CHAPTER 1: HEALTH EDUCATION

LESSON 1-3: CONCEPTS, THEORIES, & PRINCIPLES IN HEALTH EDUCATION/ PROMOTION

DEFINITION OF TERMINOLOGIES
Health
• Old English: haelen – “to heal”
• Middle English: helthe – “to be sound in body, mind and spirit”
• Greek – “to prolong life and prevent disease” or “to keep people healthy”
• India – “Ayurveda” – the science of life or health

• 1948 – “A state of complete physical, mental, and social well – being and not merely the absence of disease
or infirmity “(WHO, 1974 p.29)
→ HOLISTIC

Public Health
• Art of applying science in the context of politics so as to reduce inequalities in health while ensuring the best
health for the greatest number (World Health Report, 98)

• Science & Art of:

– Preventing disease;
– Prolonging life; and
– Promoting health & efficiency through organized community effort for the:
✓ Sanitation of environment;
✓ Control of communicable infections;
✓ Education of the individual in personal hygiene; organization of medical and nursing services for the
early diagnosis and preventive treatment of disease; and
✓ Development of a social machinery to ensure everyone a standard of living adequate for the
maintenance of health

SCOPE OF PUBLIC HEALTH:

❖ Health Services systems
❖ Health behavior and motivation (ex: fake news affecting people’s view of vaccines; to combat this gov is
spreading pubmats to encourage people) – educate people to change their practices
❖ Environmental hazards – (ex: reklamo factories releasing fumes)

HEALTH BEHAVIOR
• “Any activity undertaken by an individual regardless of actual or perceived health status, for the purpose of
promoting, protecting and maintaining health, whether or not such behavior is objectively effective
towards that end”. (WHO, 1998) – even if the practices are wrong
• “Personal attributes such as beliefs, expectations, motives, values, perceptions and other cognitive
elements, personality characteristics, including affective and emotional states and traits and behavioral
patterns, actions and habits that relate to health maintenance, to health restoration and to health
improvement”. (David Gochman, 1982)

Health Education:
→ Disseminating information
→ Teaching people how to take care of their health. – teach them how to be SELF-RELIANT
→ Telling people what to do to protect themselves from disease, etc.

Health education has also been defined by:

1. Green, et al 1980:
→ Health education is any combination of learning experiences designed to facilitate voluntary
adaptations of behavior conducive to health. – should not be coercive

2. Joint Committee on Health Education and Promotion Terminology of 2001:

→ "any combination of planned learning experiences based on sound theories that provide individuals,
groups, and communities the opportunity to acquire information and the sum needed to make
quality health decisions." (ex of sound theory health belief model; include perceived severity)
→ The areas of concern are physical health, social health, emotional health, intellectual health,
environmental health and spiritual health.

3. World Health Organization:

→ “comprises of consciously constructed opportunities for learning involving some form of communication
designed to improve health literacy, including improving knowledge and developing life skills which are
conducive to Individual and Community health.”

4. Downie, Fyfe and Tannahill – 1990:

→ Communication activity aimed at enhancing positive health and preventing or diminishing ill –health in
individuals and groups through influencing beliefs, attitudes and behavior of those with power and of
the community at large”
→ Facilitates modification of health behaviors

5. Green & Kreuter – 2005:

→ Any planned combination of learning experiences designed to predispose, enable and reinforce
voluntary behavior conducive to health of Individual, Group & Community.

• Should be viewed w/in the changing context of health & disease; w/in the changing health picture where
lifestyles play an important role & w/in the accepted definition of health. (it evolves; ex: shift in HIV trends
from female to MSMs)
• Not just telling people what to do.
• Rather, it is leading out what people already know & believe & do about their health; modifying those that
are undesirable, & developing desirable behaviors that are conducive to health.
• Not a “one shot” deal, but is a process of providing learning experience to people in order that they may be
able to define their health problems, personal, family & community - & to take the needed actions for
solving these problems. (make a community diagnosis, rank the most prevailing one)

• The principle by which individuals and groups of people learn to behave in a manner conducive to the
promotion, maintenance, or restoration of health.

6. Presidents Committee 1973:

→ The process that bridges the gap between health information and health practice (address the wrong
behavior by health education)

7. Simmonds, 1976:
→ The process of bringing about behavioral changes in individuals, groups, and larger populations from
behaviors that are presumed to be detrimental to health, to behaviors that are conducive to present and
future health

8. Green, 1980:
→ Any combination of learning experiences designed to facilitate voluntary adaptations not behavior
conducive to health

9. National Task Force on the Preparation and Practice of Health Educators, 1983:
 → The process of assisting individuals, acting separately or collectively to make informed decisions about
matters affecting the personal health and that of others

Key words in the definitions of Health Education

• Process- means a series of learning experiences.
• Combination – connotes that there is no single best method, rather a combination is desirable.
• Designed – means it is planned, not a hit or miss process.
• Facilitates – emphasizes educator-learner relationship such as assisting, helping and supporting role of educator
not just telling.
• Voluntary adaptation – not manipulated or coerced.
• Behavior – as the target outcome

*Ultimate goal of health education is changed behavior

Lessons from Global & National History of Health Education/Promotion

• Pre-historic Era
• Industrial Revolution
• Post-Civilized Stage

1. Pre-Historic Era
Characteristics of Health Education in the earlier periods:
a. Firstly, it was based on Authority and tradition. Its sources were the classical, medical authors, empirical
knowledge and folklore.
b. Secondly, it was closely linked to the literacy of the people. As more people learned to read, more health
literature was produced for them.
c. Thirdly, the audience for health literature was affected by the rise of new social and political orders.
d. Finally, Health education was directed to the individual and was not concerned with the community except
when the need arises in times of epidemics.

2. Industrial Revolution
❖ The 18th century endeavored to project hygiene from a personal to a public plane.
• John Howard showed that people are galvanized into action when facts about social disease are
made available to them and that an aroused and informed public opinion could be a lever of social
reform.
❖ The 19th century illustrated how health education has included the concept of arousing public opinion in
support of legislative action for improved public health.

19th Century advanced 3 requirements for Health Education

1) Purpose to drive it forward powered by self-interest.
2) Knowledge to make it effective. It leaped forward from the darkness of the middle ages to the
scientific outlook of the modern world.
3) Means to get it across. Means to educate that the most striking change was to take place.

❖ Health Education has turned to social sciences for a better understanding of how to work with people
individually or in groups.
❖ Objectives of Health Education has changed. Simply presenting information is not enough. What counts is
whether and how this knowledge is applied.

3. Post-Civilized Stage
❖ It reflects the changing patterns of health and a growing understanding of the social, biological, and physical
environment that influence health.
❖ It has adopted the principle that Health Education is working “with” rather than “for” the people.
❖ It has marked the shift in emphasis to Health Promotion
*health education is under the umbrella of health promotion

HEALTH PROMOTION
• Health promotion is the process of enabling people to increase control over, and to improve, their health. It
moves beyond a focus on individual behavior towards a wide range of social and environmental
interventions. (larger in scope)
• As a core function of public health, health promotion supports governments, communities and individuals to
cope with and address health challenges. This is accomplished by building healthy public policies, creating
supportive environments, and strengthening community action and personal skills.

HEALTH EDUCATION
➢ Central concern is Health behavior

3 categories of Health Behavior (Kasl and Cobb):

A. Preventive Health Behavior: Any activity undertaken by an individual who believes himself to be healthy for
the purpose of preventing or detecting illness in an asymptomatic state.

B. Illness Behavior: any activity undertaken by an individual who perceives himself to be ill; to define the state
of his health and to discover suitable remedy. (talks about health seeking behavior)

C. Sick Role Behavior: any activity undertaken by an individual who considered himself to be ill for the purpose
of getting well. It includes receiving treatment from medical providers, generally involves a whole range of
dependent behaviors, and leads to some degree of exemption of one’s usual responsibilities. (things you do
to get well)

• Information model – talks more of the information we give to people to correct misconceptions to provide
health literacy for them to change their behavior; give them health education
• Behavioral model – talks about changing behavior through providing services, easy access, information, and
channels that they trust; give them access to the things they need

HEALTH EDUCATION
Various settings of Health Education:
▪ Health care settings
▪ Schools
▪ Communities
 ▪ Work settings

Foundations of Health Education:

❖ Philosophical foundation – it serves as a beacon light so that health educators may be properly guided in
their work.
• For example, one philosophy of health education is that it should be people centered, not program
or organization centered. The welfare of the people is uppermost rather than organizational goals.

❖ Biomedical foundation – it gives health educators the content or the what of health education programs.
This is based on the finding of biomedical sciences. Health educators must be updated in the recent findings
in this field so that messages that are disseminated may be scientifically accurate.

❖ Behavioral Science foundation – it provides the educator the how or the theories or methods of bringing
about behavioral change.

HEALTH EDUCATION
• HE is a systematic, planned application
• Delivery of HE involves set of TECHNIQUES rather than just one

Purpose of Health Education

1. Primary purpose of HE: Influence antecedents of behavior so that health behaviors develop in voluntary
fashion
✓ Awareness
✓ Information
✓ Knowledge
✓ Skills
✓ Belief
✓ Attitudes
✓ Values

2. Health education equips people with knowledge and competencies to prevent illness, maintain health or
apply first aid measures to prevent complications or premature deaths and improves the health status of
individuals, families, communities, states, and the nation.

3. Health education creates awareness regarding the importance of preventive and promotive care thereby
avoiding or reducing the costs involved in medical treatment or hospitalization.

Role of Health Educator

• In January 1979, the Role Delineation Project was undertaken to better understand the role of a health
educator. A Framework for the Development of Competency-Based Curricula for Entry Level Health Educators
(NCHEC, 1985) and the revised version, A Competency-Based Framework for the Professional Development of
Certified Health Education Specialists (N CHEC, 1996), identified the framework which consists of Seven Areas
of Responsibility of The Health Educator:

1) Implement health education strategies, interventions and programs

2) Administer health education strategies, interventions and programs (deliver)
3) Conduct evaluation and research in relation to health education
4) Serve as a health education resource person
5) Assess individual and community needs for health education
6) Plan health education strategies, interventions and programs
7) Communicate and advocate for health and health education
 • he is performed in several levels
❖ One – on – one
❖ Group
❖ Organizational
❖ Community level
To synthesize:
Health Education may be defined from different perspectives and may use different communication models;
however, behavior change remains their ultimate targets.
Health education evolved overtime parallel with the history of public health & development of science.

Health Education & Health Promotion

The campaign from prevention of communicable diseases shifted to lifestyle related diseases, but sustaining
the first, especially emerging & re-emerging diseases.
From HE w/ HP as one of its ribs, through time and turn of events, HP gained prominence & became the
umbrella & HE has become one among its core actions.

LESSON 4: THE TEACHING OF HEALTH EDUCATION

Course Description for BSMLS:
• This course deals with the principles and teaching/learning strategies in health education including adult
learning, the roles of a teacher/medical technologist in different settings. It also includes strategies that
enhance critical thinking, clinical laboratory teaching, assessing and evaluating learning.

Characteristics of an Effective Curriculum

• Today’s state-of-the-art health education curricula reflect the growing body of research that emphasizes:
✓ Teaching functional health information (essential knowledge).
✓ Shaping personal values and beliefs that support healthy behaviors.
✓ Shaping group norms that value a healthy lifestyle.
✓ Developing the essential health skills necessary to adopt, practice, and maintain health-enhancing
behaviors.

• Less effective curricula often overemphasize teaching scientific facts and increasing student knowledge. An
EFFECTIVE HEALTH EDUCATION CURRICULUM HAS THE FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS, according to
reviews of effective programs and curricula and experts in the field of health education

1. Focuses on CLEAR HEALTH GOALS and RELATED BEHAVIORAL OUTCOMES

→ An effective curriculum has clear health-related goals and behavioral outcomes that are directly related
to these goals. Instructional strategies and learning experiences are directly related to the behavioral
outcomes.

2. Is RESEARCH-BASED and THEORY DRIVEN

→ An effective curriculum has instructional strategies and learning experiences built on theoretical
approaches (for example, social cognitive theory and social inoculation theory) that have effectively
influenced health-related behaviors among youth. The most promising curriculum goes beyond the
cognitive level and addresses health determinants, social factors, attitudes, values, norms, and skills that
influence specific health-related behaviors.

3. Addresses INDIVIDUAL VALUES, ATTITUDES, AND BELIEFS

→ An effective curriculum fosters attitudes, values, and beliefs that support positive health behaviors. It
provides instructional strategies and learning experiences that motivate students to critically examine
personal perspectives, thoughtfully consider new arguments that support health-promoting attitudes
and values, and generate positive perceptions about protective behaviors and negative perceptions
about risk behaviors.
4. Addresses INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP NORMS that support health-enhancing behaviors
→ An effective curriculum provides instructional strategies and learning experiences to help students
accurately assess the level of risk-taking behavior among their peers (for example, how many of their
peers use illegal drugs), correct misperceptions of peer and social norms, emphasizes the value of good
health, and reinforces health-enhancing attitudes and beliefs.

5. Focuses on REINFORCING PROTECTIVE FACTORS and INCREASING PERCEPTIONS OF PERSONAL AND

HARMFULNESS OF ENGAGING IN SPECIFIC UNHEALTHY PRACTICES AND BEHAVIORS
→ An effective curriculum provides opportunities for students to validate positive health-promoting beliefs,
intentions, and behaviors. It provides opportunities for students to assess their vulnerability to health
problems, actual risk of engaging in harmful health behaviors, and exposure to unhealthy situations.

6. Addresses SOCIAL PRESSURES and INFLUENCES

→ An effective curriculum provides opportunities for students to analyze personal and social pressures to
engage in risky behaviors, such as media influence, peer pressure, and social barriers.

7. Builds PERSONAL COMPETENCE, SOCIAL COMPETENCE, AND SELF-EFFICACY by addressing skill by

addressing skills
→ An effective curriculum builds essential skills — including communication, refusal, assessing accuracy of
information, decision-making, planning and goal-setting, self-control, and self-management — that
enable students to build their personal confidence, deal with social pressures, and avoid or reduce risk
behaviors.

For each skill, students are guided through a series of developmental steps:
a) Discussing the importance of the skill, its relevance, and relationship to other learned skills.
b) Presenting steps for developing the skill.
c) Modeling the skill.
d) Practicing and rehearsing the skill using real–life scenarios.
e) Providing feedback and reinforcement.

8. Provides functional health knowledge that is basic, accurate, and directly contributes to health-promoting
decisions and behaviors
→ An effective curriculum provides accurate, reliable, and credible information for usable purposes so
students can assess risk, clarify attitudes and beliefs, correct misperceptions about social norms, identify
ways to avoid or minimize risky situations, examine internal and external influences, make behaviorally
relevant decisions, and build personal and social competence. A curriculum that provides information for
the sole purpose of improving knowledge of factual information will not change behavior.

9. Uses strategies designed to personalize information and engage students

→ An effective curriculum includes instructional strategies and learning experiences that are student-
centered, interactive, and experiential (for example, group discussions, cooperative learning, problem
solving, role playing, and peerled activities). Learning experiences correspond with students’ cognitive
and emotional development, help them personalize information, and maintain their interest and
motivation while accommodating diverse capabilities and learning styles. Instructional strategies and
learning experiences include methods for

a) Addressing key health-related concepts.

b) Encouraging creative expression.
c) Sharing personal thoughts, feelings, and opinions.
d) Thoughtfully considering new arguments.
e) Developing critical thinking skills.

10. Provides age-appropriate and developmentally-appropriate information, learning strategies, teaching

methods, and materials
→ An effective curriculum addresses students’ needs, interests, concerns, developmental and emotional
maturity levels, experiences, and current knowledge and skill levels. Learning is relevant and applicable
to students’ daily lives. Concepts and skills are covered in a logical sequence.
 11. Incorporates learning strategies, teaching methods, and materials that are culturally inclusive
→ An effective curriculum has materials that are free of culturally biased information but includes
information, activities, and examples that are inclusive of diverse cultures and lifestyles (such as gender,
race, ethnicity, religion, age, physical/mental ability, appearance, and sexual orientation). Strategies
promote values, attitudes, and behaviors that acknowledge the cultural diversity of students; optimize
relevance to students from multiple cultures in the school community; strengthen students’ skills
necessary to engage in intercultural interactions; and build on the cultural resources of families and
communities.

12. Provides adequate time for instruction and learning

→ An effective curriculum provides enough time to promote understanding of key health concepts and
practice skills. Behavior change requires an intensive and sustained effort. A short-term or “one shot”
curriculum, delivered for a few hours at one grade level, is generally insufficient to support the adoption
and maintenance of healthy behaviors.

13. Provides opportunities to reinforce skills and positive health behaviors

→ An effective curriculum builds on previously learned concepts and skills and provides opportunities to
reinforce health-promoting skills across health topics and grade levels. This can include incorporating
more than one practice application of a skill, adding “skill booster” sessions at subsequent grade levels,
or integrating skill application opportunities in other academic areas. A curriculum that addresses age-
appropriate determinants of behavior across grade levels and reinforces and builds on learning is more
likely to achieve longer-lasting results.

14. Provides opportunities to make positive connections with influential others

→ An effective curriculum links student to other influential persons who affirm and reinforce health–
promoting norms, attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors. Instructional strategies build on protective
factors that promote healthy behaviors and enable students to avoid or reduce health risk behaviors by
engaging peers, parents, families, and other positive adult role models in student learning.

15. Includes teacher information and plans for professional development and training that enhance
effectiveness of instruction and student learning
→ An effective curriculum is implemented by teachers who have a personal interest in promoting positive
health behaviors, believe in what they are teaching, are knowledgeable about the curriculum content,
and are comfortable and skilled in implementing expected instructional strategies. Ongoing professional
development and training is critical for helping teachers implement a new curriculum or implement
strategies that require new skills in teaching or assessment.

LESSON 5: ISSUES AND TRENDS IN HEALTH EDUCATION

• Social
❑ demographic trends like aging of the population requires emphasis on self –reliance and maintenance of
a healthy life status over an extended lifespan particularly dealing with degenerative diseases and
disabilities; lifestyle related diseases which are the major causes of morbidity and mortality are highly
preventable and will need more intensive health education efforts.

• Economic
❑ the shifts in payer coverage, emphasis on managed care and earlier hospital discharge, and the issue on
reimbursement for health services provided require more intensive patient education to allow the
patient and his family a more independent, compliant management of care.
• Political
❑ the federal government has formulated national goals and objectives directed towards the development
of effective health education programs which will mate awareness of health risks and encourage the
adoption of healthy lifestyles. The role of health education in promotion of health and prevention of
illness in containing the cost of hospitalization and healthcare expenses has already been recognized by
politicians and healthcare administrators.
LESSON 6: THEORIES IN HEALTH EDUCATION
 A. Pender’s Health Promotion Theory (Revised)
✓ This model emphasizes “actualizing health potential and increasing the level of well-being using approach
behaviors rather than avoidance of disease” that is why it has been classified as a health promotion model
rather than a disease prevention model.

Read: https://nurseslabs.com/nola-pender-health-promotionmodel/#nola_penders_health_promotion_model

B. Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory

✓ Social Learning Theory is the result of separate research by Rotter (1954) and Bandura (1977).
✓ Bandura renamed the theory as Social Cognitive Theory to emphasize the cognitive aspect of learning
which explains human behavior by citing THREE FACTORS which are in continuous interaction resulting in
a process of reciprocal determinism or triadic reciprocal causality namely:
1. personal factors in the form of cognition, affect, and biological events,
2. behavior
3. environmental influences.

✓ Social Cognitive Theory emphasizes that cognition plays a critical role in people's capability to construct
reality, self-regulate, encode information, and perform behaviors.
✓ In 1977, he introduced the concept of self-efficacy into the theory (Pajares, 2002).
➢ Self-efficacy is the single most important aspect of the sense of self that determines one's effort to
change behavior according to Bandura. It is equated with self-confidence in one's ability to successfully
perform a specific type of action.

Read: https://www.simplypsychology.org/self-efficacy.html

C. Becker’s Health Belief Model

✓ The Health Belief Model was one of the first models originally introduced by a group of psychologists in
the 1950's to find out why people refused to use available preventive services, such as chest x-rays for
tuberculosis screening and immunizations for influenza.
✓ The HBM can be outlined using FOUR CONSTRUCTS WHICH REPRESENT THE THREAT AND NET BENEFITS:
a) Perceived Susceptibility - a person's opinion of the chances of getting a certain condition

b) Perceived Severity - a person’s opinion of how serious the condition is

▪ a person's opinion of the effectiveness of some advised action to reduce the risk or
seriousness of the impact

c) Perceived Benefits - a person's opinion of the effectiveness of some advised action to reduce the
risk or seriousness of the impact

d) Perceived Barriers - a person’s opinion of the concrete and psychological cost of this advised
action

Read: https://www.verywellmind.com/health-belief-model-3132721

D. Greene’s Precede-Proceed Model

✓ was based on the epidemiological perspective on health promotion to combat the leading cause of
death.
The acronym stands for the following:
PRECEDE: Predisposing, Reinforcing, and Enabling Construct in Educational Diagnosis and Evaluation.
→ This was developed by Greene, etal in 1980.

PROCEED: Policy, Regulatory, and Organizational Constructs in Education and Environmental Development.
→ This component was added in 1999 by Green and Knuter.

Read: https://www.ruralhealthinfo.org/toolkits/health-promotion/2/programmodels/precede-proceed

THEORIES IN HEALTH EDUCATION

 → Use: guide/compass when we are crafting our health education program/activities

HEALTH BELIEF MODEL

• It was developed in the 1950s from a social psychology perspective to examine why people did not
participate in health-screening programs (Rosenstock,1974).
• It was modified by Becker (1974) to address compliance to therapeutic regimens.

TWO MAJOR PREMISES on which the model is built (Becker, 1990):

✓ The eventual success of disease prevention and curing regimens that involve the clients’ willingness to
participate
✓ The belief that health is highly valued

• The model is grounded on the supposition that it is possible to predict health behavior given three major
interacting components:
✓ INDIVIDUAL PERCEPTIONS: perceived susceptibility & perceived severity
✓ MODIFYING FACTORS: demographic variables & sociopsychological variables
✓ LIKELIHOOD OF ACTION: perceived benefit & perceived barrier
→ If the perceived barrier outweighs the perceived benefit, it means that there is a higher chance that the
individual won’t change
*the constructs are grouped into 3 major components

• It has been the predominant explanatory model since the 1970s for uncovering differences in preventive
health behaviors as well as differences in preventive use of health services

Concept Definition Examples Potential Strategies

Perceived Beliefs about the Individual perceptions of personal •
susceptibility chances of getting a susceptibility to specific illnesses or
condition accidents often vary widely from the
realistic appraisal of their statistical •
probability. The nature and intensity of
these perceptions may significantly
affect their willingness to take •
preventive action
Define what population(s) are
at risk and their levels of risk
(show statistics)
Tailor risk information based
on an individual’s
characteristics or behaviour
Help the individual develop an
accurate perception of his or
her own risk

Perceived Beliefs about the People may not respond to suggestions • Specify the consequences of a
severity seriousness of a that they obtain flu shots because they condition and recommended
condition and its do not view influenza as a serious action
consequences disease. The person must perceive the
potential seriousness of the condition (show testimonies)
in terms of pain or discomfort, time
lost from work, economic difficulties,
etc.

Perceived Beliefs about the Individuals generally must believe that
benefits effectiveness of the recommended health action will
taking action to actually do some good if they are to
reduce risk or comply. Some long-time cigarette
seriousness smokers, for example, seem to believe
that, “I’ve smoked for so many years
• Explain how, where, and
when to take action and what
the potential positive results
will be
 that it’s too late to quit. It couldn’t help
now anyway, so why bother?”

Perceived Beliefs about the If the change is perceived as difficult, • Offer reassurance, incentives,
barriers material and unpleasant or inconvenient and and assistance; correct
psychological costs outweighs the perceived benefits, it is misinformation
of taking action less likely to occur

Cues to Factors that activate A reminder note from a dentist that it • Provide “how to”
action “readiness to is time for a check-up may be sufficient information, promote
change” – a trigger to prompt action; infographics, awareness and employ
mechanism pamphlets, pubmats, etc. reminder systems

Self-efficacy Confidence in one’s One’s opinion of what one is capable of • Provide training and
ability to take action doing is based largely on experience guidance in performing
n with similar actions or circumstances action
encountered or observed in the past • Use progressive goal setting
• Give verbal reinforcement
• Demonstrate desired
behaviour

SELF-EFFICACY THEORY
• Developed from a social-cognitive perspective, the Self-Efficacy Theory is based on a person’s expectations
relative to a specific course of action (Bandura, 1977a, 1977b, 1986).
• It is a predictive theory in the sense that it deals with the belief that one can accomplish a specific behavior.

• According to Bandura (1986), self-efficacy is cognitively appraised and processed through FOUR PRINCIPAL
SOURCES OF INFORMATION:
1. Performance accomplishment evidenced in self-mastery of similarly expected behaviors
2. Vicarious experiences such as observing successful expected behavior through the modeling of
others
3. Verbal persuasion by others who present realistic beliefs that the individual is capable of the
expected behavior
4. Emotional arousal through self-judgment of physiological states of distress
HEALTH PROMOTION THEORY
• The Health Promotion Model developed in 1987 and revised by Pender (1996) has been primarily used in the
discipline of nursing.
• Similar to health belief model
• The THREE MAJOR COMPONENTS are as follows:
✓ Individual Characteristics and Experiences - prior related behavior and personal factors.
✓ Behaviour - specific cognitions affect - consists of perceived benefits of action, perceived barriers to
action, perceived self-efficacy, activity-related affect, interpersonal influences, and situational influences
✓ Behavioral Outcome - consists of commitment to a plan of action, immediate competing demands and
preferences, and the health-promoting behavior.

PRECEDE-PROCEED MODEL
• The PRECEDE-PROCEED Model emerged from an epidemiological perspective on health promotion in the
hopes of combating leading causes of death (Green & Kreuter, 1999).
→ Useful for implementors/health educators who plan. They don’t just plan, but they also evaluate the
programs that they have implemented
• The model acronym PRECEDE stands for:
➢ Predisposing, Reinforcing, and Enabling Constructs in Educational Diagnosis and Evaluation,
▪ as originally developed by Green, Kreuter, Deeds, and Partridge (1980). Green
▪ talks about diagnosis; before we implement programs, we try to identify the existing
problems first; determine the objectives and priorities
▪ it involves assessing community factors:
a. Social assessment: determine the social problems and needs of a given population and identify
desired results
b. Epidemiological assessment: identify the health determinants of the identified problems and set
priorities and goals
c. Ecological assessment: analyze behavioral and environmental determinants that predispose,
reinforce, and enable the behaviors and lifestyles are identified
 d. Identify administrative and policy factors that influence implementation and match appropriate
interventions that encourage desired and expected changes
e. Implementation of interventions
• PROCEED, which means:
➢ Policy, Regulatory, and Organizational Constructs in Educational and Environmental Development
(Green and Kreuter)
▪ After diagnosing, we implement and evaluate the policy
▪ It involves the identification of desired outcomes and program implementation:
a. Implementation: design intervention, assess availability of resources, and implement program
b. Process evaluation: determine if program is reaching targeted population and achieving desired
goals
c. Impact evaluation: evaluate the change in behavior
d. Outcome evaluation: identify if there is a decrease in the incidence or prevalence of the identified
negative behavior or an increase in identified positive behavior

• Core: Health education, defined as “any combination of learning experiences designed to facilitate voluntary
actions conducive to health” (Green & Kreuter, 1999, p. 27), is the.
▪ Not just limited to giving information to people it also includes policy making or policy
reorganization
• Green and Kreuter further emphasize that health education is aimed primarily at planning learning
experiences that are designed to “predispose, enable, and reinforce voluntary behavior conducive to the
health of individuals, groups, or communities”

ADDITIONAL NOTES
A. IMPACT EVALUATION:
• talks about the evaluation that assesses a program's effect on participants. The impact is evident on the
results of their compliance to or participation with the strategies/activities implemented or conducted.
• Examples are: raising awareness, knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, and skills on Lifestyle-related diseases
• So how to achieve these changes or achieve this impact? We need our participants to comply/participate in
our strategies/activities.

B. OUTCOME EVALUATION:
• evaluate the achievement of the goal or long/short-term objectives. Appropriate measures demonstrate
changes in health conditions, quality of life, and behaviors.
• Example: longer and healthy life (lesser chance or risks of developing lifestyle-related diseases, lesser
number of people suffering from lifestyle-related diseases)
• So, how is the impact related to the outcome? For example, for people to have a healthy, longer life, free
from lifestyle-related disease, and reduce the number of people suffering (goal) from lifestyle-related
diseases, participants must comply/participate in our strategies/activities. These include the performance of
 activities such as: eating a healthy diet, doing exercise, improve their knowledge, change their perception
that is not health-promoting, and do helpful lifestyle modification.
• Strategies and activities involve those that we implement or conduct to achieve our specific objectives. And
the fulfillment of the specific objectives will result in the realization of the overall program goal.

THEORY OF REASONED ACTION

• The Theory of Reasoned Action emerged from a research program that began in the 1950s and is concerned
with prediction and understanding of any form of human behavior within a social context (Ajzen & Fishbein,
1980).
• It is based on the premise that humans are rational decision makers who make use of whatever information
is available to them.
• In a two-pronged linear approach, specific behavior is determined by (1) beliefs, attitude toward the
behavior, and intention and (2) motivation to comply with influential persons known as referents,
subjective norms, and intention.
• The person’s intention to perform can be measured by relative weights of attitude and subjective norms.

TRANSTHEORETICAL MODEL OF CHANGE

• Another model that informs the phenomenon of health behaviors of the learner is the Stages of Change
Model (Prochaska & Di Clemente, 1982).
• Originating from the field of psychology, this model (see Table 6–2) was developed around addictive and
problem behaviors.
• Prochaska (1996) notes SIX DISTINCT STAGES OF CHANGE: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation,
action, maintenance, and termination.
• The final stage, termination, occurs when the problem no longer presents any temptation. However, some
experts note that termination does not occur, only maintenance becomes less vigilant.
Termination - In this stage, people have no desire to return to their unhealthy behaviors and are sure they will not
relapse. Since it is rarely reached, and people tend to stay in the maintenance stage. This stage is often not
considered in health promotion programs.

→ "some experts note that termination does not occur, only maintenance becomes less vigilant."

Meaning: For other experts, there is no such thing as termination. Thus, it is not often considered in health
programs since it is rarely reached. What is only possible is that a person in the maintenance stage is becoming less
anxious about falling into relapse.

CHAPTER 2: CONCEPTS OF EDUCATION IN RELATION TO HEALTHCARE

I. OVERVIEW OF EDUCATION ON HEALTHCARE

• Health education is a process concerned with designing, implementing and evaluating educational
programs that enable families, groups, organizations and communities to play active roles in achieving,
protecting and sustaining health.
• Its PURPOSE: is to contribute to health and well-being by promoting lifestyles, community action and
conditions that make it possible to live healthful lives” (The Code of Ethics for Health Educators, Association
for the Advancement of Health Education).
• Education for health begins with people. It hopes to motivate them with whatever interests they may have
in improving their living conditions
• its AIM: is to develop in them a sense of responsibility for health conditions for themselves as: individuals, as
members of families, and as communities.

Strategies in Health Teaching

COMPONENTS OF AN EDUCATIVE PROCESS

1. Learner and the teacher
2. Things to be learned
3. The way it is to be learned
4. Setting in which it is to be learned

Dimensions of the Educational Process

A. SUBSTANTIVE
• This pertains to what is taught and what has to be learned.
• The curriculum including the content (knowledge, values and skills) and planned activities directed
by the faculty is for a particular

B. ENVIRONMENT
• This pertains to all of the setting which may be used for learning experience which can be:

1. AUTOCRATIC
• The teacher has little freedom to explore her area of interest and to use the methods which best
lead her and her students toward the attainment of their objectives.

2. DEMOCRATIC
• The teacher is free to contribute to her specialized knowledge and capabilities to the common goal
of the school as well as for her own teaching goals.

3. PSYCHOSOCIAL
• This correspond to the ff:
a) The number, type and organization of personnel
b) Other students from allied health fields
c) Patients (socioeconomic status, type of illness, medical treatment, nursing problems.
d) The kind and size of institution
 C. PROCEDURAL
• This pertains to the different practices or standard operating procedures being followed.

D. HUMAN RELATIONS
• This refers to the learner, teacher, administrator, group of learners, patients and their interactions.

II. CONCEPTS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

❖ Teaching is a deliberate intervention involving the planning and implementation of instructional activities
and experiences to meet the intended learner outcomes based on the teaching plan.
o It is concerned with the growth and development of the whole personality of the student.
o It is a mixture of arts and science.
o It starts with the experience of a learner.

❖ Instruction is just one aspect of teaching which involves communicating information about a special skill. It is
sometimes used interchangeably with teaching.

❖ Learning is a change in behavior (knowledge, skills and attitudes) that can occur at any time or in any place
as a result of exposure to environmental stimuli.
o It is an action by which knowledge skills and attitudes are consciously and unconsciously
acquired and behavior is altered which can be seen or observed.
o A process of apprehension, clarification, and application of meanings.
o It entails the use of mental function, like conceptualizing, abstracting, reasoning, judging and
generalizing.
o It includes mental activities wherein knowledge, skills, attitude and appreciation and ideas are
acquired resulting into modification of behavior (mental, social, emotional and physical)

❖ Staff education – amidst all these mandates and requirements that health educator faces is the need to be
knowledgeable about the principles of teaching and learning. The THREE PILLARS OF THE TEACHING –
learning process are the: teacher, learner, and subject-matter.

III. IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF A TEACHER

Processes of Being an Effective Teacher
• Knowledge of educational theory and research
• Willingness to learn new roles and teaching methods
• Ability to reflect on one’s own performance

Six Major Categories Effective Teaching in the Medical Laboratory Science Profession

1. Professional competence
✓ enjoys his professional competence
✓ shows genuine interest to his patients
✓ displays confidence in his professional abilities
✓ excites the student’s interest in the profession by being creative, stimulating and can demonstrate
clinical skills with expertise.

Several aspects of professional Competence

▪ he or she develops a thorough knowledge of subject matter.
▪ polishes clinical skills throughout his or her career.
▪ maintains and expands knowledge through reading, research , clinical practice, and continuing
education

2. Good interpersonal relationships

✓ taking personal interest in the learners.
✓ being sensitive to the feelings and problems of the learners.
✓ conveying respect for them.
 ✓ alleviating their anxieties
✓ accessible for conferences
✓ allowing learners to express their points of view.
✓ creating an atmosphere in which they feel free to ask questions.
✓ conveying a sense of warmth
✓ being fair

Basic Therapeutic Approaches to Maintain Self - esteem and Minimize Anxieties

a. emphatic listening
b. acceptance
c. honest communication

3. Personal characteristics
✓ personal magnetism
✓ enthusiasm (strong feeling of interest)
✓ cheerfulness
✓ self – control
✓ patience
✓ flexibility (adapt to various types of personalities and changing environment)
✓ a sense of humor
✓ a good speaking voice
✓ self-confidence
✓ willingness to admit errors
✓ caring attitude

4. Teaching processes
✓ JACOBSON defined it as “the mechanics, methods and skills in classroom and clinical teaching.”
✓ Teaching subject matter in a stimulating way and inspiring learner interest is based on SEVERAL FACTORS
like the teacher’s style, personality, personal interest in the subject, use of a variety of teaching
strategies, and thorough knowledge of the subject matter.

5. Evaluation practices
Evaluation includes the following:
✓ Clearly communicating expectations
✓ Provides timely feedback on students’ progress
✓ Corrects students’ misconceptions
✓ Being fair in the evaluation process
✓ Gives examination/tests pertinent to the subject matter

6. Availability to students
Instructor is physically present
✓ Being there in stressful situation
✓ Helping students give patient care
✓ Giving appropriate amounts of supervision
✓ Freely answering questions
✓ Acting as a resource person during clinical learning experiences.
✓ Learners should be told at the beginning of instruction what they should do if they need assistance and
the instructor is not available.
✓ The teacher should have a backup plan for assistance by a staff MT, another instructor or a head MT
who can be “on call” when the need arises.

OTHER IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF A TEACHER

1. Teaching Clarity
• It is defined as “the mosaic of behaviors that teachers use in order to make what is to be learned
intelligible, comprehensive, and learnable.”
 • It has the ff. characteristics; logically organizes instruction, explains what is to be learned, uses simple
terms, assess students understanding, gives examples whenever possible, allows students to have time
to think about what is being taught.
• Repeats information and then summarizes.

2. Time on Task
• Effective teachers provide students with relevant academic activities and see to it that students spend
an adequate amount of time actually engaged in these learning activities.

3. Class time / management

• Instructors make sure students know what they expect.
• They make certain that students know what to do if they need help.
• They follow through with reminders and rewards to enforce rules.

4. Questioning
• Effective teachers ask appropriate questions in a manner that ensures participation and facilitates
mastery of academic content.
• Questioning focuses on both facts and abstract thinking.

5. Comprehension Instruction
• Effective teachers emphasize independent learning and learning to learn.
• They teach students to apply concepts, solve problems, and monitor their own comprehension.

6. Grouping
• Effective teachers are able to group students for individualized and small group instruction.
• They are able to work with more than one student or group at a time.

7. Level of Cognitive Instruction

• Most instruction for low-achieving students emphasizes mechanical rote learning.
• Effective teachers try to move toward high order thinking skills and independent learning by motivating
students to learn and by using appropriate materials and activities.

TEACHING STYLE
▪ This is an outgrowth of the teacher’s personality and character.
▪ It is a process by which the teacher delivers the subject matter to the students.
▪ This maybe the primary cause of the student’s boredom or excitement.

IV. PRINCIPLES OF GOOD TEACHING PRACTICE

7 Principles of Good Teaching Practice in the Undergraduate Education
1. Encourage student-faculty contact
2. Encourage cooperation among students
3. Encourage active learning
4. Give prompt feedback
5. Emphasize time on task
6. Communicate high expectations
7. Respect diverse talents and ways of learning

V. THE LEARNERS
Seven Types of Intelligences According to Gardner’s
1. Linguistics
→ This area has to do with words, spoken or written. People with high verbal linguistic intelligence display a
facility with words and languages. They are typically good at reading, writing, telling stories and
memorizing words along with dates.
→ They tend to learn best by reading, taking notes, listening to lectures, and by discussing and debating
about what they have learned. Those with verbal-linguistic intelligence learn foreign languages very
easily as they have high verbal memory and recall, and an ability to understand and manipulate syntax
and structure.
2. Logical mathematical
→ This area has to do with logic, abstractions, reasoning and numbers and critical thinking. While it is often
assumed that those with this intelligence naturally excel in mathematics, chess, computer programming
and other logical or numerical activities, a more accurate definition places less emphasis on traditional
mathematical ability and more on reasoning capabilities, recognizing abstract patterns, scientific
thinking and investigation and the ability to perform complex calculations.

3. Spatial
→ This area deals with spatial judgement and the ability to visualize with the mind's eye. Careers which suit
those with this type of intelligence include artists, designers and architects. A spatial person is also good
with puzzles.

4. Musical
→ This area has to do with sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, tones, and music. People with a high musical
intelligence normally have good pitch and may even have absolute pitch, and are able to sing, play
musical instruments, and compose music.
→ Since there is a strong auditory component to this intelligence, those who are strongest in it may learn
best via lecture. Language skills are typically highly developed in those whose base intelligence is
musical. In addition, they will sometimes use songs or rhythms to learn. They have sensitivity to rhythm,
pitch, meter, tone, melody or timbre. Careers that suit those with this intelligence include
instrumentalists, singers, conductors, disc jockeys, orators, writers and composers.

5. Bodily kinesthetic
→ The core elements of the bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are control of one's bodily motions and the
capacity to handle objects skillfully. Gardner elaborates to say that this intelligence also includes a sense
of timing, a clear sense of the goal of a physical action, along with the ability to train responses so they
become like reflexes.
→ In theory, people who have bodily-kinesthetic intelligence should learn better by involving muscular
movement (e.g. getting up and moving around into the learning experience), and are generally good at
physical activities such as sports or dance.
→ They may enjoy acting or performing, and in general they are good at building and making things. They
often learn best by doing something physically, rather than by reading or hearing about it. Those with
strong bodily-kinesthetic intelligence seem to use what might be termed "muscle memory", drawing on
it to supplement or in extreme cases even substitute for other skills such as verbal memory.
→ Careers that suit those with this intelligence include: athletes, pilots, dancers, musicians, actors,
surgeons, builders, police officers, and soldiers. Although these careers can be duplicated through virtual
simulation, they will not produce the actual physical learning that is needed in this intelligence

6. Interpersonal
→ This area has to do with interaction with others. Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand
others. In theory, individuals who have high interpersonal intelligence are characterized by their
sensitivity to others' moods, feelings, temperaments and motivations, and their ability to cooperate in
order to work as part of a group.
→ According to Gardner in How Are Kids Smart: Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom, "Inter- and
Intrapersonal intelligence is often misunderstood with being extroverted or liking other people..."
→ Interpersonal intelligence means that one understands what people need to work well. Individuals with
this intelligence communicate effectively and empathize easily with others, and may be either leaders or
followers. They typically learn best by working with others and often enjoy discussion and debate.
Careers that suit those with this intelligence include sales, politicians, managers, teachers, counselors
and social workers.

7. Intrapersonal
→ This area has to do with introspective and self-reflective capacities. This refers to having a deep
understanding of the self; what your strengths/ weaknesses are, what makes you unique, being able to
predict your own reactions/emotions. Philosophical and critical thinking is common with this
intelligence. Many people with this intelligence are authors, psychologists, counselors, philosophers, and
members of the clergy.
 8. Naturalistic
→ This area has to do with nurturing and relating information to one’s natural surroundings. Examples
include classifying natural forms such as animal and plant species and rocks and mountain types; and the
applied knowledge of nature in farming, mining, etc. Careers which suit those with this intelligence
include naturalists, farmers and gardeners.

Medical Technologists/Pubic Heath Professionals as Teachers

▪ MT/PHs take on the teaching role in many settings.
▪ They may be patient or client teachers, school MTs/PH worker, staff development instructors, or
collegiate educators.
▪ MT/PHs who spend the majority of their time as staff development instructors, or collegiate
educators must have formal preparation for the educator role and need to become expert
teachers to prepare the next generation of patient educators.

ADDITIONAL NOTES:
LEARNING AND TEACHING

Learning – is a key process & is necessary for all educational process.

• It pervades everything we do and think learning plays an important role in the languages we speak, our
customs & beliefs.
• It involves ways of doing things in an individual attempt to overcome obstacles or to adjust to new
situations.
• It is a progressive change in behavior as individual reacts to a situation in an effort to adopt his behavior
effectively to the demands made upon him. Thus, learning is change in behavior.

DEFINITIONS OF LEARNING:
❑ Crow & Crow: ‘Learning is acquisition of knowledge, habits and attitudes. It involves new ways of doing
things in order to overcome obstacles or to adjust to new situations. It enables the person to satisfy
interests to attain goals.’
❑ Henry Smith: ‘Learning is the acquisition of new behavior or the strengthening or weakening of old
behavior as a result of experience.’
❑ Wood worth: defines learning as- “Any activity can be called learning as far as it develops the individual
(in any aspect, good or bad) & makes his behavior & experiences different from what would otherwise
have been”.
Thus,
• Learning may be defined as any relatively permanent change in behavior.
• Learning may be defined as the acquisition of knowledge attitudes, skills & ways of thinking
• Learning is the permanent change in behavior for better or worse which results / occurs as a result of
practice & experience.

Above definitions have 3 IMPORTANT ELEMENTS:

1. Learning is a change in behavior for better or worse.
2. It is a change that takes place through practice & experience.
3. Before it can be called learning, the change must be relatively permanent
→ i.e. it must last for a long time. Exactly how long cannot he specified, but we usually think of learning
lasting for days, months, years in contrast to temporary, behavioral effects.

Thus, learning is a complex process. It is a process by which all organisms, as a result of its interaction in a situation
acquires a new mode of behavior which tends to persist and affect his behavior in the future. Thus, learning takes
place when an organism reacts to a situation. It consists of certain changes in behavior or adjustments and this type
of behavior is utilized to some degree in other situations.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING

1) Learning is a process which is continuous & it never stops at any phase. It is a lifelong process hence
learning starts from birth & ends only with the death of an individual. Hence, we can say that learning
proceeds from womb to tomb.
→ E.g. when a child takes birth he first learns to cry for food, and at each phase of life at every step the
child learns to walk, run, talk, write alphabets etc.

2) Learning is the process which leads to mental growth of an individual. The growth takes place along with
the learning.

3) Basically, when learning takes place the individual learns to adjust & adopt with the environment.

4) Learning is purposeful. Though learning takes place at every place & at every moment all the learnings are
not useful. Hence those learning which are useful & meaningful are learnt.

5) Learning is active process. Learning by doing is the best part of learning

→ e.g. it becomes easy for the science students to learn the concepts in science when they perform
practical.

6) Learning takes place individually & as well as socially

→ e.g. When a seminar or workshop is conducted, then all the members of the group learn to share their
thoughts, each one learns something new from the other individual.

7) Last but not the least learning brings about the change in the behavior in individual
→ e.g. a child is always taught values & manners, & due to these teachings, a child learns to respect their
elders & teachers, learns to speak politely etc., which bring about the change in his behavior as the child
grows.

STEPS IN THE LEARNING PROCESS

Learning is a process and knowing the various aspects of learning helps the teacher in ensuring & making the
learning effective.

1. Need: Learning takes place as a result of response to some stimulation. Unless the individual has some
unsatisfactory need or derive which causes him to act in an attempt to satisfy the need, no learning will take
place. When the need of the learner is strong, the learner sets definite goals for achievement of his needs &
this makes learning more concrete.
→ E.g. A student, who wants to score a good grade, starts working right from the beginning. Need should
be made by the teacher by creating interest. The teacher should also help the child in setting attainable
goals for himself.

2. Readiness: Every child is not ready to learn at a particular time. The child needs physical & mental maturity in
order to learn. There should be mental & physical willingness to learn. We tend to pay less attention to this
type of maturity. Many a time, we impose learning situations on a child before he is ready.

3. Situation: Learning depends on the situation provided at school & at home. In school, the learning
environment should be conducive or congenial. The teacher’s attitude should be encouraging & the teacher
should use suitable teaching methods & techniques. The type of situation provided by the teacher contributes
towards the speed & quality of learning.
→ E.g. Special methods can be provided depending upon the age of the child.

4. Interaction: The child with this needs & goals learns to interact in a learning situation. Interaction is a process
of responding to a situation and getting a feedback from it. Interaction may be in the form of observations,
emotional reactions, verbal reactions or physical reactions. Teacher should find ways & means to involve the
students in the learning activity / process.
 5. Exploration of the situation: Exploration is the way the learner explores / interprets the stimuli in the
environment. The correct responses cannot be determined at once. They require to be thought over;
→ i.e. the whole situation needs to be explored. After trial & error, the learner comes to the right solution.

6. Perception: Perception is to give some meaning to what you are seeing. Sensing + Meaning = Perception. Each
one perceives the environment differently. As a teacher, one wants the class to perceive uniformly, so the
teacher should use visual aids, diagrams, etc. Because of the individual differences among the students, each
student perceives whatever is taught, differently, so teacher should cater to the need of every individual.

7. Response: Response is the actual outcome of the learner. It is the outcome of interaction, exploration &
perception of the situation. He may give a trial by direct attack to overcome the barrier in his way.

8. Reinforcement: If the response is successful in action, in satisfying the need, that response is reinforced and
on subsequent occasions the individual will tend to repeat it.

9. Integration: Learning implies the selection & organization of correct responses. The last step of the learning
process consists in integrating the successful responses of the individual’s previous learning, so that it becomes
part of a new functional whole.

LESSON: TEACHING APPROACHES, METHODS, STRATEGIES, & TECHNIQUE

What is teaching?

Teaching – is a deliberate intervention involving the planning and implementation of instructional activities and
experiences to meet the intended learner outcomes based on the teaching plan.
▪ It is concerned with the growth and development of the whole personality of the student.
▪ It is a mixture of arts and science.
▪ It starts with the experience of a learner

The How’s of Teaching

I. APPROACH

Approach - It is a set of principles, beliefs, or ideas about the nature of learning which is translated into the
classroom.
▪ A teacher’s personal philosophy of teaching
▪ An approach gives rise to methods, the way of teaching something, which use classroom activities or
techniques to help learners; guiding principle
▪ Learning approaches can be divided into TWO APPROACHES are student-centered approach and teacher-
centered approach.

MAIN APPRAOCHES OF TEACHING LEARNING

a. Teacher-centered approach - are more traditional in nature, focusing on the teacher as instructor.
▪ They are sometimes referred to as direct instruction, deductive teaching or expository teaching, and
are typified by the lecture type presentation.
▪ In these methods of teaching, the teacher controls what is to be taught and how students are
presented with the information that they are to lean.

b. Student-centered approach - Student centered approaches (sometimes referred to as discovery learning,

inductive learning, or inquiry learning) place a much stronger emphasis on the learner’s role in the learning
process.
▪ When you are using student- centered approaches to teaching, you still set the learning agenda but
you have much less direct control over what and how students learn.
TEACHER-CENTERED VS. STUDENT-CENTERED APPROACH

Teacher- centered approach Student-centered approach

Subject-centered Learner-centered

Teacher-dominated Interactive

Banking-approach Constructivist

Direct teaching-approach Indirect teaching-approach

OTHER APPRAOCHES OF TEACHING LEARNING

i. Herbartian approach: This approach is given by John Fredric Herbart. He advocated that teaching should be
planned actively if we intend to make it.
▪ This approach is based on appreciative mass theory of learning. Therefore, he gives more emphasis of
teacher presentation.
▪ The proposition of that theory is that the learner is like a clean slate and all the knowledge is given from
outside

ii. Evaluation Approach or Bloom’s Approach: The concept of evaluation approach is given by B.S. Bloom.
▪ His main emphasis was that testing should be based on teaching and both these activities should be
objectives centered.
▪ Just like today, teaching is organized by using the evaluation approach.
▪ Under this approach yearly plan and unit plan are prepared. It has three main steps:
a) Formulating Educational Objectives
b) Creating Learning Experiences
c) Evaluating the Change behavior

iii. Research-based approach - as the name implies, teaching and learning are anchored on research findings.

iv. Whole-child approach – the learning process itself takes into account not only the academic needs of
learners, but also their emotional, psychological, spiritual and developmental needs.

v. Spiral progression – the same concept is taught from one level to another in increasing complexity

ADDITIONAL NOTES: (from video)

Teaching Approaches in the K-12 Curriculum
1. Learner-centered approach – enables life long learning & independent problem-solving
2. Inclusive approach – education for all; everyone is included
3. Developmentally-appropriate approach – tasks are within the developmental stage
4. Responsive & relevant – teaching is meaningful when related to student’s life; it is responsive because it
answers the needs or the challenges that a student is facing currently in his life
5. Culture-sensitive – teaching should respect cultures
6. Contextualized & global – exerting effort beyond the classroom
7. Research-based – teaching and learning are anchored on researches
8. Constructivist – students build upon their prior knowledge
9. Inquiry-based – learning through student-generated questions
10. Reflective teaching – teacher thinks over his/her teaching
11. Collaborative approach – the use of teamwork, groupwork, and partnership
12. Integrative – intradisciplinary, interdisciplinary, & transdisciplinary
➢ Intradisciplinary – only concerned with one subject
➢ Interdisciplinary - concerned with the relationship between the different subjects
➢ Transdisciplinary – learning can be transmitted in real life
13. Mother tongue-based MLE – teaching uses more than one language & starts with the mother tongue
 14. Spiral progression – the same concept is thought from one level to another in increasing complexity

II. TEACHING METHOD

Method - A systematic way of doing something. It implies an orderly logical arrangement of steps in teaching.
▪ It is more procedural.
▪ It refers to the general principles, or pedagogy used for classroom instruction. Your choice of teaching
method depends on what fits you- your educational philosophy, classroom demographic, subject area(s) and
school mission statement.

Types of Teaching Methods

a. Inductive Method - students moves towards specified (example) to general (rules). At first many examples
are put forward to student and then he draws out a conclusion on the basis of these examples; specific to
general

b. Deductive Method - is opposite to inductive approach because in it, first a principle or rule is put in front of
students and then it is clarified by giving examples; general to specific

c. Direct Method - It is teacher-centered. The teacher is the sage on stage

d. Indirect Method - It is student-centered. The teacher becomes the guide on the side.

OTHER TEACHING METHODS

❑ Lecture method
❑ Discussion
❑ Reporting
❑ Demonstration
❑ Self-pacing
❑ Investigatory
❑ Integrated/Blended

III. TEACHING STRATEGY

Strategy - a method of approaching the task of teaching, mode of operation to achieve a goal
▪ skill full planning of a working system by which the objectives can be achieved easily.
▪ According to E. Stones and S. Morris teaching strategy is a generalized plan for a lesson which includes
structure, desired learner behavior in terms of goals of instruction and an outline of planned tactics
necessary to implement the strategy.

TEACHING STRATEGIES
❑ Reciprocal learning: 2 students work with each other and learn from each other
❑ Jigsaw: concepts are divided by the number of students that you have and they try to put the pieces
together by learning with each other
❑ Philips 666: 6 groups, 6 members, 6 topics, 6 mins; all the things that they are doing is based on number 6
❑ Think-Pair share: students think by themselves, be paired, and share ideas with each other
❑ Fishbowl: draw names and make the person answer that question
❑ Roleplay: students play role
❑ Debate: made to speak minds out about a topic

IV. TEACHING TECHNIQUE

▪ Techniques - the unique ways of carrying out a particular task, in the teaching and learning process. Thus, it’s
the individual teachers’ unique way of applying a strategy.
▪ Tricks that can be taught to another teacher.
▪ For instance, two teachers may decide to use small group discussions as their means of delivering a lesson
but each may have a unique way of conducting the process of the discussion. One may decide to use two
pupils to conduct the discussion; the other may decide to employ four pupils for that. 0Furthermore, each
teacher will definitely have a unique way of delivering his lesson
LESSON: LEARNING THEORIES AND LEARNING STYLE MODELS
What is Learning?
• Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in mental processing, emotional functioning, and/or
behavior as a result of experience.
→ To assess the learning of a person look unto their Change of behavior
• It is the lifelong, dynamic process by which individuals acquire new knowledge or skills and alter their
thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and actions.

LEARNING THEORIES
• Behaviorist theory
• Cognitive theory
• Social learning theory

Learning Theory
• A learning theory is a coherent framework and set of integrated constructs and principles that describe,
explain, or predict how people learn.
• Whether used singly or in combination, learning theories have much to offer the practice of health care.

A. BEHAVIORIST THEORY
• Focusing mainly on what is directly observable, behaviorists view learning as the product of the stimulus
conditions (S) and the responses (R) that follow—sometimes termed the S-R model of learning.
• Learner is passive
➢ Respondent conditioning by Ivan Pavlov
➢ Operant conditioning by B.F. Skinner

i. Respondent Conditioning
• Respondent conditioning (also termed classical or Pavlovian conditioning) emphasizes the importance of
stimulus conditions and the associations formed in the learning
❑ Unconditioned stimulus - elicits response without learning
❑ Unconditioned response - unlearned, inborn response
❑ Conditioned stimulus - elicits response after being learned; unconditioned stimulus + neutral
stimulus = conditioned stimulus (association)
❑ Conditioned response - automatic response after being learned

• In this basic model of learning, a neutral stimulus (NS)—a stimulus that has no particular value or meaning
to the learner—is paired with a naturally occurring unconditioned or unlearned stimulus (UCS) and
unconditioned response (UCR)

• After a few such pairings, the neutral stimulus alone, without the unconditioned stimulus, elicits the same
response. Often occurring without thought or awareness, learning takes place when the newly conditioned
stimulus (CS) becomes associated with the conditioned response (CR).

• Respondent conditioning highlights the importance of the “atmosphere” and staff morale in health care.
• Besides influencing the acquisition of new responses to environmental stimuli, principles of respondent
conditioning may be used to extinguish a previously learned response.
 ii. Operant Conditioning
• Operant conditioning, developed largely by B. F. Skinner (1974, 1989), focuses on the behavior of the
organism and the reinforcement that occurs after the response (Alberto & Troutman, 1990).
• Reward/reinforcement and punishment system.
➢ Reward/reinforcement - strengthens the behavior (good behavior)
– Positive reinforcement - application of a pleasant stimulus. Occurs after a response and increase
the likelihood of a response to occur again.

– Negative reinforcement - removal of an aversive or unpleasant stimulus that increase the

likelihood of a response occurring again.

➢ Punishment - reduce the likelihood of a behavior (bad behavior)

– Positive punishment - occurs following a behaviour and reduce the likelihood of the behavior
▪ Addition of reprimand or unpleasant stimuli

– Negative punishment - removal of a desirable condition following a behavior that reduces the
likelihood of that behavior.
▪ Removal of pleasant stimulus

• According to operant conditioning principles, behaviors may be decreased through either nonreinforcement
or punishment.
• Operant conditioning techniques provide relatively quick and effective ways to change behavior. Carefully
planned programs using behavior modification procedures can readily be applied to health care.
• Operant conditioning and behavior modification techniques also have been found to work well with some
nursing home and long-term care residents (Proctor, Burns, Powell, & Tarrier, 1999).

B. COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

• Cognitive learning theorists stress the importance of what goes on “inside” the learner (Brien & Eastmond,
1994; Lambert &McCombs, 1998; Palincsar, 1998).
• The key to learning and changing is the individual’s cognition (perception, thought, memory, and ways of
processing and structuring information).
• A highly active process largely directed by the individual, learning involves perceiving the information,
interpreting it based on what is already known, and then reorganizing the information into new insights or
understanding.
• Cognitive learning theory includes several well-known perspectives
– gestalt
– information processing
– cognitive development/human development
– social constructivism
– social cognition theory

a. Gestalt Perspective
▪ Gestalt perspective emphasizes the importance of perception in learning (Garcia, Baker, & deMayo,
1999; Hilgard & Bower, 1966; Kohler, 1947, 1969).
▪ A principal assumption is that each person perceives, interprets, and responds to any situation in his
or her own way. While there are many GESTALT PRINCIPLES worth knowing (Hilgard & Bower, 1966)

1. A basic principle is that psychological organization is directed toward simplicity, equilibrium, and
regularity.
→ Example: the bewildered faces of some patients listening to a detailed, evasive explanation about their
disease, when what they desire most is a simple, clear explanation that settles their uncertainty and
relates directly to them and their familiar experiences.

2. Another central gestalt principle is that perception is selective, which has several ramifications. First,
because no one can attend to all the surrounding stimuli at any given time, individuals orient themselves to
certain features of an experience while screening out or habituating to other features.
 → Example: Patients in severe pain or worried about their hospital bills may not attend to well-intentioned
patient education information.

3. What individuals pay attention to and what they ignore are influenced by a host of factors: past
experiences, needs, personal motives and attitudes, reference groups, and the particular structure of the
stimulus or situation (Sherif & Sherif, 1969; Sherif, 1976).

b. Information Processing
▪ Information processing is a cognitive perspective that emphasizes thinking processes: thought,
reasoning, the way information is encountered and stored, and memory functioning (Bigge &
Shermis, 1992; Gagne,1985; Sternberg, 1991, 1996).
▪ How information is incorporated and retrieved is useful for health professionals to know, especially
in relation to older people’s learning (Hooyman & Kiyak, 1999).

Information Processing Model

External processes
❑ Stage 1 ATTENTION: orienting stimuli, physical and emotional properties arouse interest
❑ Stage 4 ACTION: response

Internal processes
❑ Stage 2 PROCESSING: sensory memory
❑ Stage 3 MEMORY STORAGE: short-term memory or long-term memory (may cause problem on retrival)

• Education involves assessing how a learner attends to, processes, and stores the information that is
presented as well as finding ways to encourage the retention and retrieval processes.

9 ELEMENTS THAT ACTIVATE LEARNING EFFECTIVELY:

– Gain the learner’s attention (reception)
– Inform the learner of the objectives and expectations (expectancy)
– Stimulate the learner’s recall of prior learning (retrieval)
– Present information (selective perception)
– Provide guidance to facilitate the learner’s understanding (semantic encoding)
– Have the learner demonstrate the information or skill (responding)
– Give feedback to the learner (reinforcement)
– Assess the learner’s performance (retrieval)
– Work to enhance retention and transfer through application and varied practice (generalization)
 c. Cognitive Development
▪ Cognitive development is a third perspective that focuses on qualitative changes in perceiving,
thinking, and reasoning as individuals grow and mature (Baltes, Staudinger, & Lindenberger, 1999;
Vander Zanden, Crandell, &Crandell, 2000).
▪ Its principal assumption is that learning is a developmental, sequential, and active process that
transpires as the child interacts with the environment, makes “discoveries” about how the world
operates, and interprets these discoveries in keeping with what she knows (schema).

Piaget (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969) identified FOUR SEQUENTIAL STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT:

(1) the sensorimotor stage during infancy, where infants explore their environments and attempt to coordinate
sensory information with motor skills;

(2) the preoperational stage during early childhood, where youngsters are able to mentally represent the
environment, regard the world from their own egocentric perspective, and come to grips with
symbolization;

(3) the concrete operations stage during the elementary school years, where children are able to attend to
more than one dimension at a time, conceptualize relationships, and operate on the environment;

(4) the formal operations stage during adolescence, where teenagers begin to think abstractly, are able to deal
with the future, and can see alternatives and criticize.

d. Social Constructivism
▪ Reflecting the influence of postmodernism, social constructivists posit that learning and human
development are richly colored by the ever-fluid social and cultural context in which people find
themselves.

CENTRAL TENETS OF THIS PERSPECTIVE are (Berliner & Calfee, 1996):

1. the learning process is influenced strongly by the culture
2. effective learning occurs through social interaction, collaboration, and negotiation

▪ Learning is facilitated by sharing beliefs, by acknowledging and challenging differing conceptions,

and by negotiating new levels of conceptual understanding (Marshall, 1998).
▪ Cooperative learning and self-help groups are examples of social constructivism in action

e. Social Cognition Theory

▪ The social cognition perspective highlights the influence of social factors on perception, thought,
and motivation. A host of scattered explanations can be found under the rubric of social cognition
(Fiske & Taylor, 1991), which, when applied to learning, emphasize the need for instructors to
consider the dynamics of the social environment and groups on both interpersonal and
Intrapersonal behavior.
▪ A significant benefit of the cognitive theory to health care is its encouragement of a recognition
and appreciation of the individuality and rich diversity in how people learn and process
experiences (Farnham-Diggory, 1992; Lewis & Daltroy, 1990).

C. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

• According to early social learning theory, much of learning occurs by observation—watching other people
and discerning what happens to them.
→ Presence of role models; we learn by watching others
• Learning is often a social process, and other individuals, especially “significant others,” provide compelling
examples or role models for how to think, feel, and act.
• While Miller and Dollard (1941) viewed social learning as a mixture of behaviorist and psychodynamic
influences, Bandura (1977, 1986, 2001) is credited with outlining the behaviorist, cognitive, and, more
recently, social cognition dimensions of the theory.
Social Learning Theory Based on Bandura (1977)

Cognitive Principles
1. The first phase is the ATTENTIONAL PHASE, a necessary condition for any learning to occur. Research
indicates that role models with high status and competence are more likely to be observed, although the
learner’s own characteristics (needs, self-esteem, competence) may be the more significant determiner of
attention.

2. Second is the RETENTION PHASE, which involves the storage and retrieval of what was observed.

3. Third is the REPRODUCTION PHASE, where the learner copies the observed behavior. Mental rehearsal,
immediate enactment, and corrective feedback strengthen the reproduction of behavior.

4. Fourth is the MOTIVATIONAL PHASE, which focuses on whether the learner is motivated to perform a
certain type of behavior. Reinforcement or punishment for a role model’s behavior, the learning situation,
and the appropriateness of subsequent situations where the behavior is to be displayed all affect a learner’s
performance (Bandura, 1977; Gage & Berliner, 1998).
ADDITIONAL NOTES:
LEARNING STYLE METHODS
A. Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory
B. Gregorc Style Delineator
C. Gardner’s Seven Types of Intelligence
D. Field-Independent/Field-Dependent Embedded Figures Test

A. KOLB’S LEARNING STYLE INVENTORY

❑ David Kolb (1984), a management expert from Case Western Reserve University, developed an experiential
learning model in the early 1970s. Kolb believes knowledge is a transformational process that is continuously
created and recreated.
❑ Kolb’s theory on learning style is that learning is a cumulative result of past experiences, heredity, and the
demands of the present environment.
❑ Learning is a continuous process grounded in the reality that the learner is NOT a blank slate. Every learner
approaches a topic to be learned with preconceived ideas.
❑ Kolb’s model, known as the Cycle of Learning, includes four modes of learning, which reflect TWO MAJOR
DIMENSIONS OF PERCEPTION AND PROCESSING.
❑ He hypothesized that learning results from the way learners perceive as well as how they process what they
perceive.

1. The DIMENSION OF PERCEPTION involves two opposite perceptual viewpoints.

a. Concrete experience (CE mode) - learners tend to rely more on feelings than on a systematic approach
to problems and situations. Learners who fall into this category like relating with people, benefit from
specific experiences, and are sensitive to others.

b. Abstract conceptualization (AC mode) - learners rely on logic and ideas rather than on feelings to deal
with problems or situations. People who fall into this category use systematic planning and logical
analysis to solve problems.

2. The PROCESS DIMENSION involves two opposite orientations.

a. Active experimentation (AE mode) - learning is active, and learners like to experiment to get things
done. They prefer to influence or change situations and see the results of their actions. They enjoy
involvement and are risk takers.

b. Reflective observation (RO mode) - learners rely on objectivity, careful judgment, personal thoughts,
and feelings to form opinions. People who fall into this category look for meaning of things by viewing
them from different perspectives.

The Four Learning Style Types by Kolb’s (formed through combination of perception and process dimensions
mentioned above)

1. Diverger - People with this learning style are good at viewing concrete situations from many points of view.
✓ They like to observe, gather information, and gain insights rather than take action.
✓ Working in groups to generate ideas appeals to them.
✓ They place a high value on understanding for knowledge’s sake and like to personalize learning by
connecting information with something familiar in their experiences
✓ They have active imaginations, enjoy being involved, and are sensitive to feelings.
✓ Divergent thinkers learn best, for example, through group discussions and participating in
brainstorming sessions.

2. Assimilator - people with this learning style demonstrate the ability to understand large amounts of
information by putting it into concise and logical form.
✓ They are less interested in people and more focused on abstract ideas and concepts.
✓ They are good at inductive reasoning, value theory over practical application of ideas, and need time to
reflect on what has been learned and how information can be integrated into their past experiences.
 ✓ They rely on knowledge from experts.
✓ Assimilative thinkers learn best, for example, through lecture, one-to-one instruction, and self-
instruction methods with ample reading materials to support their learning.

3. Converger - people with this learning style type find practical application for ideas and theories and have the
ability to use deductive reasoning to solve problems.
✓ They like structure and factual information, and they look for specific solutions to problems.
✓ Learners with this style prefer technical tasks rather than dealing with social and interpersonal issues.
✓ Kolb postulates that individuals with this learning style have skills that are important for specialist and
technology careers.
✓ The convergent thinker learns best, for example, through demonstration– return demonstration
methods of teaching accompanied by handouts and diagrams.

4. Accommodator - people with this learning style learn best by hands-on experience and enjoy new and
challenging situations.
✓ They act on intuition and “gut feelings” rather than on logic. These risk takers like to explore all
possibilities and learn by experimenting with materials and objects.
✓ Accommodative thinkers are perhaps the most challenging to educators because they demand new
and exciting experiences and are willing to take risks that might endanger their safety.
✓ Role-playing, gaming, and computer simulations, for example, are methods of teaching most preferred
by this style of learner.

B. GREGORC STYLE DELINEATOR

❑ Anthony Gregorc’s extensive research on learning style (1982) identifies four sets of dualities: perception,
ordering, processing, and relating.
❑ Based on his research, Gregorc developed an instrument called the Gregorc Style Delineator. This self-
analysis instrument is designed to assess a person’s learning style.

FOUR LEARNING PATTERNS ARE IDENTIFIED BY GREGORC:

• Concrete sequential (CS)
• Abstract sequential (AS)
• Abstract random (AR)
• Concrete random (CR).

1. Concrete sequential learners tend to operate in a highly structured, conservative manner in which specific
details and time schedules are critical.
▪ objectives are important to CS learners
▪ they do not tolerate being interrupted during the performance of a skill
▪ they learn better in a quiet environment
▪ they like recognition or a compliment on
▪ they interpret words and labels literally.
▪ learning can be enhanced by using handouts, demonstration teaching, hands-on opportunities with
guided practice, lectures with visual aids, and computer- aided instruction.
 2. Abstract sequential learners are global thinkers and surround themselves with language and other symbols
of knowledge.
▪ they like to deal with abstract ideas, and their style of learning continually leads to further
understanding.
▪ they do not learn well when sequence is interrupted.
▪ they need facts and written documentation to refer to, such as statistics and resource references.
When learning, the AS individual typically does not display emotion and has difficulty picking up
subtle verbal and nonverbal cues.
▪ they need a quiet environment to concentrate and learn.
▪ Learning can be enhanced by audiotapes, lectures, and supplemental reading.

3. Abstract random learners value relationships over time-bound structures. They think in global terms, and
their thinking processes are anchored in feelings.
▪ they direct attention to information that has personal meaning to them.
▪ they like a busy environment for learning
▪ Learning can be enhanced with color, music, pictures, drawings, symbols, poetry, and humor. Learning
is best achieved in groups, with the opportunity for discussion and question-and-answer sessions.

4. Concrete random learners tend to seek alternatives and create choices where none existed before.
▪ they are very inquisitive and will question motives.
▪ their attention is focused on the process, and will make intuitive leaps or insights. The “why” is more
important than the “how.”
▪ they do not like detail and have difficulty with step-by-step learning.
▪ Learning for the CR individuals is enhanced with simulations, computer and board games, case studies,
and brainstorming sessions.

C. GARDNER’S SEVEN TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE

❑ Psychologist Howard Gardner (1983) developed a theory focused on seven kinds of intelligence, which is
useful in looking at styles of learning in children.
❑ Gardner based his theory on findings from brain research, developmental work with children, and
psychological testing.
❑ He identified seven kinds of intelligence located in different parts of the brain: linguistic, logical
mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.

Gardner’s Seven Types of Intelligence

1. Linguistic intelligence seems to be in the Broca’s area of the left side of the brain for most people.
→ have highly developed auditory skills and think in words.
→ like to write, tell stories, spell words accurately, enjoy reading, and can recall names, places, and dates.
→ learn best by verbalizing, hearing, or seeing words. Word games or crossword puzzles are an excellent
method for helping these children learn new material.

2. Logical-mathematical intelligence involves both sides of the brain. The right-side deals with concepts, and the
left side remembers the symbols.
→ strong in intelligence explore patterns, categories, and relationships.
→ in the adolescent years, they have the ability for logical thinking with a high degree of abstraction.
→ they question many things and ask where, what, and when.
→ They can do arithmetic problems quickly in their heads, like to learn by computers, and do experiments to
test concepts they do not understand. They enjoy strategy board games such as chess or checkers.

3. Spatial intelligence is related to the right side of the brain.

→ learn by images and pictures.
→ enjoy such things as building blocks, jigsaw puzzles, and daydreaming
→ like to draw or do other art activities, can read charts and diagrams, and learn with visual methods such as
videos or photographs.

4. Musical intelligence is also related to the right side of the brain.

 → can be found singing a tune, telling you when a note is off-key, playing musical instruments with ease,
dancing to music, and keeping time rhythmically.

5. Bodily kinesthetic intelligence includes the basal ganglia and cerebellum of the brain in addition to other
brain structures. These children learn by processing knowledge through bodily sensations.
→ good at athletic sports and have highly developed fine-motor coordination.

6. Interpersonal intelligence involves the prefrontal lobes of the brain.

→ understand people, are able to notice others’ feelings, tend to have many friends, and are gifted in the social
skills.

7. Intrapersonal intelligence, like interpersonal intelligence, involves the prefrontal lobes of the brain.
→ have strong personalities and prefer the inner world of feelings and ideas and like being alone.
→ like a quiet area to learn, and many times need to be by themselves to learn.
→ tend to be self-directed and self-confident. They learn well with independent, self-paced instruction.

D. FIELD-INDEPENDENT/FIELD-DEPENDENT EMBEDDED FIGURES TEST

❑ An extensive series of studies by H. Witkin and associates (1971a) identified two styles of learning in the
cognitive domain.
❑ Learners have preference styles for certain environmental cues:

1. A field-independent person perceives items as separate or differentiated from the surrounding field
2. A field-dependent person’s perception is influenced by or immersed in the surrounding field. Structure
information in the environment.

FIELD-INDEPENDENT
➢ Are not affected by criticism
➢ Will not conform to peer pressure
➢ Are less influenced by external feedback
➢ Learn best by organizing their own material
➢ Have an impersonal orientation to the world
➢ Place emphasis on applying principles
➢ Are interested in new ideas or concepts for own
sake
➢ Provide self-directed goals, objectives, and
reinforcement
➢ Prefer lecture method
FIELD-DEPENDENT
➢ Are easily affected by criticism
➢ Will conform to peer pressure
➢ Are influenced by feedback (grades and
evaluations)
➢ Learn best when material is organized
➢ Have a social orientation to the world
➢ Place emphasis on facts
➢ Prefer learning to be relevant to own
experience
➢ Need external goals, objectives, and
reinforcements
➢ Prefer discussion method