the route it took between the device and the circuit
protector, electrical switches, receptacles, thermostats, relays, junction boxes,
electrical distribution panels, and similar equipment and components are often
collected as physical evidence.