CHAPTER 6 Butterworth Lowpass ‘This chapter is concerned with the design of lowpass filters of the general class realized by the biquad circuit ofthe last chapter. In the biquad circuit the param- ‘tery fixed the transition from pass band to stop band, leaving only Q to shape the magnitude response. Here our objective is to approximate the lowpass filter ‘characteristic through the cascade connection of a number of circuits, each tuned to a different @ (said to be stagger tuned), together contributing to achieve the required overall response. 6.1_ THE IDEAL LOWPASS FILTER ‘The input voltage, shown in Fig. 6.1 contains a low-frequency signal plus hash, term we apply to unwanted high-frequency signals such as shrill tone, scratch- Ing sounds, or chirps, To remove the hash, leaving only the low-frequency signal, Fequires that we have a lowpass filter capable of passing low frequencies and re- jecting high frequencies. Had voltage v, contained several low-frequency signal ‘components, we would like the filter design to be such that each was transmitted ‘without change in amplitude. This would not be the case if we had used the bi- quad circuit ofthe last chapter with a moderately high value of Q, for, as shown bby Fig, 62, signals near «, = 1 rad/s would be multiplied by as much as Q, in contrast with lover frequency signals which passthrough the filter without multi- plication From this discussion itis clear that the idea filter characteristic we seck is that shown in Fig 63. Below the normalized frequency of w, = I, the amplitude fof T(js) i « constant; above that frequency the value of T'is 0. The pass band land stop band are clearly separated at «= 1. Because of is shape, this character- istic is called a brick wall itis the ideal lowpass filter characteristic. While we rec- ‘ognize that we will not be able to achieve the ideal, it provides a basis on which we can rate an approximation. As shown in Fig. 64, we desire that 7 be as nearly constant as possible in the pass band. In the stop band we require n-pole 197158 CHAPTER 6 BUTTERWORTH LOWPASS FILTERS Lowpass iter icuRE 63 rolloff, where mis a large number, in contrast to the n = 2 rolloff forthe biquad circuit. We want the transition from pass band to stop band to be as abrupt as possible ‘The method we will use in our approach to this problem is illustrated in Figs. 6.5 and 6.6. Suppose that we connect three modules in cascade such that the ‘overall transfer function T is equal to the product T,7;7;. The product of the magnitudes is shown in Fig. 6.6 as the dashed line, which i af the form required in Fig. 64. The large values of (7; are just overcome by the small values of |73| and |7)| to achieve the approximation to the brick wall. The transfer functions have the same value of w, but different values of Q. How do we determine the requlted values of Q? To answer this question will be our frst objective, 6.2 BUTTERWORTH RESPONSE We first review a topic in the algebra of complex numbers. If we denote the real and imaginary parts of the complex transfer function as TU) = Re THs) + jm Tis) wy then we may enumerate some of the properties of TUis). Now the real part of Eq. (6.1) isan even function, while the imaginary partis an odd function. This means ‘that replacing js by —jo will change the sign of the Imaginary part, But Not that of the real part. Hence Thos) = Re Ths) ~ jim Tv) 2) ‘This function is also known as the conjugate of Tj), so that Ted) = Tis) 3)6.2. BUTTERWORTH RESPONSE 159 HGURE 63 Since Tis)T* Ge) = (Re TY + (Im TP = [Te 4) wwe have the important relationship ITU)? = TH)T-Ja) 5) In the past we have frequently replaced s by jw or jw by , so that ITGey? = TOT-Dnw 69) ‘which is an important relationship in our study. Now the magnitude-squared function is an even function in that [j= [T(~j) we represent the mag- nitude squared function wo quotient of polynomials then both the numerator dnd the denominator polynomial must be even. Let this quotient be ir.oye = 4D. 6 ‘We choose a simple form for A(u") by letting it be a constant 4, Then IT18y" = (68) FB ‘The reason for this choice is that we wish to make the rolloff of |T.(je)| large for large o, which is accomplished by making the difference ofthe degree of A and the degree of B as possible. This choice will give a [7s with m pole rollof and a 7,s) that will be known as an all-pole function. The special case in which all B coefficients except B, and B,, have zero value, Ay = By such that Tf) = 1, and " (69) ITP Syateror ya — Brick wall160 CHAPTER 6 BUTTERWORTH LOWPASS FILTERS nots LY Lye b TTI", FIGURE 6S ives us the simple form of Ea (6. at ION = aa “This response 1s known asthe Bullerworth response” We may follow our usual procedure and let the frequency be normalized such that wy = 1, giving 1 TU ee From this equation we may observe some interesting properties of the Butter worth responte: (6.10) uy 1. {TM} = 1 for alm; the consequence of normalization. 2. |TAGD| = 1/2 & 0.707 for all n 3. For large w,|7.(ju) exhibits n-pote roof. 4. The derivatives of|7,(is) for small «are of interest we express Fa. (6.10) by a Taylor series, 1 _ 17.) = (+o = then it follows that eke oy na 13) while (6.14) ‘Since this form of response has all derivatives but one equal to zero near w= (0, the response is also known as maximally flat. These properties are shown in Fig. 67. Observe the maximally flat property, and also that the case m= 10 ‘comes close to our brick-wall ideal response. 6.3 BUTTERWORTH POLE LOCATIONS (ur next objective is to determine the location of the poles for the transfer func~ tion with a Butterworth response. We begin by combining Pq (64) with Faq +S. Buuervort' oii paper appear i he collection of paper M.E. Van Val Theory: Foundation! and Cacia? Conrbuton, Dowden, Hutchison & Res, Souter, Pa [Din Tal form of apone wes aod by oter eae contr: tothe Ald bt ie anos63. BUTTERWORTH POLE LOCATIONS 161 a 05 77 15 CURE 66 (6.10) modified by letting) = 1 and w = s/f: 1 rots pg as) 1 -aoe (10) The pls o 4 (6.16 ae ew fhe suai B)BA-s) = 1+ ye =0 in ere B has been noon to designate the Butervorthpobomi “SS og a 7 og ‘ “ | 0 ITA, Dee te cure 67162 CHAPTER 6 BUTTERWORTH LOWPASS FILTERS ‘We will illustrate the solution of Eq. 6.17 by considering several examples. Let n= 1 s0 that Fa(t9d-9=0 (6.18) ‘Thus the poles are located as s = +1, as shown in Fig, 6.8a. The pole in the right half-plane corresponds to an unstable system, and so we select the pale in the let half-plane to associate with B, and T,. Then pers amd Tech on) Itwe etn = 2 ten Ea (617) becomes aon 20 tw we 1+ in te pou fom, ieee) a for integer values of and k= 0, then we see that the angles ofthis equation are 180° + £366 4 = 45°, 1359, 25%, 315° (622) as shown in Fig. 68b. As we did for the n = I case, we select the roots in the left half-plane to assign to 7), Bia) = (0.707 + 0.07(-0.107 ~ 07) = # + J+ 1 (6.23)63. BUTTERWORTH POLE LOCATIONS 163 and 1 EET (62 For m= 3 the form of Eq. (6.17) is Inee0 or ent 625) The angles corresponding to Eq. (6.22) are 4, — 1260" 02,02, 10%, 102,208, 300° 626) and all roots of Eq. (6.25) are on a unit circle. If we generalize the two angle rela- tionships of Eqs. (6.22) and (6.26), we have woo PAE) kena am ‘We will sldom use this, since a different form is better suited to our needs. All of the poles of 7,(s) will be located on a unit circle because of the fre~ {quency normalization in which we set «= I, In addition, we will always select the poles in the left half-plane, since only these correspond to a stable circuit, Now #, in Eq, (6.27) the angle measured trom the positive teal ais. Since our ‘concern is in the left half-plane, let us measure the angle with respect to the nega~ tive real axis, designating it as J, as in Chapter 5. Using this approach, we return to the case m = 3 and Eq. (6.25) and see that the angles of the poles are He 0°, +609, ~60" (628) Knowing the sine and cosine of 60°, we see that 1, S34 3). pete SbrtsGaurnerern 62 By) = (6+ 1) ‘This form is better suited to our needs, especially if we use the form of Eq. (5.29), from which 1 = of, Te rzesvern (630) ‘Two simple rules permit us to determine ¥) 1. If mis odd, then there is a pole at y= 0°; ifm is even, then there are poles at y= 250%, 2. Poles are separated by y= 180°/n “The consequences of these miles are that thece are never poles on the imaginary aris, and there is always symmetry with respect to both the real and the imagi- nary axes when the poles for both T(s) and T(~s) are included, ‘There are various ways in which information about the Butterworth re- sponse can be presented, The angles for each value of m can be presented, a is64 CHAPTER 6 BUTTERWORTH LOWPASS FILTERS iGURE 6S done in Fig. 63, a8 derived from the rules given following Eq (6.0). Table 6. tabulates the pole locations form = 2 to n= 10, and Table 62 gives the coefi- cients ofthe Buterworth polynomials 8). The value of Q foreach of the pole Tocation is routinely found using the result given in Eq, (3.39) and apparent in 4, (630), since os =I, 1 ody 3» Such values are given in Table 63. Finally, the phase angle associated with the Butterworth response is found, once B,@) known, a8 Jen BGs) Re Bia) ‘These angles for n= 1 to m= 10 are given in Fig. 6.10. 0, —tan"! (632) Example 61. We wish to tabulate information concerning the Aih-order Butterworth re- sponse and calculate the phase angle atthe frequency w= 1 Since n= 5 indicates an odd Butterworch function, we know that one pole i located at y= U and tat the ers are separated from t by multiples of [80/3 = 36", Imus 63» “The poe cto ae oo ‘They ae then at 101000 Coaaoina = j0serTes2 ‘The values of Q for the poles are found ffom Eq. (6.31) as 0.500, 0618 and 1.618. The fifth-order Butterworth function i BG) = (0+ IMP + 2008 36" 4 IY? + 2608 2° 5 +1) (635) which can be compared with values tabulated in Table 63. The phase angle at w= 1 can te calculated from Eq. (635) by simply determining the phase ofeach of the terms. Here we see that . Ax) = 43° + 90" + 90° = 225° (636)sesuodsoy yuomsoning 10) uonr>0] 9104 19 STAVE$0. 2 eg 2) od a oma pp 0 ors sy wt uy wt oor Ist eve wr Ise eo 60ers so. ot gaz. sso LO wo Ogee wo 190 «0 iso 650 e010 O BL sso 90 0. S90 Oca so f0 wo 90 WO LO Iso soto eso S60 o90 oso oso oso soso esos soo 6 won uv oe 9 + @& spo wou sejou quomonng joo €9 318Vi 166164 LOWPASS FILTER SPECIFICATIONS 167 SS 200] zm Og. dees 400] s uh? —~_] 600] oa 8 1630 6.4 LOWPASS FILTER SPECIFICATIONS ‘Since the early 1920s it has been traditional for those who design electronic am- plifiers to think in terms of gain decibels being positive, while those who design filters think of loss in decibels as being positive. With the advent of the op amp nd thus active filters, we need both concepts. Rather than adopt one point of view or the other, we resolve the problem by using two symbols as explained in Chapter 1. Thus an-A 4B 637) where A= 20 tog [TU] AR (638) In doing so we are simply introducing another coordinate system which reverses the direction of our plots up or down. The Butterworth response of Fig. 6.7 is shown on linear eaordinates. The correspanding plot of « in decibels as a func- tion of linear w is shown in Figs. 6.11 and 6.12, one for the pass band and the ‘other forthe stop band. Such plots are useful for visualizing magnitudes, but de- sign values will always be found using a calculator. The manner in which specifications for iter will be given (o the engineer is illustrated by the plot of Fig. 6.13. For the pass band extending from « = 0 to ‘© = w, the attenuation should not exceed dy, From w, tow, we have a transition ‘band. Then the specifications indicate that from «, and forall higher frequencies the attenuation should not be less than a. Given ths information, we need to find n and «as applied to the Butterworth response, from which the design can proceed. We begin with Eq. 6.10) for the Butterworth response, retaining nce it ie now ane of the wnknowne. Substituting thie equation into Eqs. (6.17)168 CHAPTER 6 BUTTERWORTH LOWPASS FILTERS 10 cure 631 and (6.38) gives us om ong[t+[2f) a « ing by 10 and then finding the antlogarithm gives us ey 1+ (ey (6.40) and from this equation, (41) ‘Thus if we are given corresponding values of a and w, then wy is determined. If we select ga, and «as defined in Fig. 6.13, then Eq. (6.41) becomes (642) Which expresses win terms of specified quantities. ‘To determine m, we start with Eq. (6.40) and substitute values of « and o that 0 together, as indicated in Fig. 6.13. Then tw (643)64 LOWPASS FILTER SPECIFICATIONS 169 Stop-band atten and <1 (644) ing these equations gives us ‘Taking the logarithm of this equation and solving for m gives the desired result Hoe 10 — 1/104" — 1) Toe (w/e) oe (6-45) ab170 CHAPTER 6 BUTTERWORTH LOWPASS FILTERS ab} CURE 64 This is the second required equation to be used in design. A calculator is useful in carrying out the operations indicated by this equation. ‘A design procedure is carried out in two steps 1 Using Eq. (6.46), find n, This will ordinarily be a noninteger, so we round up to the next integer value and assign it ton, 2. Using this integer n, we find w, We cannot meet the specifications exactly now because we are not using the noninteger n. However, we have two choices If we use the value of given by Eq, (6.42), then we meet one specifica tion exactly, as shown in Fig. 6.l4a, but there is excess @ at 0, b, Ifwe compute « using Eq. (6.41) matched to the other specitication point, 8" T= an) as shown in Fig. 6.14, this will result in meeting one specification ex- ‘actly with a smaller value of attenuation in the pass band than is re- ‘quired. In a given design problem we can try both possibilities with the aid of a ealeu- lator to see which offers an advantage. Example 62 Suppose that we are required to realize the following specifications with a Butterworth response eu =05 6B, gn = 204 000 rad/s, &,= 2000 rad/s64 LOWPASS FILTER SPECIFICATIONS 171 For these specifications we wish to determine the transfer funtion Ts from which areal ination can be found. Substituting the required values into Eq. (6.46) we Bind that, = 485208, sound upton=5 (648) ‘Suppose that we decide to use Eq. (647) to determine «Is found to be w= 12632. IF wwe had used Eq (642), it would have been found to be wy = 1236, The Butterworth case n= Shat heen concidered ence i thi hapter and tne found tha the required values (0f Q are 05, 0618, and 1.618. Hence the realization of circuits to meet these specifications wil be inthe block diagram form shown in Fig. 6.15, where each block could be realized using the biguad circuit of Chapter 5, for example, but other alternatives wil be given in the next section. We will do our design by leting oy = nally and then frequency sale to the required by using the sealing constant ky = 12632. Finally we should check to see what the attenuation is ato Using Eq. (639), we find that ec) = 10g | 1+ | =a an 68) ‘whichis les than th specified 0. dB as predicted 65 SALLEN AND KEY CIRCUIT ‘The citeuit given in Fig. 6.16 is one of a clas of citeuits that wete descsibed in 1955 by Sallen and Key,* then at MIT's Lincoln Laboratory. In the circuit the noninverting op-amp circuit provides a constant relationship between V; and V., which is vs pats (650) ‘The enntrlled-sontee representation of the Sallen and Key cite x given in Fi. 6.17, This circuit may be routinely analyzed using Kirchhoff’s current law. At node a the currents directed out of the node must sum to 2er0, oF LK y).[B- L [=r] [Bb-deoeo Dp Similarly, the sum ofthe currents out of node bis ty 1 Bm EtOH 4 RG -I-O (632) We next rearrange this equation ina form for slation: 1,1 Aaa thee n-BBekvcn 6s ‘it Theory CTD pp 14-85, 1988 “ene mn vee