VIOLENT CREATMlY.

ARTISTIC STRATEGIES
IN POST-WAR ART

FRIHlRlCH WFI TZIEN

L niH" .. ,if\' of Arl'. B.-din

1. Introduction: AI'~tMtics oJ Productioll

In the 20th century history of art, the creatht, proces~ plays a changeable
role. Within the wide range of lIew concepts and methods of making art,
one creative slralegy is of special interest. For a short period of time-not
more than ca. 15 years liming the 50's and early 60's- sc\'{'ral artist'i all over
du.' world make lise of\iolem acuom for painting. Without nece~<;arily know-
ing of each other these painters use fighting techniques, strong physical
JOfCC or different weapoll.~ <1-<; knives or guns as instrumenu of creation. In
tht" following 1 will examine this phcllomenon of viole lit creativity.
All of the artist.'I mentioned here are painters. The violent procedures
,h('\' undertak.e always create pictures. -Procedure" is understood as a w-dy
of painting, ne\'er as a fonn of autonomous happening or pcrfonnance art,
1 he perfonm.'d violence h; a way ofpl'oducing art and do~~ not count as an
h\ itself. In the terms of Allan Kaprow those techniques of painting could
hc· interpreted as a section of action painting.1 But Ule violent quality makes
,I ~p('cific difference that cannot be explained by Kaprow's theory.

In this special case the art historical method of analysing the aesthet-
IC ... of production is applicable. This means tJl(~ tcnns of description and Ule
• ,llt'gOI'ics of judgement derive not from the anal)'sis of a piece of art but
1111I1l thc creath·c process. The focus ofUle query lies OIl the procedure, the
III.Klice, the strategy of the artist-not on the completed work. ofal t. This
IIwlhod may Il'ad to an alternativc kind of an history·, difTerent from the
,III"I\"\is of the aesthetics of perception or the iconogrdphic approach. In
I ,'"tl;l.M to a psychologically dominated theory of creativity. the method of
,Inl ht,tics of production can combille the comparison of artistic intention,
01 Iht'Oil'tical ba~i~ and traditions of naftsmanship. To answer Lhe qu(,stion
 L l.ucio Foul.illa al work,
pholograph around 1950.

why there are these surprising parallels ()f\~olent procedures at this spedal
point of time in history, all three of mese need to be examined.
Within the aesthctics of production onc aspect is especially cmpha-
siled in the following: inquiry. As creative \'iolence is defined as a method.
which goes beyond the complete control of the artist, the characteristics of
inclt'pcndelll or Ullcontr<Jllable creallon are of interest. In the violent ac·
tion, the artist's body and movements, the material of paint and canvas ur
paper, the tools used form altogether a kind of amopoiesis. 2 This kind of
creative process doc:'> not il1\"oh'e executing a detailed plan, quile the con·
truy, it involves the inLcnded loss of intention. Beneath the use of physical
force and weapon-like instruments, me will to lose control within certain
limits is an iml>OrLant part of the definition of\iolenl procedures.

2. Violent CrraliOIl

Lucio Fontana hegins in the late 1910's to cut canvascs with a knife (Iig. I:
2). Later he also cutS iron and copper platc~ (fig. 3). In 1957 he extendrd
this concept, which he called "coneetto spaliale\ to include sculpture as

%I do ,WI IInd('nl:and alltopo;<-""",! ill th(' 5\~I('mlC ~mt' ul ,,!..las Luhmann or l ' ml)t·rto
I"tnur.Uld. In th is conct'rTl ;1 ;~ nUL it .'lCIJ-organi7"Iion of 'I ,telllS bUI mor(' IiIt'ral1l "" -",ulOn' ..
mOIl. 11I",k.in~( , it -("("('at ion I»· ;l...:ll~
 1,1.,,/ (.,,,,,,'111 \"",. \""'''111'' '" /''''' II,,. II ~ ,

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2, Lucio Fontana:
COllallo slmziaie (49 B
'~). I ~H9, can\'a.~, 60 x 75
1111, Fondazionc Lucio
Fontana. Milano.

3. Lucio Fontana:
Conallolpazia{, (50 B
'1),1950, iron, 74.5 x 64
em. Fondazionc Lucio
FOlltall<l, '\filano.
:.'4,1 ~~jll'R.I'·'1 \\11';:"'"

",,·11. 11(' Iii I hllge hall~ (It ('1,1\ with an iron har, whi(h GIU\C" del'p 1",1.·....
'" hal olle might Gill "Iaft.' rated wounds". As traces 01 a tough ph)",i<011
Iht· ..t, Mwounds" are Ihen caM in bronze,
The material of the ~concclto spazialc"4pailllings and sculplUrrl
opt'ned up to make the ~pace visible proceeding and around
ohJC(lS. What is of interest in this context is nOI so much
li.tlil), but the kind of cn.'alive process front which tht'st, im:lgf's d.·ri'
l'llt' treatment of the clay balls makes obvious thallhe form ibl'lf i.. lUI'
oul with much care for details. The piece of art is not a result ofa
illg and high care for r.,ubtle details; it is not the result of a
('\l'nl, I n the ripped canv<lses one sometimes can see Mpentimt'l'Iti\ ",
I'ontana darnt'd the holes. Om' could call this a kind Of~:~~~~~:'::::~~
wa~ of fontrolling the uncontrollable, Thc artist's critical
<I(\ioll for instance whcn the cuts become too big or arc
d')Sl' to each other. This oppOI"lUnily i5 not given with the coppcrpJaln
~i). II lakes more physical power to cut the metal·sheets and it is nOI
to "Il'pair~ anything afterwards, which means that the makmg ofa -,;"n.",
'i'a.fiak~ in copper is a violent procedure of a higher de~"Tee. The
itv of the artist's critique is restricted to the decision either to accep'
suit or to stan anew.
The more or less strong physical force. the loss of control and
dCllt.,1 fonns make it p<w>ible to describe the creative prou:ss ofL,.do
tana in terms of violence. It is notlhe case, as ont' could imagine,thal
\JMtial explosions in Lucio Fontana's oeuvre are imitations or
"wounds" in a mimetic manner. These fomls are real traces of real
pOWl'r, llu: resull of t h(' arli~t'~ violent actions.-~
Of course Lucio Font<\na knows what he docs. I Ie neither acts in
nor does he wreak ha\'oc in his atelier 10 find that the mined mat.,riall C
he sold to galleries and museums. It is nota destructive, it is a creative
cess. fontana carefully chooses his materials, he decides where to "'I
the canvas or how many holes he wants to hit into lhe copper or
prcparating drawings show clearly the intense studies before the
gins to work. He is able to choose an} instrument blunt or sharp.
light, and to conu-ol the speed and po\\'Crofhis action. Fontana is e~I"""""
enough to know in ad\~II1CC which forms a certain movement will
But it is nevcr a surgical operation. The direct physical actiull
it impossible (0 keep all parameters under the artist's control.
Irallw ofthe artistic concept, it is an autopoietic effect-the

~ "TrAce" ~hould nOI IX' IInderstood In a sen ..... ofthcol) or s igns, fo< ""
•.•b ••" ......
I'cir('(' drfined the indexiC"dl "11:11 Aenhetics of produClion is not inlerr,trd in lh~
'""C'r,, wnder and reC(~i\'er, h""'O"I.,en ani5t and hi, audit:nu" loll' in the ..dation bctwrrn
i~1 a"d hi, ,,"ork. The creali\e pruccu is not primarily .. pnx:~ of r o rnmunic.. tion.
" \h"l0 Shimamoto: Sakuhin (work),
" I'EHI, paint and pencil on paper,
194.9 x B1.4 em, Museum of
ContellljJomry Art, Tokyo.

till" pi operties of tools and materials on the Olle hand, the artist's body on the
Itlwl-which determines the shape and quality of the work of an. The lo.;.s
II, "litre] is intended and the violence, the physical force, is the \\~..ly fO get
"11'11'
\hnost at the same time but halfway around the globe-in Japan-
tII~l~ 01 the Gutai-Group use closely related methods of art production.
,,1111' than anyone Shozo Shimamoto is working in a similal way to Fontana.
111,111 dggressh-e and martial manner he "hurts" the surface of his pictures:
UIII' " reminded of the skin of a victim of torture. 1I01es and scratches all
his pictures evoke associations of iconoclasm (fig. 4). Those aesthetic
t, <Irc indeed the result of the artist's violent actions: he rubs, grates,
chafes thc painted canvas until he gets this desired look of maltreat-
I t I To achieve this, Shimamoto dewlops a number of viole III methods,

n;ample, he throws bottles filled with paint onto a canvas lying 011 the

, rhis i. one differencc from the wOI'king process of Font.ma: Fontana elliS first and
" p.unlS the ripped GI.I1\"a., Shimamolo trealS Ih .. aln'ady paintcd canvas. Shirnamo,o
." "." oIs POillts oul thaI hr ""15 thc firsl OIlC tu rip hoks into pictures (e.K.: ShOLO Shirna-
, .If\1tmnl·Gar,u. 199R, publishcd ill EnglisL lallguage ;1\: Wv.'W.gutai.com). It 11<:""", imkert.
'1,,"1;IInoto and Fontana did not know of each other ",hrn Ilt'b';nning thcir stratcgies or rnak-
11,,1,·, into can\<lSCs.
'!7n hlf".I<!lWII . ' / t /o;

5. ShoLo Shimamoto at work

for Pc.j "ling Iry throwi ng bol/ln
with paint, photograph,
1956 :Kat. Out of Anions
lYYX, 129).

6. Shozo ShimamolO at work

for Pllillting wilh a (GlillOn,
photograph, 1956 (Kat. Out
of Actions 1998. 147).

floor (fig. 5). In contrast LO.lackson Pollock's method of"dripping~, Shima-

mota's procedure of destroying the glass bottles is Illu<:h more powerful and
\·io!clIl. On another occasion he painL~ by firing a cannon towards the pk-
WIT. Shirnamoto ~hoot.s till' paim onto a large canvas hanging between twO
tree" haHllv able to control anything but the colour of the paint (fig. 6).
TIl(' quality of the paill ting dirt'('lly deri\·cs from the uncontrollable process
of creation, it origin'lIt·s oilly from lh(' speed alld the violence of the pro-
 7. Sabllro Murakami al work for
'Hllun. n.i lhi I, rokko 110 ann wo akl'T'U
(simultaneous opcning of six
holes), photograph, 1955 (Kat. Out
of Actions 1998, 12!}).

I edure, asJiro Yoshihara, mentor and fOllnrier of the Gutai-Group, writes

111 1956: "the large surface made in a single momellt by firing a small, hand-
made cannon filled v.ith paint by means of an acetylene gas explosion r... ]
,Ii~plays a breathtaking freshness",'"
Other members of the GUlai-Croup, Kamo Shiraga or Saburn Mura-
k,lI11i, 101' instance, also make use of ~iolent methods for their <.:reations. As
,I n'miniscence to the traditional Japanese martial arts, Murakami kicks and
h()xes producing holes into paperw'dlls (fig. 7). Those paper walls arc called
Shoji or Fusama and are traditionally used as room-dividers. l\Iurakami
hknds the european tradition of the tableaux, the framed cam~.ts, and the
1,lp'lIlese Fusama creating a new relation betweell them, Kicking holes into
hoth the occidental panel painting and the far eastern room-divider is not
0111\ an almost po litical statement against a conservative dealing with cul-
1IIIai traditions. It also creates a work, which Murakami exhibits afterwards.
! II(' holes in the paper an' ut"alt"ri hy Murak."l.mi through equ~lll)' artful mar-
tl,ll art movemenl'>-a kind of violence, which the GUlai artists called ~spilitual
fl\'lldmics".6

"Jiro Yoshihara, Th, Gulaj ,\lllnif~'In, /ir;f in (;~ijul<ll Shjnrho. Vol. nee. !956, f:ll);li'h ""
.m www,aship·"'f'b.orJp.
"Yo5 hihar... GUla;-;\f(m;f~'I". The -'I)irirua! dHlamin- in fhis ~Cmt· i, indeed urHIN~II>"d
... ,I I" 1'111 of v;olenn' _Yo,hih,II .• ·, I.... )("a~(' in II"" (;U/oi ,\10"'1"/0 is full of WOHt- Ii h· ,-i"IeIH",
'''I1).()(k. deear.lor('\' 0'- (',,'n lIlulfit't ,-\1'0 th,- "tw.-",... '. IIlv\,cm,'l\h ,,,HI r.·.·lin);' "f III.· ;itti,,',
I. 'II~ .111(1 I h., 'II {-t.w nd,,!!, " I " ..... Itt ,Ill' 111.111'11,<1 'I",II "I ,. "I' h i)(h i IIlJl""'.til( (.
M
~7:! hltl>lll'lI WH [/liN

8. Ka7.UO Shir:.g:. ,,' ",ork for Dora

lIi idomo (fighting with mud),
photograph, 19~)5 (Kat. Out of
Actions 1998, 25).

9. LTdlio
Shinoh:.ra at
wor}!; for Box
Painting f.."1't7l1,
photograph.
ra. 19fi()'I~Hj:.!
(Kat, Out of
Arti<ll1s 1~)9tt.
149).
 nlis kind of rillLtli/cd manial trddilioll t'mpha'li/€"d <In importallllc'un
10 d(:scribe the creatin'l>rocess in the post-war period: tht· fight. Tht, u"slih
of a fight is m"vcr predictable, no wonder Ihal "fighting" has beconw iI lu'-
quent1~' used nlt'taphor: e\'en' ('(cation is a fight with the maler-al, with th.·
(onditions, with tr.-tditioll. A lot of aestlwtic theories in post-war time-in
I'uropt· a~ well as inJapan-deal ",ith rhetoric terms 01 struggle or figh!.7
ButKa7110 Shiraga does Bol care for metorit' It·nns. He and otht·..,. art"
lealh fighting wilh their arc It st'cms that those ani!'ol.s took the old meta-
phor literall) and de\'cloped new meth()(b of painting out of thi\. '"Fightft 1lC)
longer is an allegon' ollhe creative pron·...<;. it became dt"M"ription. Shirdl{d.
101 instance, shot with bow and arrow al his C"Il\-d.';I"/~ and produced paint·
H

illj.,1"S by '"Fighting ""jlh Mud whkh is the title ofil work from 1956 (fig. K).'J
,

,\!lother Japanese <irlist of this period that dealt ",ith the metaphor of ('(("-
.uivity as a fight is Ushio Shinohard. In hi~ -Box Painting E\ent", which he
performed several times between 1960 and 19fi2, he boxed with lisl.<; full uf
paim al a Call\~dS (fig. 9).10 The big boxing glo\'e~, heavy of paint. makt' it
illlPO~\ihle to speak of a -COmposilion~ of painting. ~bldng art, it seems, iii
;, box-fight of in nUllwrable rounds which in the 10llg nlll cannot be won by
Ihe artist. MaytK' Shiraga could win one or two munds. but in the ('ud an
i .. alw3\'s oven\'hclming, art is always an OPPOIlt'llt of a higher weight divi·
.. ion. In other words: if the artist was ahle to "'restlc down the C31l\'a5, the
O\ltcome cannot be art. The artist must not he lhe ""inn("T hecause an L'I de.--
fined by its irre~islible power. Crealh'it) as a fight is a kind of test to §Clt'ct

7 Ikn ..alh Midl<~1

T'lpit' and Jl:<U1 OU buffet t hN" a' " 1111' (·"i~len 1i"hsli.-·I' ,,,,,unlt-nol0Ri"
thai of Mauli... M~I kau·t'onty, Imp<>nalll It" Ihi~ <;choo! of Ihinli"K ~ Miuun
, .• 1~e~th('li~., ".K.,
Ikidq{l(cr's lerm of ~Sln'it' ('In'I-\IIIt-). _\rtisL' al. different a~ Willi 1\a"md~ler. Allx-nn (.,....>-
""'IIi. ur Francis Bacon rdt·. t<I tl1I1 influ('nc ... 0" tlw ,ilualinn in,l;.I"'" 'l:L hat.llLronltnvtw,...
\ u.ml·(;arb in}fI/HIn 1'H~·IW,', O"ford I!lR!'); ..... t.j"p..",y~.t a/I,.., 1"H _~.'0ro ....~.¢'Jin.' tlu ~
""'1l Y"ll.. <J9.t '.on("(·n11l'K Ihe imerronn.. niom bcl"-ccn F_u"" ... all'lJapan. «:'(' !\aI, INukJ i ..
"'/><I'" I"""I",M .i,,,,,,/~,,,,,I, 1921)/19';(1. O.-,,,....ld,,rl. 1<l)~-I; MI. }4""'. tk• .\ ..."I·(;cr,v, 191O·l'liII.
I·~I". I'IR6.
8 (;h. (""",d", ,<;a"ba"f»U. 1!l!;7,
' Fsid.. nH! "I the \-i(l/(onl (I" .. lity 01 this crea~i,- .. I'ro(.t·", oUt' Ih(' hrui ... ~ a:oll ...:-rall-h ..,.11
""{'I Shir.'g\·s h<><h afl(·n.ards. a, 1, .. lujJ Shinichiro Ch.Ill. tit- .d", ~tI(J. Ihal "FilJ;bli"K .. ilb Mud"
_ IIlt'ant ald \\':1\' of paintinp;: tll(' (me..,. in UIC mud art" th .. "",1. .. LUI . .\1It1l/l("r \lrth.dofShir.ga w....
'OJ I~um "it' hi, t....I"~ a lind (If "callil(.aphic slater" Shillidmu (Nkl. A,"f- ""~ Orl, jap..,..",,,,
1./'''''''u",1 '14rh lW~. in ['dill So: himrnd (cd. I. Oul a/. \,""".,. ,U/..."" ...... 8qdy ,\rf ..,," Pn-JtII'
..,"" 1<149-1979. o.tliltkm. I ,t<~. pp 121-1 :;~. Enl(li~h \e,~i"n on I',ml Sthumnd (rd. I. 0," of .i,'·
I.,.... IlrlJ.wn 1'trf-tJIIU "",I,,,, (Jbyt I. 1949-1979• ..... )( .\. t ~~ :\"gt-I.-.. I <jtI1I
III Akh"Uf{h Slunoh.. u .lid ""I ",,1""1( '0 'h" r;"loti-l' ;'''''1' I... ,h ....·, ~ Inl .•, .In.. lm.......J!.
IIII~ IInp"rtlnc ..... th... pee Ih< <.('."... ,...... -....... nd Ih .... '~ •• I.-1I1 mell""I •. III '''111 -...,1 he oec"ml \<,
I... ",nrc' iromt .nd le'nda t.. Orll',., 11I11'.mtlll~ lIurlllK Ih .. 1"''''0''''', ,,"11K In"l", ..11 ~. Ih .. iIf
II"n p"uullnK I ...rtu"n..,," ,,' (_.~ M.lh,r", hr lu. u_ III"'" on IIIIr ,.. "hrme ....It hmK hln,
\'~mlll\lC- fin .n.... "I tI,.c. ht" .1 mu,r ,10" .. ,," .• I.m.1 {I •• ,,·, I.' hdl'\"'III11K Ih .. n 1.. ,I.i,
t ht' w('ak II Olll thl' \In>ng works 01<11 t: tlw sun'ival oflhc fill('" llt',llioll, In
lin q-I..'., lhi~ idt,OI of cn'ati"iIY carri(:s a .,'rong neo-D'II~inian llotion,ll
Of interest in this context is that the emphasi .. is put on lhl' (1(·;tlive
pitH e..... It i.. nOI <,() much the sUI"\;\,or hUllhe act of slIrvj\;ng whi('h cHun ...
to spt'ak in Darwinian tcnns. The piece of an, the painting. the piumr. lhe
i..\1.tllalioll, wh;tlc\'er malerial relic that could be sold is of liull' worth In
Iht, nt'S of these arti~I!i. What counls as art is nOljust what comes out illih.
t'lld TIU' pron'ss of aeati\'ilV itself. thl' making is already artful. Tht, pro-
IT .... detl'lmines the appearance of the artwork; this is why the pro{('dure
i .. ,.11 It-a .. l. <t." impormlll as the eternal piece 01 beauty itself. NC\'t'lI h("IHI
tlIl'M' Mli()Il\ an' ahV<IYs meant as a way of painting, they al'e nOI men' hap
pc·llill ........
Uti .. I .. wh.u the Cutai-artists ha\e in common with the European
111I1II('i-IIl()H'IIlt'lll and ,",'ith the New York School of action painters, prim.
111\' ,.11 "'.. IHI Pollock. But it seems that the New York artisls ofwhal i'l
Ai)\tl,u 1 t.xpn.'~.. ionisll) did not make u.sc ohiolent methods as quite a.'1,m,ch
Ahhllll~h Pollock's dripping is a highl)' autopoictic procedure, it dot"il
dC'pI'lId much on physical force.
Th(' situation in Europe is diJTerent from that in New York. Tht
I.U! Font.lIlil, who has been taken 1,0Japan by Michel Tapie and ,ho.,.dl ">III
pinllle\ together with the Cutai-Croup inJapan in 1958, is notlhe (lnly
dt'aling .....ilh \iolclll methods of painting. In France Y"es Klein makta
offil('lO "paint~ on paper. The same goes for the German Croup Znoin
(',lIh 60'5. OUo Piene produces pictures by exposing a canvas t,o a, ~)~;::::
naill(' and then looking afterv·:ards for images in the accictent.'llly f~
"u Huures (fig. 10).12 While Piene\; paintings arc made of sOOt, Klein
hllrns the surface of the picture. Klein creates forms by exposing the
more or k'\S to the heat of the flame·throwt-r, by making the paper W<'t
parts, and by spraying on paint afterv,rards as a kind ofpostproducuon,
melhods make w,c of the "natural f(,rce" 01 fire in an autoPOiCUti'C:a1~II::;:~
Firc is usually understood as a dcstmclive force. It has d
man\ paintings through the hislOl), oflllankind--especiall) just a few

" Th;, connt'ns pt'rfntly 10 the eoncenl$ of Il,e faThel'S OfT},,, aeslhl'tics ~::,~::~:
I~~ · (C'lImn' GOllfri,·t1 Semper (set' belo... ). "'ho d .. lined art.l\ a mode or",urlmg.
i nll ...·\!ed in Charks Darwin· 5 Thl'o,ies. Mo,eo'·N the ;dl'a ,,[ "hfl' as a ligh t- lits '0
i.li( Ihough". c.g.Jl'all I-'aul ~rtrt' and his undcf"'it,mding of humanism. as" Kift ... hich liar.
c·"ml'd (',,(h da\' "gain, As far ," Ilno... the con ne(liom be,... c .. n e"isU'nuAhsm, D',~,.._ .
Hc·ati"it\' arc not discmcred ", far,
n In Ihi< C~. Pienc drlfilcd" "ructlLTl' that remind ...! him of a :\eolilhic fem..k-

Ill<" '«>-("alled "Venus ofWilknd"rf', ,\notiler ",ember 01 "::~ 7::;::::;':~':;,,~:~;;:~',~::,~C:

.. round 19.~l'l \OJ "pdi ... " b, hal"mcl·ing IO-in (""."ail, inw his pirt"'·... , In contrd.S[
MP"iruing fur to Hammrr a :\,\il-. 1961, ... hi(h i. nn ill\e:'rAction ,,';111 thc audie nce:', ,,:<)::~;:
wi,h this r.. <lical m.·thod d,·h(ate ;tlld e:'vt" (hanging efTr"L~ ofshadow and light hI
anglt-, length. and alr.mgrlllelll of the n"il).
 III Otto Pi~Il~ : 1i"/lIIS lIOn
II'tllmdQr[. 1963, MlOI Oil
cdm-a.'>,15()x!W(J('nl,
SI('ddij" 'IUK"lIlI1
AJlIst~rddm, NI

Iwllll e during World War II. The use of fin' ahno~( seems to he a prayer (0
1111' phoenix, to turn du' lorn's of evil into SOlllt.'lhillK productive and to takt"
tuh'illliage of the inevitable. To liSt' the uncontrollable elt'IIl('nlS of nature i:o;
Itllhis sen se less an act of\'iolation Ihan an attcmpt 10 gt·( a hold on tht,
IIl1ioreseeable and ('onlingency.
The lOll..: of incillltation i."i a lso \en .. hOll g in the WOll.<; ul HI..·i llldlHl
!\; Ih(h, who "-dS par t of the AU"II-ian Group Wiencr Akliolli.,mus, His paint-
IIIJot... his painting melho<h" ,Uld rdat<.'d actions resomlll' high ";th implicaulllls
In the Christian religion 1:1 and ancient fOTim 01 sacrifice. 1-1 The paintings,
IMHallcd MSchuuhildn" (poured or spilled painlings) look like blooti-soaked
n·ll( s ofthesc ceremony-like happenings which firsl look place in the ealh
tiU\ (fig. 11, 12). tr, Indeeclmml oftiH'm are just Ule r('sult of rl'd paint pomt,cl
(l\e'l canvas. Although ther are onh secmillgh- Ill(' lesult of crud d(:tions,
ItlC"\ are undoubtecJh dt'~igned to shock. Thi s "shocl " can also count a..o; a
fill III of \lolence. Conrad Ba)l·l. a member of the \ 'it'nna (;roup. wrole in
1'I"t9: Mwe tell our fellow pc:' rfonnel"S to employ COlltMI rwith the audienct·}
IP.I "'capon". 16 To dew lop or to prc(( lid 'lotent m ethodo; of ('n'ation could
Mill as wealxm i(sdC The o bvious I.lSl. · of,iolt'n('t' ca n irritate the audience's
tllp('ctations and makes cI(~,1I another aspect of"iol(,1I1 (Teative procedures:
11~ ullconventionality.

I~ LK. th .. em". ,hl' while pl.lid, Ih., ""'II"," anolhe blood 01 (:h .. i,1.
" ~ibch i, ,kinnin~ and /o:IlUin!{ u""u.lllimal"
l~ Tht" so-called "01 !{\·\l nl .. n·Th"dlTt"~ is still p;:dOl m,·11 "uu' .. H·n· '-car,
"on rad Sa"er. I "-I<""I1",,(""n ntull dnrI (abard iimtHI' liou, ,Ih.. r ,ht" (abaret). H".'~. m
W,·.lwl, Pt"ler (ed.). 1 At I",,'ll! (;wup _~ .\10,",",10/ .\1'''1.......,) 19~-I·l%{J, Til, l uualll",/u ""d
,/W .\,Iihn<, '·ienna 'l'"
Ym L l '1'17,1:'K ~\\"(';lprn· in th i~ «mlt·xl .' m"'<lphnricall, med. bUI tht·
\ j'·l"'~ (;roup pt" rform('d al ... , "1111 n· ... ",.. apr"', like hean a~t:~ .11111 knl ing 'na~h. d~tlo' ing,
I." U"i"nc .. , piano~, el(,.
It. Hermann Nit~(:h at work, photogr,lphs of the 4. Aktion, 1963, by Ludwig
Hoffenreich, Galeric Stampa, Basel.

12. HnHld1i1l Nit"ch: O. "J: (Schilt\hild), 1963,

Sammhmg Fricdrichshof, Zurndorf.
 13. Niki de Saintl'halle at work 1m d
"tir~, photograph, 1963, ~tullich,
Neue (;,Ikrie illl Kunstkdl<lUS.

14. ~iki de' Saillt Phalle po~ing ill

from of ,\ "Iir" at the exhibition Mku
a volonuS", Galll·ryJ 28. inJl1ne 1\lf)I,
pholoKI<lph by Il<lrrY Shunk (K.u.
Out of Actions 19tIR, 41).

Similar to the Gutai·anisL'i, ~iki de Saint PhalJe painted v.ith the help
of a glln together with different partncrs like Rolx'rt Ra.uschen bt'l"g orJean
Tinguely. The "tin(, as she callcd these kinds of pictures, an' packed with
hidden re~r\'oin; of paint in a relief of pla~tl'r. When she shot at the pic·
ture, the plaster cracked up and the paint rail dO\m tilt: canvas likl' mulli"
coloured blood. Sometimes the phLstcr is shaped like a human hod\' (fig.
] 3), and thb conjures up liH.' a~sociation of killing or at kast hurting the
picture by paillljllg it. Also tht' photograph of ~iki de Saint PhaJ:t' standing
in front of one of her ~tin," reminds us of thc atlitude of a big ganl(' hunter
posing with his trophy (fig. 14).
271'1 .RI'I*Il~I\\'I'lll"

SI\(' S(·t·llIingly h"s hunte'd dowll a largt' pit'n' of art-hUl with tlt'r shOh
she' has not ki1l('d it but hrought it to Jifl'. II st't'ms that tht' gunshot.. might
hI'" killd of nilLiv.lIion or relillt'lTIcnt. Like tht, hunter turns a fielH" beil5t
inl",m artefact of nllture b.,., I,lking a photograph of himself in a triumphant
POSt' o\'el' Ihe killt'd animal, ~iki de Saint Phalle turns a rough collection
of siull inlo art 1:1" the same method: sbooting and posing,
A~ I hav(' sl1O\H'<I, a lot of painters in til(' post"-'ar era deal with melh·
ods which expost' tht' creati\'(' process as a violent, sometilTlt,s e\'en cmel
afl, III their intent to build or to create, these methods are necessarily dr-
st rll('t iw, Of cour'te this short compilatiOlI of artists is not complew. Therr
<ll'(' ()thers and th('n . may be pailltcl-s who han . used stratt'gies of "iolent
(T('.lIion for painting at other timc:s, It is import<lIlt, though, that there is a
«(lIlsldlatioil of artists of clifferent muii(iou't perfonning comp;-wdhlt" ways
01 an produnioll autonomously.
The question is, why violl-llt actions a~ artistic stralegit-s are so inter-
I'sliug for painter~ ,It this special moment in history. One reason is probably
tht, ullparalleled destructions of World \\'a r II which w(.'re still ,isible any-
wlu'r('-e'JX'("iallv in Europe and Japan-the re"ie,,,ing of the fascistic past
in Emope had not H't taken plan', The rising of the cold war with its new
world order of antagonistic blocks in the east and west encour.-tged a way of
1hinking in black and white, good and evil, On the othe" hand, me Europe
alldJapan ('('ollomies n"cowrcd and established a con~Ulner !ifestvlt" Thr
anis!.s utilizing "jolt'nt proceduH,'s to paint are part of these Ia..t changing
sOfit-lics, In the follo\\1l1g I It)' to suggcst why \;olence was considered to be
a nt'alive Forn',

:-\, A Illimlilmalil,'f, Advt''1Ilu" and thl' ['nkn(Jwn

Tht"lirst one who drew attention to this violent ways of art productioll waI
Mi('hl'l Tapie, This well-known advocate of til(" Informel-MO\"t'ment tried to
hring European and Japanese artists together, For instance, h( . organizrd
('xhihitions of Members oflhe Gut."li-Croup, Lucio Fontana and others since
gF~, In J952-yt"ars befon' he knew the Gutai-Croup-hc \\,-ote in hi!> man"
ft'!>to U1I itrt Alltn.17 of the rist, of a new kind of artist: the ~rles tructeur­
H

n(',lI('ur Thost, ,lnislS need 10 "hreak lip c\"t'I"ything" in order to create

,

works of art whit'h are "full oh1olence 10 rc.....oute the puhlit,~, Traditional art
is, ill tht, worth of Tapie, ~harrlened likt, a s("lerasis - and a violt"llt breakout
is 1I('('('s,<iary to ("(nllt' to an alll hc.'lIIkally fertilt, luture ", BUI even this ~ep()que
M

lIit,t/J.dwt-nnt' ~ whkh Tapie set'S ri~ing is mt'ant metaphoric-ally not liU'r.dly,

",orb chOic (',IIT\' a \1ulc."nt or stu I('king st"nsatiun art' 1I0t nc.'("t'S.'iarily crc.'alt'1l by

" \1i" ... 1 L'l'i", , ",hf ,\'lIn'- ..., ,/, ',,«,I'" n"." ..."u """~.' Ii .. 1.vI. I'"ri~, I'I',:!. The- 1,"-
1"wi"1I: 't""uu"""""I""n ,hi, h..,.~
;tviolent method. Often pictures of\iolent content an.' painted in .. \'(.'1' (011
trolled manner, and on the other hand .....orks painted lISlIlg violent pmn'"
dures can have a calm and e\'ell meditative eflect. The creative proce!\.S dOt· ..
not necessarily provide a definite (Ontent or offer a fixed imerpn:tatioll oj
the artwork. IS
I would like to offer an alternative reading: the idea of creativity ..IS a
process independem of consciousness and rationality. Beneath the emph .. ·
sis on \iolence the artistic slratebrics presented here all share the clemt'III.\
ofloss of control and the pro\'ocatJon of chance. The artwork is nota com·
position in the sense of a realization of a set of rules but made to happl'JI
in a frd.me of gi\'en parameters -by itself. In the meaning defined above thl"
arc all alUopoietic procedures.
The second characteristic the artists shal'e is lhe notion of fight. All of
Ulem describe theil· creative process as conflicting tensions and understand
an as a kind of ritual to reconcile antagonistic forces. Making art is not ,I
wa)' of constmction but a struggle for authenticity and arti.Hic tl"lllh. Tht'}
L'lke the melaphoric meaning of creativilyas a fightlil('rallv and indeed wrestle.'
with their paintings.
A third parallel lies in lhe crirical yet creative associations "ith tht, dil·
ferent culmral traditions-cither Asian or European. Il is evident that thn
I gtU u.u.JitiulIs as dogmatic and stress the lIncomentiona\. But on the Olhrr
hand they all need traditions to work against and resist, creating new mran·
ings by rejecting old ones. The metaphor offiglll is convcntional, but its
interpretation as a modI' d'nnpwi is new. 19
Creativity as a question of chance, a.o; a struggle, and as rejection of th('
traditional: thesc three points are classical lofJOi of the modern vanguilld.
The problem of violence a.<. a creative strategy could he seen as pan of all
Olutopoietical process wiulin the limits ofmodemity. As a fourth toposof mod(,J·
nit)" the strong interest for the creati\'c process could be added. A1read"
during the 19th CCllIury the problem of aesthetic production becomes in·
creasingly the object of artlheorv. In connection with political and S«Kial
theories, the tcrm "work" or ~labour"20 was becoming more and more n'll"

18" mi~talt.~ of Tapu: UlI)l;lil ha\'C I,., .., to Ix-lil"\'l" Ihal a Slmil........ a\ of produnio" n~n·t­
~.1rily kads to similar .... OI'k~ of an. Although both the Gutai and Ih(' Infonnel an, 'Imgglinl( \>,11t
Ih .. ir tr.ldi tio!l5. th('sc U'OIuIlitlns ;II·C .....,rlds quile apart. At leaSt 1x·(·all~(· or th i~ fan Ihl' pa, nllllll:'
Coilid nOI Ix 10 closel,' related
t9 It ill import;",1 to.'l<'~ that this laking Iitcr.. U,· <llI .. IIIC:I.lphm i.• In no tllean~ .. u itullic I"c·
1)(~I.modl"rn dcmOtt~tnlli()n nf artislic rr~l"dom. On the umlr.. n. II i~ \~n palhelit Th.· "'" ..-
I)(."an ell as til" Jdl);lll"'It" .. ru.u ha,"t" ;u a goal no I""., u.an 110 \d\(' all an I)f hc<:omllll( ot .... ,kl(·
;0<1 ...

M()T~o,·cr. tJlO~ art,~b ~'\c:n u\· ICI ""'"t"

manlt.i:ld m M\i,,1C Ih.· aUlh("nut il\ (If art. iti liu·h"",, ,m.j
,t. df"<:IiH~n""",
2'0 ~'\Jtxil~ in (...-,",a" "'1'''''' 1Il'lantl" indu~lIi.. 1b.I)()UI. (trau,·(" ,u,r". ,md a Pi" r "I "'I
I h" (Cllllod.·,,( (' 1Il.!\ h ...... ('II. "III "II'·" •h.· p..... lkl of .h,· I('n" III ,,.,hlll .01 . ...:,. ,.01 a"t! ....·,lh('11< .01
Iltr"Tlc" III (",-"",,11'
:litH hl" .. KIWU"""I

11.11 rill" philo..OI)hi('OlI qut· .. tion of "u;fht'til\ !'IiC'('III~ II) ( hangt· Irom "wll<ll
I .. Ilt'aul,,?" 10 ~how can Iwaul)' be made?"
Wilh til(> romantic It'nll of"gt'nius" oldie l"ll' 181h n',Hun. , artistic Crt"--
;Ilion is st'l'n as a .'>t'net or godlv inspiration which cannot be understood
h\ latin: il is naflln' itsell which (Teates through the m~dium of the artist.
b om Johann Wolfgang \'011 Goethe to NO\<lJis, creativilY is something likl'
a '"hl;'Kk box~. impl"lelrabit- 10 cOlisciousn(·'" and will. ~I)rcam". '"magic" or
"g,lIlle" art' metaphors 01 thc creative prOfCss.
At L11(' beginning olthe 19th ccntll!"), the philosopher Augllst Wilhelm
St hlcgd \uggest~ a ....-.t}' in which art shuuld be produced. lie rejects a mi-
Illt'lic way o'just cit-pining the single phl'nomenon of nature, Art should
imilatc nature-but 1I0t as a reproductioll. An should imitate the way of
plOduction o[nature; h~ .... ants art to be a<; creative as nature is: to produce
ill all autopoietit'al manner "living works or art" by itselr.~.H Art should pos-
s('s 'orces as nature docs. As nature is not an accumulation of products but
till' producing principle itself, an could only be defined and understood
through a cermin wa\' ofproducti()I1, not through its products, "Livelin cS-.<;",
~t' nerg( , "power'" are ccntmlterms in S<:hlegel\ theon' of an. Thmughout
the 19th century there are aesthetic theorit,s which try to understand art
tllrough the creative process.,!,l At the turn to the 20th centurvC...onrad Fiedlt'r
is the [1I'St one who composes a concise a~ ... thetics of production. Not a single
..... ork 01 lut, not the piec~ of Ix'aut}' ball'~ lht: ~cuet of <Ill. Art cannot be
examined by reconstructing ideal proportions or following a givcn system
ofsigllificancc. It is solely the process of creation h'hich hold'i the kcy to the
understanding of arL.2.~ This is how Fiedler sum ... up his predec~~sors.
During the 1940's, Fiedler's theoretical approach is widely recognized
among luropean artislS. Creativity was thought to lie within the realms of
the ~unknown". as the German painter Willi Baumeister writes in 1 947,24
But this "llllknown" is not the m~"iteriolls inspiration of the romantic genius;
1Il0reOVCl it should be sought out in an active way. To create original, sin-
gular works of aft the artists have to keep a'way from all kirl(ls of cliches, prc-

n August Wilhelm SchJq!:d, \'''ru,u"K''"~ ."r )fhQM1l L,/t"(1/ur ulld K,wII. Berlin. 1801 02
( 11.(";1di nll:' <In Fin., LilCralllTt· aud .\rt), in S<-hJt'lI:cl, .~rhnftnt (cd h~' W F'Jt"11l1l1er) . MLl1I(hcn,
O.j . 119. I hc n ..lion of Art all 01. n,u "rc.~lil(" ~t"II-organ;,iTlK OIu1ol><>it:liGiI proCCD malt:~ den Ihe
do, ... rcLltiun to D.lI'\Oo;ni,,,, thought.•.
~ hOIll Gottfri("d Semper to li..ad \tarx • A1I)/.·;I" ;, rccogni,."d as a rritcriOIl t"judge tht:
""lIh of a pit'<-c oran. This;, nm Ihe pIau' 10 ~\"\" A mm ma ... "I 19th {t'IIIUI" an ,hool'. St'(' for
lhl' Inm "f - ......·ben· • ,." do };.uht"nn,mn. A' "'u, ,J" ,\"""",. Dr.r A· u.»../lNrJri, lin RJ'tI/inltIJ (An as - .\rhe n".
rht: Art Tht'l>I"\ of Rt'ali sm), in KultcrmAllll. Kf,i,j, (~-Sfhirht, oJ". K,,"'lIitrorir, O.1l"lllSladl, JY<J8.
J·I'I·1!!i.
:rI Scot" npccialh ('lJrrdi, rw.fftnlu.ng 1~'" ""*,,, dnltildnul,." Kun.' ( 1IIi6) and IJtT ['np",'*fl:
,In ~';lIj'un\rhro laliglv,{ (1887). hoth in Fil"tlkr. (~ll1rad. &hi/lm lib...· AIUIII, Roln. 1996,2;'; 1!S1
II In Judging Worb 01 \rt; Th(" Origin ul\rti'lic .-\cti,"il~).
t i \\ illi 1M1In'l'''lrr, llll-> t 'nMannl, In t",.- A "nIl (Th e l' n known in Art), StuIlJrArt, 1947.
';t't fOI'III~ allft II ,ulitl()ttal ~cllings. "'I(l show sotllt'thing kll()Wll", B.UUIlt'lstt'l
says. '" is nUl illt ". Bul as it is impossihle (0 know tht· unknown, tilt, (liflkullv
is to gct 10 it point the artist did not know before. This could bt' dOlll' hl'sl
by using methods of chance and the unintended. According to)e<ln Duhu·
ffet the real proof of art is the mistake. the accident. A sch(·me. a ('anon 01
ideal proportions could easily be copied; unique is only what happt'lls h,
chance. The traces ofthe working- process are inimitable and pal-ticular to
each single human being,25 In search for the unpredictable, the artist nl'l'ds
to be adventurous-a bohemien nOI a bouwoi,\'. "Advcnture~ is a word lhal is
used commonly during the 1940's to describe the experience of making art.
Everything that excludes knowledge, ratio, or consU"lJCtion is we\comc. Invol·
untary marks, unconscious movements, fast gestures, an organic growth of
the complete structure are the ideals of this undcrstanding of an. The IxKly
and its sensafions arc thc most important source of images-logical analy-
sis is only acceptable as a critical instrument or a retrospective control af~
teT the event.
Lucio Fontana is essentially influenced by this conception of an. Tht'
Manifesto Blancowhich he signed among other artist.. in ] 946 proves this.:!h
Formulations like an as an ~inclusive organization of work" OT the concep-
tion of "nature as a dynamic force~2i connect directly to the sources of 19th
century theory. Sometimes the Alanifesto Bianco almost uses the words of
Schlegel: ~the new art takes its elements out of nature" hecause it is ~ th('
love to nature that pushes the artist to copy namre's beha\'iour~.:!11 Other
phrases are showing a new accentuation already leading towards violent

~~ for instance. in l'rosfxI:tw aux amalnm tk tout gnur (1946): I. ',.,1 "",II"i/h, aux (Iris ruUurt'u
( 1!l4!1), hoth i".I,,,1tl D ubullet (cd. b) Il ubert Damisch), Prosp«ll<5 fl tom fails suj,mnls. 1"l.I'i~.
1967. &>"ealh ten"" like ";flnateur" and "adventure". "violence· is an important feature for Dubuflct
to,,: "P!"rsonally. J bdieye ,·el)" much in ,alues ufsavagel)"; I mean: instinct, pass,on, mood. yif>·
I!"nee, madne",' (1951). The emphasis un the uniqueness both of art "nd man con nee'" thi! di ....w.·
sion of ueativit} to the problem of humanity and the philosophical conception of Exi~tenli;l,h~m
in this time. Duhu/feCs conception of the jlrl 8",1 is important for .\iichd Tapic's idea of Ihe .in
AutTf. especialh' in the notion of the -raw"
ffi In Guido Ballo, Lurio FOri/mia, Killn. 1971. 18.';. The signing arTi,t~ are: Bernardo Aria •.

Iloraeio ('.;u~ne\l\'C. Marcos Fridman, P."hloAria.s. RodoU" Bllrg"s, [n.-i'lue Benito. C':'"",r Bema], Lui.
Coli. Alfredo Hausen.jorg.. Ro{"am"'''e. For Ihe Spalli,h text,""" Cada Schul£·Hollimtnn. Lurio
FonlanlJ, Munchen, ]983, 148--155.
t7 "Una organ i l-'lei"n i nlegr.t! d,,1 trahajo' (150), "Ia ",,( I1raleza pOT la di""mie,," (151).
t~ ~EI artc IIuHO Willa sus delllentos de la natl1ralcla r... ln amor a la naturalcla es 10 que
impul"" al "rtisw. a copiar d funcionamicnto de la naturalcza- (153). The last swtenceJ of the
"'anif"st" SI1I11 up this credo: "El arte nun'o rcquiere la [uncion de todas las cnergias del hombre.
en la """dCi(m ). ell la interpretacion. EI SCI" sc manifiesta integramente. con la plcnitud de , ,,
\ilalilia"- (15<1). Tile Ilchncss and life olan as .....ell as the equality of creation and interpretation
an: conceme<! Wilh Schlegel. The !!lTd to ilwest all human enCl"g}' means also the strength of the
body and include~ the possihility of ,;o]e"t "Ir.negi,," of u"atioll.
\tl<ltt'gie\ of creation. The speech i, of ~()PPO\IIt· 11 III t'S fighting: lhe kno,,"'l
and tht' unknown, fmult' and past". Art has l)('cOllit· all adventure: ~tJl(' quit,t
lik lias \'allished".~i It is the language oflcmlutionaries and it is Ollt oftht'
qllt,\tioll tlut the future lies in the realm of the ~\llIknown". The past bt--
IOIl!-r-; to tradition; Ule h.Jtllre on UIC other hand i~ I1.lled by Ule forces of nature.
Abollt four \'ears later Fontana I(JUnd the image as such to reprc~cnt this
fight between future and past: he cuts the traditional can\'as with:t knife
ff()m top to bottom and paints around the wide open wound. The dynamic
of the violent creatin' process showed Fontana the way to the unknown, to
the new art he was seeking for. 30

I. (.'OflcillSio,,: U"t)'ing thl' Knot

The use of violence a~ a creative strategy appears as a result of different aes-

til('tic and historic conditions. In the attempt to untie the knotSC','eral strings
could be put apan.
Clearly, some aspcCl~ of classical modem art are in\'oh'cd, for exam pit.
the interest in methods of chance and the accidental, the rejection oftra-
dition and the stmggle for the new and original. Romantic and anti rational
tendencies and the idea of unconscious creatioll pia}" all important role. 'II
The specific interest in the creativc process on the one hand and thc indif·
ft'r{'llce against the finished work of an as well as a certain understanding
of the relatioll between art and nature is equally e\.;dent. A'I a result ofthest.
the conception of art is more dynamicallhan evcr before, The artist's body
and his role;LS medium between nat.ure's energy and the work of art ix-come
(('HIraI. The adventurous search for the unknown and the \\;11 to even risk
Oll(''s health opens the path to violence. Methods of violent creation are the
mo't nm,;equcnt result in the "search for an oribrinal, undiscovered world",»
Violence is an extreme POilit in a range of autopoietical procedures
of art production, Despite thc often ulIcl notion, it still carries the testi-
IIlOIlV of romantic ideals comparable to methods of the New York action

cOO! "Fucrol1 fuen;u opur~LL~ <JUC eSlm; .. "", en pug"a. Co eonocido)· 10 dcsconoCldu, t!1
p()r\("n;~, d P;ISOlcl" [ ... 1 L.a \;d" apacible h" de'''pareeido· (152).
JoTh .... wrnp;.n.o;on of Yo.\hih"r.. ·.\ (;u/u;.,\1oNif",oand Ihe .\fanijniIO 8kmfo~ho"l> p<lr.dl....
nm n"l\· III till" U'K" of Irnll' .. lid inlrnli'1I15. II "IV) makes ob\'iou~ Ih"l Ihe arll'U of GUIAI In_
tI ... EIII()I"'Jn t1wulic-s on Art produClion "~l)' well. n,t'")· IIC"\doped tl ... 'pccifk probl~TIls wilhin Ittrir
OW" (uhlir'" u-ad,uons, fo~ i"'I..Ulce. ",ilh Ih.., help of marti..J arts or til<" inl..,rpre .... UV'l of UR' t .. bl~ .. U1I
," .• ffUII_.
~I F.,")t'"("iall, Ihc impan "I Sigmund h("u,r~ p!I)' h ..al1.m1iGII \nitin~ '''' Iho:-.u-I oflhr St,,~
1.. 1_101 lll!ol"l11 ,'. Anlln' Bn'f"n'~ nm, "1'1 "I flu' filII'''' ardOlrtal'l/IU'or Iht" "'ql':l Inlclllal"amlinl
1"('1/.. ,,10 ,,( \.1.1" • 1.. ,1-" C,' h"l(4· d'i hl.I"'I, .. t .... I".' t,m(r .
.: ',,,hlhal~. ''', (;"'41 U""iJftIa
 \ ,,,1,,,, f ""''''''1 \"";,, \1",1,.",,, '" /',0\1 II'", ,hi !!H:\

painters.:n In the light oftheSL' at'stht,ti( idt,,,s, \'i oie nce is not destruniw.
It is the expression of violent fOr(es of nature itself. Sharing such an undt·I'-
~( allding of nature , artists of the postwar period could take the metaphor
of creation as a fight literally and put it into practicL'-without any notion of
irony. What makes violent procedures so interesting for these artists is: it is
irrational. Or as Lucio Fontana pllL<; it: "Ia razon no crea~ ..'H
In the 1950's and early 60's it seems to be that authenticity, expression
and artistic truth could only be gained by force. Consequently it was neces-
sary to use violent, sometimes even brutal methods to reach the high goal
ofbtrue artistic creation~. Before pop art demonstrated a possibility to sub-
vcrt this serious and existentialistic ambition by irony ami supeniciality, an
seemingly had to be protected by force-like dUling VI'orid War II human-
ity had to be saved by military action. It seems that "humanity", a frequently
used postwar art theoretical term, was sometimes achieved only through
inhuman methods.
In a quite military way of thinking, the territories of the known and
the unknown are completely separated. Thf:!se two terms are, philosophi-
cally spoken, absolute. Anything in the universe belongs to one or tlle other.
fhere is no ou tside, no alternative and no possibility at all to belong to both
parts at the same time. It is not a border which could easily be stepped o\"er.
There is a gap in-between, an abyss without any ground. The on1)" ChdlllT
to cross the boundary is tojurnp. Thisjump demands all the artist~ powel
both or will and physics. As it is not possihle to know where he might end
up, the artist could only decide afterwards if he made it into the realm of
art or if he still stuek in the known. The artist's critical faculty is totally sepa·
rated from the creative process. He should not think while working: to judge
his work he has to wait until it is done. Thinking or reflecting is the mode
of rnovin!l through the known, acting or 'Jumping" is the way into the land
of the unk.nown. 35
The idea of conquering undiscovered worlds, of occupying new area.<;
of "isibility still carries a notion of military intrusion. Thin king in strong
antagonists-for instance of the known or the unknuum, lhe space or the Pianl'.
the d)'namic or the stalif, art or not art-is reminiscent of a black and whitt,
srstem: jn'end or foe, freedom or tyranny. This might be a result of a concep-
lioil of the world as it WdS also common under the fascistic regimes through-
out Europe, during World War II and in tlle confrontation~ between Ea'it
ilnd West during tlle cold ....'ar. During the 60's a more differentiated worldview
(";lllle about and maybe made tlle basis of a violent method ofpaintingobso-

!~ Paint",." in Ih" :-'f"W York SdH)o} madO:' aimO'iI 110 Uloe of .'iolt-nt m"II1Od5,,1 pdinling. bUI
tiu- l -S ..\nll"llcal1 fM·rhll1l1ann· ani~t~ di,t. Chris BUT{\ens 'Shuoting !'ku,' 01 H17!, dunJlII "'iI i, h
h.· \(.[ " ptT<"n \hoo[ "'It It ;0 111111 ,,, hi_ 0 ...·" Mm might "lark ,h ... top ..1 ,hi_ In·nd
" ,\I("';f"'<> Hum,,,. 1'H
,', 'III~ 1,1'-' 1'1 .l1l11-l1l1(·II".IIIII1111'· ... I'·II. ,. , ,1 \1,.. "d" "d" i\ 'IU'\(·' t'l,," I() [hro, 'UI< "1'1 .. ",
lete. More and marc the genres of art st.'paratl·d III p.ullting Oil tht' ont· ha,"',
and performance arts on the other. The act 01 painting. the crt>;ltin'
cess lost some of il.'> influence in art lheory. Violence-as history d,·"n ....
slrated---became a means of politics again.

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