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Disability is the experience of any condition that makes it more difficult for a person to do
certain activities or have equitable access within a given society. Disabilities may be cognitive,
developmental, intellectual, mental, physical, sensory, or a combination of multiple factors.
Disabilities can be present from birth or can be acquired during a person's lifetime. Historically,
disabilities have only been recognized based on a narrow set of criteria—however, disabilities
are not binary and can be present unique characteristics depending on the individual.[1] A
disability may be readily visible, or invisible in nature.

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities defines disability as:

long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction

with various barriers may hinder [a person's] full and effective participation in
society on an equal basis with others.[2]

Disabilities have been perceived differently throughout history, through a variety of different
theoretical lenses. There are two main models that attempt to explain disability in our society:
the medical model and the social model. The medical model serves as a theoretical framework
that considers disability as an undesirable medical condition that requires specialized treatment.
Those who ascribe to the medical model tend to focus on finding the root causes of disabilities,
as well as any cures—such as assistive technology. The social model centers disability as a
societally-created limitation on individuals who do not have the same ability as the majority of
the population. Although the medical model and social model are the most common frames for
disability, there are a multitude of other models that theorize disability.

There are many different terms that exist to explain different aspects relating to disability. While
some terms solely exist to describe phenomena pertaining to disability, others have been
centered around stigmatizing and ostracizing those with disabilities. Some terms have such a
negative connotation that they are considered to be slurs. A current point of contention is
whether it is appropriate to use person-first language (i.e. person who is disabled) or
identity-first language (i.e. disabled person) when referring to disability and an individual.

Due to the marginalization of disabled people, there have been several activist causes that push
for equitable treatment and access in society. Disability activists have fought to receive equal
and equitable rights under the law—though there are still political issues that enable or advance
the oppression of disabled people. Although disability activism serves to dismantle ableist
systems, social norms relating to the perception of disabilities are often reinforced by tropes
used by the media. Since negative perceptions of disability are pervasive in modern society,
disabled people have turned to self-advocacy in an attempt to push back against their
marginalization. The recognition of disability as an identity that is experienced differently based
on the other multi-faceted identities of the individual is one often pointed out by disabled
self-advocates. The ostracization of disability from mainstream society has created the
opportunity for a disability culture to emerge. While disabled activists still promote the
integration of disabled people into mainstream society, several disabled-only spaces have been
created to foster a disability community—such as with art, social media, and sports.

Contents
● 1 History
● 2 Theory
○ 2.1 Disability Studies
○ 2.2 International Classification
○ 2.3 Medical model
■ 2.3.1 Causes
■ 2.3.2 Cures
■ 2.3.2.1 Assistive technology
○ 2.4 Social model
■ 2.4.1 Social construction
○ 2.5 Other models
● 3 Terminology
○ 3.1 People-first language
○ 3.2 Identity-first language
○ 3.3 Handicap
○ 3.4 Accessibility
○ 3.5 Accommodation
○ 3.6 Invisible disability
○ 3.7 Episodic disability
● 4 Disability activism
○ 4.1 Rights and policies
■ 4.1.1 Rights movement
■ 4.1.2 Disability Justice Movement
■ 4.1.3 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
■ 4.1.4 International Year of Disabled Persons
■ 4.1.5 Policies in former Soviet Union republics
○ 4.2 Political issues
■ 4.2.1 Abuse
■ 4.2.2 Insurance
■ 4.2.3 Employment
■ 4.2.3.1 Intellectual Disability
■ 4.2.4 Poverty
■ 4.2.5 Disasters
● 5 Disability in society
○ 5.1 Aging
○ 5.2 Societal norms
■ 5.2.1 Tropes
■ 5.2.1.1 Inspiration porn
■ 5.2.1.2 Supercrip
■ 5.2.1.3 Disabled villain
■ 5.2.1.4 Disability Drop
■ 5.2.2 Self advocacy
■ 5.2.3 Intersections
■ 5.2.3.1 Race
 ■ 5.2.3.2 Gender
■ 5.2.3.3 Socio-economic background
● 6 Disability culture
○ 6.1 Sport
● 7 Demographics
○ 7.1 United States
○ 7.2 Canada
○ 7.3 Australia
○ 7.4 United Kingdom
○ 7.5 China
○ 7.6 South Korea
○ 7.7 Developing nations
● 8 See also
● 9 References
○ 9.1 Citations
○ 9.2 Sources
● 10 Further reading
● 11 External links

History
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Contemporary understandings of disability derive from concepts that arose during the scientific
Enlightenment in the west; prior to the Enlightenment, physical differences were viewed through
a different lens.[3]

There is evidence of humans during prehistory that looked after people with disabilities. At the
Windover Archeological Site, one of the skeletons that was found was a male about 15 years
old, who had spina bifida. The condition meant that the boy, probably paralyzed below the waist,
was taken care of in a hunter-gatherer community.[4][5]

Records of disability in the ancient world have occurred as far back as Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamian āšipu (exorcists) and ašu (physician-priests) recorded instances of stroke into
cuneiform tablets with great levels of detail.[6] Disability was not viewed as a means of divine
punishment and therefore disabled individuals were neither exterminated nor discriminated
against for their impairments. Many were instead employed in different levels of Mesopotamian
society including working in religious temples as servants of the gods.[7]

In Ancient Egypt, staffs were frequently used in society. A common usage for them was for older
persons with disabilities to help them walk.[8]
Windover Archeological Site, location of the 15 year old with spina bifida who was taken care of
in a hunter-gather community.

Provisions that enabled individuals with impaired mobility to access temples and healing
sanctuaries were made in ancient Greece.[9] Specifically, by 370 B.C., at the most important
healing sanctuary in the wider area, the Sanctuary of Asclepius at Epidaurus, there were at
least 11 permanent stone ramps that provided access to mobility-impaired visitors to nine
different structures; evidence that people with disabilities were acknowledged and cared for, at
least partly, in ancient Greece.[10] In fact, the Ancient Greeks may not have viewed persons with
disability all that differently from more able-bodied individuals as terms describing them in their
records appear to be very vague. As long as the disabled person in question could still
contribute to society, the Greeks appeared to tolerate them.[11]

During the Middle Ages, madness and other conditions were thought to be caused by demons.
They were also thought to be part of the natural order, especially during and in the fallout of the
Plague, which wrought impairments throughout the general population.[12] In the early modern
period there was a shift to seeking biological causes for physical and mental differences, as well
as heightened interest in demarcating categories: for example, Ambroise Pare, in the sixteenth
century, wrote of "monsters", "prodigies", and "the maimed".[13] The European Enlightenment's
emphases on knowledge derived from reason and on the value of natural science to human
progress helped spawn the birth of institutions and associated knowledge systems that
observed and categorized human beings; among these, the ones significant to the development
of today's concepts of disability were asylums, clinics, and prisons.[12]

Contemporary concepts of disability are rooted in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century

developments. Foremost among these was the development of clinical medical discourse,
which made the human body visible as a thing to be manipulated, studied, and transformed.
These worked in tandem with scientific discourses that sought to classify and categorize and, in
so doing, became methods of normalization.[14]
The concept of the "norm" developed in this time period, and is signaled in the work of the
Belgian statistician, sociologist, mathematician, and astronomer Adolphe Quetelet, who wrote in
the 1830s of l'homme moyen – the average man. Quetelet postulated that one could take the
sum of all people's attributes in a given population (such as their height or weight) and find their
average and that this figure should serve as a statistical norm toward which all should aspire.

This idea of the statistical norm threads through the rapid take-up of statistics gathering by
Britain, the United States, and the Western European states during this time period, and it is tied
to the rise of eugenics. Disability, as well as other concepts including: abnormal, non-normal,
and normalcy came from this.[15] The circulation of these concepts is evident in the popularity of
the freak show, where showmen profited from exhibiting people who deviated from those
norms.[16]

With the rise of eugenics in the latter part of the nineteenth century, such deviations were
viewed as dangerous to the health of entire populations. With disability viewed as part of a
person's biological make-up and thus their genetic inheritance, scientists turned their attention
to notions of weeding such as "deviations" out of the gene pool. Various metrics for assessing a
person's genetic fitness, which was then used to deport, sterilize, or institutionalize those
deemed unfit. At the end of the Second World War, with the example of Nazi eugenics, eugenics
faded from public discourse, and increasingly disability cohered into a set of attributes that
medicine could attend to – whether through augmentation, rehabilitation, or treatment. In both
contemporary and modern history, disability was often viewed as a by-product of incest between
first-degree relatives or second-degree relatives.[17]

A short government advisory animation on the social model of disability

Disability scholars have also pointed to the Industrial Revolution, along with the economic shift
from feudalism to capitalism, as prominent historical moments in the understanding of disability.
Although there was a certain amount of religious superstition surrounding disability during the
Middle Ages, disabled people were still able to play significant roles in the rural production
based economy, allowing them to make genuine contributions to daily economic life. The
Industrial Revolution and the advent of capitalism made it so that people were no longer tied to
the land and were then forced to find work that would pay a wage in order to survive. The wage
system, in combination with industrialized production, transformed the way bodies were viewed
as people were increasingly valued for their ability to produce like machines. Capitalism and the
industrial revolution effectively created a new class of "disabled" people who could not conform
to the standard worker's body or level of work power. As a result, disabled people came to be
regarded as a problem, to be solved or erased.[18]

In the early 1970s, disability activists began to challenge how society treated disabled people
and the medical approach to disability. Due to this work, physical barriers to access were
identified. These conditions functionally disabled them, and what is now known as the social
model of disability emerged. Coined by Mike Oliver in 1983, this phrase distinguishes between
the medical model of disability – under which an impairment needs to be fixed – and the social
model of disability – under which the society that limits a person needs to be fixed.[19][20]
Theory
Like many social categories, the concept of "disability" is under heavy discussion amongst
academia, the medical and legal worlds, and the disability community.

Disability Studies

The academic discipline focused on theorizing disability is Disability Studies, which has been
expanding since the late twentieth century. The field investigates the past, present, and future
constructions of disability, along with advancing the viewpoint that disability is a complex social
identity from which we can all gain insight. As disabilities scholar Dr. Claire Mullaney puts it, "At
its broadest, disability studies encourages scholars to value disability as a form of cultural
difference".[21] The field is increasingly interdisciplinary, often overlapping with the fields of
Philosophy, History, English studies, Rhetoric studies, Ethnic & Racial Studies, Gender and
Sexuality Studies, medical humanities, communications, pedagogy, and more. Scholars of the
field focus on a range of disability-related topics, such as ethics, policy and legislation, history,
art of the disability community, and more. Notable scholars from the field include Marta Russell,
David T. Mitchell, James L. Cherney, Jay Dolmage, Steve Brown, Tobin Seibers, Robert
McRuer, Brenda Jo Brueggemann, Rosemarie Garland-Thomson, Johanna Hedva, Laura
Hershey, Irving Zola, Susan Wendell, and many more. Prominent disability scholar Lennard J.
Davis notes that Disability Studies should not be considered a niche or specialized discipline,
but instead is applicable to a wide range of fields and topics.[21]

International Classification

The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), produced by the
World Health Organization, distinguishes between body functions (physiological or
psychological, such as vision) and body structures (anatomical parts, such as the eye and
related structures). Impairment in bodily structure or function is defined as involving an anomaly,
defect, loss or other significant deviation from certain generally accepted population standards,
which may fluctuate over time. Activity is defined as the execution of a task or action. The ICF
lists nine broad domains of functioning which can be affected:

● Learning and applying knowledge

● General tasks and demands
● Communication
● Basic physical mobility, Domestic life, and Self-care (for example, activities of daily living)
● Interpersonal interactions and relationships
● Community, social and civic life, including employment
● Other major life areas

In concert with disability scholars, the introduction to the ICF states that a variety of conceptual
models have been proposed to understand and explain disability and functioning, which it seeks
to integrate. These models include the following:
Medical model
Main article: Medical model of disability

The medical model views disability as a problem of the person, directly caused by disease,
trauma, or other health conditions which therefore requires sustained medical care in the form of
individual treatment by professionals. In the medical model, management of the disability is
aimed at a "cure", or the individual's adjustment and behavioral change that would lead to an
"almost-cure" or effective cure. The individual, in this case, must overcome their disability by
medical care. In the medical model, medical care is viewed as the main issue, and at the
political level, the principal response is that of modifying or reforming healthcare policy.[22][23]

The medical model focuses on finding causes and cures for disabilities.

Causes

There are many different causes of disability that often affect basic activities of daily living, such
as eating, dressing, transferring, and maintaining personal hygiene; or advanced activities of
daily living such as shopping, food preparation, driving, or working. However, it is important to
note that causes of disability are usually determined by a person's capability to perform the
activities of daily life. As Marta Russell and Ravi Malhotra argue, "The 'medicalization' of
disablement and the tools of classification clearly played an important role in establishing
divisions between the 'disabled' and the 'able-bodied.'"[24] This positions disability as a problem
to be solved via medical intervention, which hinders our understanding about what disability can
mean.

For the purposes of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, the US Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission regulations provide a list of conditions that should easily be concluded
to be disabilities: deafness, blindness, an intellectual disability, partially or completely missing
limbs or mobility impairments requiring the use of a wheelchair, autism, cancer, cerebral palsy,
diabetes, epilepsy, HIV/AIDS, multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy, major depressive disorder,
spina bifida, bipolar disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder,
and schizophrenia.[25]

This is not an exhaustive list and many injuries and medical problems cause disability. Some
causes of disability, such as injuries, may resolve over time and are considered temporary
disabilities. An acquired disability is the result of impairments that occur suddenly or chronically
during the lifespan, as opposed to being born with the impairment. Invisible disabilities may not
be obviously noticeable.

Cures

The medical model focuses heavily on finding treatments, cures, or rehabilitative practices for
disabled people.[26]

Assistive technology
Main article: Assistive technology

Assistive technology is a generic term for devices and modifications (for a person or within a
society) that help overcome or remove a disability. The first recorded example of the use of a
prosthesis dates to at least 1800 BC.[27] The wheelchair dates from the 17th century.[28] The curb
cut is a related structural innovation. Other examples are standing frames, text telephones,
accessible keyboards, large print, braille, and speech recognition software. Disabled people
often develop adaptations which can be personal (e.g. strategies to suppress tics in public) or
community (e.g. sign language in deaf communities).

As the personal computer has become more ubiquitous, various organizations have formed to
develop software and hardware to make computers more accessible for disabled people. Some
software and hardware, such as Voice Finger, Freedom Scientific's JAWS, the Free and Open
Source alternative Orca etc. have been specifically designed for disabled people while other
software and hardware, such as Nuance's Dragon NaturallySpeaking, were not developed
specifically for disabled people, but can be used to increase accessibility.[29] The LOMAK
keyboard was designed in New Zealand specifically for persons with disabilities.[30] The World
Wide Web consortium recognized a need for International Standards for Web Accessibility for
persons with disabilities and created the Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI). [31] As at Dec 2012
the standard is WCAG 2.0 (WCAG = Web Content Accessibility Guidelines). [32]

Social model
Main article: Social model of disability

The social model of disability sees "disability" as a socially created problem and a matter of the
full integration of individuals into society. In this model, disability is not an attribute of an
individual, but rather a complex collection of conditions, created by the social environment. The
management of the problem requires social action and it is the collective responsibility of society
to create a society in which limitations for disabled people are minimal. Disability is both cultural
and ideological in creation. According to the social model, equal access for someone with an
impairment/disability is a human rights concern.[33][23] The social model of disability has come
under criticism. While recognizing the importance played by the social model in stressing the
responsibility of society, scholars, including Tom Shakespeare, point out the limits of the model
and urge the need for a new model that will overcome the "medical vs. social" dichotomy.[34] The
limitations of this model mean that often the vital services and information persons with
disabilities face are simply not available, often due to limited economic returns in supporting
them.[35]

Some say medical humanities is a fruitful field where the gap between the medical and the
social model of disability might be bridged.[36]

Social construction

The social construction of disability is the idea that disability is constructed by social
expectations and institutions rather than biological differences. Highlighting the ways society
and institutions construct disability is one of the main focuses of this idea.[37] In the same way
that race and gender are not biologically fixed, neither is disability.

Around the early 1970s, sociologists, notably Eliot Friedson, began to argue that labeling theory
and social deviance could be applied to disability studies. This led to the creation of the social
construction of disability theory. The social construction of disability is the idea that disability is
constructed as the social response to a deviance from the norm. The medical industry is the
creator of the ill and disabled social role. Medical professionals and institutions, who wield
expertise over health, have the ability to define health and physical and mental norms. When an
individual has a feature that creates an impairment, restriction, or limitation from reaching the
social definition of health, the individual is labeled as disabled. Under this idea, disability is not
defined by the physical features of the body but by a deviance from the social convention of
health.[38]

The social construction of disability would argue that the medical model of disability's view that a
disability is an impairment, restriction, or limitation is wrong. Instead what is seen as a disability
is just a difference in the individual from what is considered "normal" in society.[39]

Other models

● The political/relational model is an alternative to and critical engagement with both the
social and medical models. This analytic posed by Alison Kafer shows not only how the
"problem" of disability "is located in inaccessible buildings, discriminatory attitudes, and
ideological systems that attribute normalcy and deviance to particular minds and bodies"
but also how mind and bodily impairments can still have disabling effects. Furthermore,
the political/relational model frames the medicalization of disabled folks as political in
nature given it should always be interrogated.[40]
● The spectrum model refers to the range of audibility, sensibility, and visibility under
which people function. The model asserts that disability does not necessarily mean a
reduced spectrum of operations. Rather, disability is often defined according to
thresholds set on a continuum of disability.[41]
● The moral model refers to the attitude that people are morally responsible for their own
disability.[42] For example, disability may be seen as a result of bad actions of parents if
congenital, or as a result of practicing witchcraft if not.[43] Echoes of this can be seen in
the doctrine of karma in Indian religions. It also includes notions that a disability gives a
person "special abilities to perceive, reflect, transcend, be spiritual".[44]
● The expert/professional model has provided a traditional response to disability issues
and can be seen as an offshoot of the medical model. Within its framework,
professionals follow a process of identifying the impairment and its limitations (using the
medical model), and taking the necessary action to improve the position of the disabled
person. This has tended to produce a system in which an authoritarian, over-active
service provider prescribes and acts for a passive client.[45]
● The tragedy/charity model depicts disabled people as victims of circumstance who are
deserving of pity. This, along with the medical model, are the models used by most
people with no acknowledged disability to define and explain disability.[46]
● The legitimacy model views disability as a value-based determination about which
explanations for the atypical are legitimate for membership in the disability category. This
viewpoint allows for multiple explanations and models to be considered as purposive
and viable.[47]
● The social adapted model states although a person's disability poses some limitations
in an able-bodied society, often the surrounding society and environment are more
limiting than the disability itself.[48]
● The economic model defines disability in terms of reduced ability to work, the related
loss of productivity and economic effects on the individual, employer and society in
general.[49]
● The empowering model (also, customer model) allows for the person with a disability
and his/her family to decide the course of his/her treatment. This turns the professional
into a service provider whose role is to offer guidance and carry out the client's
decisions. This model "empowers" the individual to pursue his/her own goals.[48]
● The market model of disability is minority rights and consumerist model of disability that
recognizing disabled people and their stakeholders as representing a large group of
consumers, employees, and voters. This model looks to personal identity to define
disability and empowers people to chart their own destiny in everyday life, with a
particular focus on economic empowerment. By this model, based on US Census data,
there are 1.2 billion people in the world who consider themselves to have a disability.
"This model states that due to the size of the demographic, companies and governments
will serve the desires, pushed by demand as the message becomes prevalent in the
cultural mainstream."[23]
● The consumer model of disability is based upon the "rights-based" model and claims
that disabled people should have equal rights and access to products, goods, and
services offered by businesses. The consumer model extends the rights-based model by
proposing that businesses, not only accommodate customers with disabilities under the
requirements of legislation but that businesses actively seek, market to, welcome and
fully engage disabled people in all aspects of business service activities. The model
suggests that all business operations, for example, websites, policies, and procedures,
mission statements, emergency plans, programs, and services, should integrate access
and inclusion practices. Furthermore, these access and inclusion practices should be
based on established customer service access and inclusion standards that embrace
and support the active engagement of people of all abilities in business offerings.[50] In
this regard, specialized products and specialized services become important, such as
auxiliary means, prostheses, special foods, domestic help, and assisted living.[51]
● Different theories revolve around prejudice, stereotyping, discrimination, and stigma
related to disability. One of the more popular ones, as put by Weiner, Perry, and
Magnusson's (1988) work with attribution theory, physical stigmas are perceived as to
be uncontrollable and elicit pity and desire to help, whereas, mental-behavioral stigmas
are considered to be controllable and therefore elicit anger and desire to neglect the
individuals with disabilities.[52]
 ● The 'just world hypothesis' talks about how a person is viewed as deserving the
disability. And because it is the fault of that person, an observer does not feel obligated
to feel bad for him or to help him.[53]

Terminology
People-first language
Main article: People-first language

People-first language is one way to talk about disability which some people prefer. Using
people-first language is said to put the person before the disability. Those individuals who prefer
people-first language would prefer to be called, "a person with a disability". This style is reflected
in major legislation on disability rights, including the Americans with Disabilities Act and the UN
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.

"Cerebral Palsy: A Guide for Care" at the University of Delaware describes people-first
language:[54]

The American Psychological Association style guide states that, when identifying a
person with a disability, the person's name or pronoun should come first, and
descriptions of the disability should be used so that the disability is identified, but is
not modifying the person. Acceptable examples included "a woman with Down
syndrome" or "a man who has schizophrenia". It also states that a person's
adaptive equipment should be described functionally as something that assists a
person, not as something that limits a person, for example, "a woman who uses a
wheelchair" rather than "a woman in/confined to a wheelchair".

People-first terminology is used in the UK in the form "people with impairments" (such as
"people with visual impairments"). However, in the UK, identity-first language is generally
preferred over people-first language.

The use of people-first terminology has given rise to the use of the acronym PWD to refer to
person(s) (or people) with disabilities (or disability).[55][56][57] However other individuals and groups
prefer identity-first language to emphasize how a disability can impact people's identities. Which
style of language used varies between different countries, groups and individuals.

Identity-first language

Identity-first language describes the person as "disabled". Some people prefer this and argue
that this fits the social model of disability better than people-first language, as it emphasizes that
the person is disabled not by their body, but by a world that does not accommodate them.[58]

This is especially true in the UK, where it is argued under the social model that while someone's
impairment (for example, having a spinal cord injury) is an individual property, "disability" is
something created by external societal factors such as a lack of accessibility.[59] This distinction
between the individual property of impairment and the social property of disability is central to
the social model. The term "disabled people" as a political construction is also widely used by
international organizations of disabled people, such as Disabled Peoples' International.

Using the identity-first language also parallels how people talk about other aspects of identity
and diversity. For example:[60]

In the autism community, many self-advocates and their allies prefer terminology
such as 'Autistic,' 'Autistic person,' or 'Autistic individual' because we understand
autism as an inherent part of an individual's identity – the same way one refers to
'Muslims,' 'African-Americans,' 'Lesbian/Gay/Bisexual/Transgender/Queer,'
'Chinese,' 'gifted,' 'athletic,' or 'Jewish.'

Similarly, Deaf communities in the U.S. reject people-first language in favor of identity-first
language.[61]

In 2021, the US Association on Higher Education and Disability (AHEAD) announced their
decision to use identity-first language in their materials, explaining: "Identity-first language
challenges negative connotations by claiming disability directly. Identity-first language
references the variety that exists in how our bodies and brains work with a myriad of conditions
that exist, and the role of inaccessible or oppressive systems, structures, or environments in
making someone disabled."[62]

Handicap
The term handicap derives from the medieval game Hand-in-cap, in which two players trade
possessions, and a third, neutral person judges the difference of value between the
possessions.[63] The concept of a neutral person evening up the odds was extended to handicap
racing in the mid-18th century, where horses carry different weights based on the umpire's
estimation of what would make them run equally. In the early 20th century the word gained the
additional meaning of describing a disability, in the sense that a person with a handicap was
carrying a heavier burden than normal.[64] This concept, then, adds to the conception of disability
as a burden, or individual problem, rather than a societal problem.[65]

Accessibility
A sign in Taiwan showing a wheelchair accessibility ramp.
Accessibility is the degree to which a product, service or environment is available for use to the
people that need it. People with certain types of disabilities struggle to get equal access to some
things in society. For example, a blind person cannot read printed paper ballots, and therefore
does not have access to voting that requires paper ballots. Another example can be that a
person in a wheelchair cannot ascend stairs and therefore does not have access to buildings
without ramps.

Accommodation
A change that improves access. For example, if voting ballots are available in braille or on a
text-to-speech machine, or if another person reads the ballot to the blind person and recorded
the choices, then the blind person would have access to voting.

Invisible disability
Main article: Invisible disability

Invisible disabilities, also known as Hidden Disabilities or Non-visible Disabilities (NVD), are
disabilities that are not immediately apparent, or seeable . They are often chronic illnesses and
conditions that significantly impair normal activities of daily living. Invisible disabilities can hinder
a person's efforts to go to school, work, socialize, and more. Some examples of invisible
disabilities include intellectual disabilities, autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder, mental disorders, asthma, epilepsy, allergies, migraines, arthritis,
progeria and chronic fatigue syndrome.[66]

Employment discrimination is reported to play a significant part in the high rate of

unemployment among those with a diagnosis of mental illness.[67]

Episodic disability

People with health conditions such as arthritis, bipolar disorder, HIV, or multiple sclerosis have
periods of wellness between episodes of illness. During the illness episodes people's ability to
perform normal tasks, such as work, can be intermittent.[68]

Disability activism
Disability activism itself has led to the revision of appropriate language, when discussing
disability and disabled people. For example, the medical classification of 'retarded' has since
been disregarded, due to its negative implications. Moreover, disability activism has also led to
pejorative language being reclaimed by disabled people. Mairs (1986) [69] explained how
disabled people may choose to self-describe themselves as a 'cripple'. This may appear
surprising that they are using stereotypically negative language associated with disability, to
describe themselves; however the purpose is to reclaim the 'disabled identity' from medical
professionals, and realign it with the preferred language of disabled people. The reclamation of
language demonstrated above positions itself within the social model, as it highlights how as a
society we construct concepts and perceptions of disability.

Museum of disABILITY History, Buffalo, New York

Disability activists have drawn attention to the following issues:

The rainbow-colored infinity symbol represents the diversity of the autism spectrum as well as
the greater neurodiversity movement.[70]

Rights and policies

Rights movement
Main article: Disability rights movement

The disability rights movement aims to secure equal opportunities and equal rights for disabled
people. The specific goals and demands of the movement are accessibility and safety in
transportation, architecture, and the physical environment; equal opportunities in independent
living, employment, education, and housing; and freedom from abuse, neglect, and violations of
patients' rights.[71] Effective civil rights legislation is sought to secure these opportunities and
rights.[71][72][73]

The early disability rights movement was dominated by the medical model of disability, where
emphasis was placed on curing or treating disabled people so that they would adhere to the
social norm, but starting in the 1960s, rights groups began shifting to the social model of
disability, where disability is interpreted as an issue of discrimination, thereby paving the way for
rights groups to achieve equality through legal means.[74]
Advocacy for disability issues and accessibility in the republics of the former Soviet Union has
become more organized and influential in policymaking.[75]

Disability Justice Movement

Main article: Disability Justice

Evolving from the disability rights movement is the Disability Justice movement, which aims to
improve the lives of disabled people through prioritizing collective liberation, as opposed to
prioritizing legislative change and traditional civil rights. This framework, dubbed the "second
wave" of disability rights, seeks to examine the many systems of oppression that are intertwined
with ableism, such colonialism, white supremacy, and heteropatriarchal capitalism.[76] The term
"Disability Justice" was coined in 2005 by LGBTQ disabled women of color, Mia Mingus, Patricia
Berne, and Stacey Milbern, who sought to build an anti-ableist movement with a larger
emphasis on intersectionality than mainstream disability rights, as to center marginalized voices.
Their group, the Disability Justice Collective, also included notable disability activists such as
Sebastian Margaret, Leroy F. Moore Jr., well known for his poetry and founding of the Krip Hop
movement, and Eli Clare, well known for popularizing the bodymind concept within disability
studies. The Disability Justice movement has ten core principles: intersectionality, leadership of
those most impacted, anti-capitalist politic, commitment to cross-movement organizing,
recognizing wholeness, sustainability, commitment to cross-disability solidarity,
interdependence, collective access, and collective liberation.[77]

In Patty Berne's essay "Disability Justice - A Working Draft", she articles the essence of the
movement as such:

Disability Justice activists, organizers, cultural workers understand that able-bodied

supremacy has been formed in relation to intersecting systems of domination and
exploitation. The histories of white supremacy and ableism are inextricably
entwined, both forged in the crucible of colonial conquest and capitalist domination.
We cannot comprehend ableism without grasping its interrelations with
heteropatriarchy, white supremacy, colonialism and capitalism, each system
co-creating an ideal bodymind built upon the exclusion and elimination of a
subjugated “other” from whom profits and status are extracted. 500+ years of
violence against black and brown communities includes 500+ years of bodies and
minds deemed dangerous by being non-normative – again, not simply within
able-bodied normativity, but within the violence of heteronormativity, white
supremacy, gender normativity, within which our various bodies and multiple
communities have been deemed “deviant”, “unproductive”, “invalid.” A Disability
Justice framework understands that all bodies are unique and essential, that all
bodies have strengths and needs that must be met. We know that we are powerful
not despite the complexities of our bodies, but because of them. We understand
that all bodies are caught in these bindings of ability, race, gender, sexuality, class,
nation state and imperialism, and that we cannot separate them. These are the
positions from where we struggle. We are in a global system that is incompatible
 with life. There is no way stop a single gear in motion — we must dismantle this
machine.[76]

Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

On December 13, 2006, the United Nations formally agreed on the Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities, the first human rights treaty of the 21st century, to protect and
enhance the rights and opportunities of the world's estimated 650 million disabled people.[78] As
of January 2021, 182 nations have ratified or accepted accession to the convention.[79]
Countries that sign the convention are required to adopt national laws, and remove old ones, so
that persons with disabilities will, for example, have equal rights to education, employment, and
cultural life; to the right to own and inherit property; to not be discriminated against in marriage,
etc.; and to not be unwilling subjects in medical experiments. UN officials, including the High
Commissioner for Human Rights, have characterized the bill as representing a paradigm shift in
attitudes toward a more rights-based view of disability in line with the social model.[78]

International Year of Disabled Persons

In 1976, the United Nations began planning for its International Year for Disabled Persons
(1981),[80] later renamed the International Year of Disabled Persons. The UN Decade of
Disabled Persons (1983–1993) featured a World Programme of Action Concerning Disabled
Persons. In 1979, Frank Bowe was the only person with a disability representing any country in
the planning of IYDP-1981. Today, many countries have named representatives who are
themselves individuals with disabilities. The decade was closed in an address before the
General Assembly by Robert Davila. Both Bowe and Davila are deaf. In 1984, UNESCO
accepted sign language for use in the education of deaf children and youth.

Policies in former Soviet Union republics

UN programs and OSCE work to align policy and programs in countries that were part of the
former Soviet Union with the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.[81]

Political issues
Main article: Ableism
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A 28-year-old Iraqi woman who lost both of her legs during the Iraq War in 2005

Political rights, social inclusion and citizenship have come to the fore in developed and some
developing countries. The debate has moved beyond a concern about the perceived cost of
maintaining dependent disabled people to finding effective ways to ensure that disabled people
can participate in and contribute to society in all spheres of life.

In developing nations, where the vast bulk of the estimated 650 million disabled people reside, a
great deal of work is needed to address concerns ranging from accessibility and education to
self-empowerment, self-supporting employment, and beyond.[82]

In the past few years, disability rights activists have focused on obtaining full citizenship for
disabled people.

There are obstacles in some countries in getting full employment; public perception of disabled
people may vary.[citation needed]

Abuse
Main article: Disability abuse

Disability abuse happens when a person is abused physically, financially, verbally or mentally
due to the person having a disability. As many disabilities are not visible (for example, asthma,
learning disabilities) some abusers cannot rationalize the non-physical disability with a need for
understanding, support, and so on.[83]

As the prevalence of disability and the cost of supporting disability increases with medical
advancement and longevity in general, this aspect of society becomes of greater political
importance. How political parties treat their disabled constituents may become a measure of a
political party's understanding of disability, particularly in the social model of disability.[84]

Insurance

Disability benefit, or disability pension, is a major kind of disability insurance that is provided by
government agencies to people who are temporarily or permanently unable to work due to a
disability. In the U.S., the disability benefit is provided in the category of Supplemental Security
Income. In Canada, it is within the Canada Pension Plan. In other countries, disability benefits
may be provided under social security systems.

Costs of disability pensions are steadily growing in Western countries, mainly in Europe and the
United States. It was reported that, in the UK, expenditure on disability pensions accounted for
0.9% of gross domestic product (GDP) in 1980; two decades later it had reached 2.6% of
GDP.[83][85] Several studies have reported a link between increased absence from work due to
sickness and elevated risk of future disability pension.[86]

A study by researchers in Denmark suggests that information on self-reported days of absence

due to sickness can be used to effectively identify future potential groups for disability
pension.[85] These studies may provide useful information for policymakers, case managing
authorities, employers, and physicians.

In Switzerland, social policies in the field of disability have been significantly reshaped over the
last two decades by reducing the number of allowances awarded and by increasing the
recourse to vocational rehabilitation measures. Drawing on interviews conducted with
individuals who have been involved in programs set up by Swiss disability insurance, a study
highlights their uncertainties and concerns relating to their place in society, as well as their
reactions to disability insurance's interventions.[87][88]

Private, for-profit disability insurance plays a role in providing incomes to disabled people, but
the nationalized programs are the safety net that catch most claimants.

Employment

Studies have illustrated a correlation between disability and poverty. Notably, jobs offered to
disabled people are scarce. Marta Russell notes that "[a] primary basis for oppression of
disabled persons (those who could work with accommodations) is their exclusion from
exploitation as wage laborers."[89]

Intellectual Disability

Many countries have programs which aid intellectually disabled (ID) people to acquire skills
needed in the workforce.[90] Such programs include sheltered workshops and adult day care
programs. Sheltered programs consist of daytime activities such as gardening, manufacturing,
and assembling. These activities facilitate routine-oriented tasks that in turn allow ID people to
gain experience before entering the workforce. Similarly, adult day care programs also include
day time activities. However, these activities are based in an educational environment where ID
people are able to engage in educational, physical, and communication-based tasks which
helps facilitate communication, memory, and general living skills. In addition, adult day care
programs arranged community activities by scheduling field trips to public places (e.g. zoos, and
movie theaters). Despite both programs providing essential skills for intellectually disabled
people prior to entering the workforce, researchers have found that ID people prefer to be
involved with community-integrated employment.[90] Community-integrated employment
opportunities are offered to ID people at minimum or higher wages, in a variety of occupations
ranging from customer service, clerical, janitorial, hospitality and manufacturing positions. ID
employees work alongside employees without disabilities who are able to assist them with
training. All three options allow intellectually disabled people to develop and exercise social
skills that are vital to everyday life. However, it is not guaranteed that ID employees receive the
same treatment as employees without ID; according to Lindstrom et al., community-integrated
employees are less likely to receive raises, and only 26% are able to retain full-time status.[91]

Finding a stable workforce poses additional challenges. A study published in the Journal of
Applied Research in Intellectual Disability indicated that although finding a job may be difficult,
stabilizing a job is even harder.[92] Chadsey-Rusch proposed that securing employment for ID
people requires adequate production skills and effective social skills.[92] Other underlying factors
for job loss include structural factors and worker-workplace integration. As stated by Kilsby,
limited structural factors can affect a multitude of factors in a job, such as a restricted number of
hours an ID person is allowed to work. This in return, according to Fabian et al., leads to a lack
of opportunity to develop relationships with coworkers or to better integrate within the
workplace. Nevertheless, those who are unable to stabilize a job often are left discouraged.
According to the same study conducted by JARID, many who had participated found that they
had made smaller incomes when compared to their co-workers, had an excess of time
throughout their days, because they did not have work. They also had feelings of hopelessness
and failure. According to the U.S. National Organization on Disability, not only do ID people face
constant discouragement, but many live below the poverty line, because they are unable to find
or stabilize employment and because of employee restricting factors placed on ID workers.[91]
This renders ID people unable to provide for themselves, including basic necessities such as
food, medical care, transportation, and housing.

Poverty
Main article: Disability and poverty

The Cripples, Pieter Bruegel, 1568

The poverty rate for working-age people with disabilities is nearly two and a half times higher
than that for people without disabilities. Disability and poverty may form a vicious circle, in which
physical barriers and stigma of disability make it more difficult to get income, which in turn
diminishes access to health care and other necessities for a healthy life.[93] In societies without
state funded health and social services, living with a disability could require spending on
medication and frequent health care visits, in-home personal assistance, and adaptive devices
and clothing, along with the usual costs of living. The World report on disability indicates that
half of all disabled people cannot afford health care, compared to a third of abled people.[94] In
countries without public services for adults with disabilities, their families may be
impoverished.[95]

Disasters
Main article: Disability and disasters

There is limited research knowledge, but many anecdotal reports, on what happens when
disasters impact disabled people.[96][97] Individuals with disabilities are greatly affected by
disasters.[96][98] Those with physical disabilities can be at risk when evacuating if assistance is
not available. Individuals with cognitive impairments may struggle with understanding
instructions that must be followed in the event a disaster occurs.[98][99][100] All of these factors can
increase the degree of variation of risk in disaster situations with disabled individuals.[101]

Research studies have consistently found discrimination against individuals with disabilities
during all phases of a disaster cycle.[96] The most common limitation is that people cannot
physically access buildings or transportation, as well as access disaster-related services.[96] The
exclusion of these individuals is caused in part by the lack of disability-related training provided
to emergency planners and disaster relief personnel.[102]

Disability in society

Protest for the recognition of Irish Sign Language

Aging

To a certain degree, physical impairments and changing mental states are almost ubiquitously
experienced by people as they age. Aging populations are often stigmatized for having a high
prevalence of disability. Kathleen Woodward, writing in Key Words for Disability Studies,
explains the phenomenon as follows:

Aging is invoked rhetorically – at times ominously – as a pressing reason why

disability should be of crucial interest to all of us (we are all getting older, we will all
be disabled eventually), thereby inadvertently reinforcing the damaging and
 dominant stereotype of aging as solely an experience of decline and deterioration.
But little attention has been given to the imbrication of aging and disability.[103]

In Feminist, Queer, Crip, Alison Kafer mentions aging and the anxiety associated with it.
According to Kafer, this anxiety stems from ideas of normalcy. She says:

Anxiety about aging, for example, can be seen as a symptom of compulsory

able-bodiedness/able-mindedness, as can attempts to "treat" children who are
slightly shorter than average with growth hormones; in neither case are the people
involved necessarily disabled, but they are certainly affected by cultural ideals of
normalcy and ideal form and function.[104]

Societal norms

In contexts where their differences are visible, persons with disabilities often face stigma.
People frequently react to disabled presence with fear, pity, patronization, intrusive gazes,
revulsion, or disregard. These reactions can, and often do, exclude persons with disabilities
from accessing social spaces along with the benefits and resources these spaces provide.[105]
Disabled writer/researcher Jenny Morris describes how stigma functions to marginalize persons
with disabilities:[106]

Going out in public so often takes courage. How many of us find that we can't
dredge up the strength to do it day after day, week after week, year after year, a
lifetime of rejection and revulsion? It is not only physical limitations that restrict us to
our homes and those whom we know. It is the knowledge that each entry into the
public world will be dominated by stares, by condescension, by pity, and by hostility.

Additionally, facing stigma can cause harm to the psycho-emotional well-being of the person
being stigmatized. One of the ways in which the psycho-emotional health of persons with
disabilities is adversely affected is through the internalization of the oppression they experience,
which can lead to feeling that they are weak, crazy, worthless or any number of other negative
attributes that may be associated with their conditions. Internalization of oppression damages
the self-esteem of the person affected and shapes their behaviors in ways that are compliant
with dominance of those with no acknowledged disability.[105] Ableist ideas are frequently
internalized when disabled people are pressured by the people and institutions around them to
hide and downplay their disabled difference, or, "pass". According to writer Simi Linton, the act
of passing takes a deep emotional toll by causing disabled individuals to experience loss of
community, anxiety and self-doubt.[107] The media play a significant role in creating and
reinforcing stigma associated with disability. Media portrayals of disability usually cast disabled
presence as necessarily marginal within society at large. These portrayals simultaneously reflect
and influence the popular perception of disabled difference.

Tropes
Further information: Disability in the media
There are distinct tactics that the media frequently employ in representing disabled presence.
These common ways of framing disability are heavily criticized for being dehumanizing and
failing to place importance on the perspectives of persons with disabilities. As outlined by
disability theorist and rhetorician Jay T. Dolmage, ableist tropes in media can both reflect and
continue to perpetuate society's myths about disabled people.[108]

Inspiration porn

Inspiration porn refers to portrayals of persons with disabilities in which they are presented as
being inspiring simply because the person has a disability. These portrayals are criticized
because they are created with the intent of making viewers with no acknowledged disability feel
better about themselves in comparison to the individual portrayed. Rather than recognizing the
humanity of persons with disabilities, inspiration porn turns them into objects of inspiration for an
audience composed of those with no acknowledged disability.[109]

Supercrip

The supercrip trope refers to instances when the media reports on or portray a disabled person
who has made a noteworthy achievement but centers on their disability rather than what they
actually did. They are portrayed as awe-inspiring for being exceptional compared to others with
the same or similar conditions. This trope is widely used in reporting on disabled athletes as well
as in portrayals of autistic savants.[110][111]

Many disabled people denounce these representations as reducing people to their condition
rather than viewing them as full people. Furthermore, supercrip portrayals are criticized for
creating the unrealistic expectation that disability should be accompanied by some type of
special talent, genius, or insight.

Examples of this trope in the media include Dr. Shaun Murphy from The Good Doctor, Marvel's
Daredevil, and others.

Disabled villain

Characters in fiction that bear physical or mental markers of difference from perceived societal
norms are frequently positioned as villains within a text. Lindsey Row-Heyveld notes, for
instance, "that villainous pirates are scraggly, wizened, and inevitably kitted out with a peg leg,
eye patch, or hook hand whereas heroic pirates look like Johnny Depp's Jack Sparrow."[112]
Disabled people's visible differences from the abled majority are meant to evoke fear in
audiences that can perpetuate the mindset of disabled people being a threat to individual or
public interests and well-being.

Disability Drop

The “disability drop” trope is when a supposedly disabled character is revealed to have been
faking, embellishing, or otherwise not actually embodying their claimed disability. Jay Dolmage
offers Kevin Spacey’s character, Verbal Kint, in the film Usual Suspects as an example of this,
and depictions like this can reflect able-bodied society's mistrust of disabled people.[108] In
addition, this reveal of a character’s nondisabledness often serves as the narrative climax of a
story, and the use of disability as a source of conflict in plot, narrative obstacle, or a device of
characterization aligns with other disability studies scholars' theory of “Narrative Prosthesis”, a
term coined by David T. Mitchell and Sharon Snyder.[113]

While there are many disability tropes, disability aesthetics attempts to dispel them by
accurately depicting disabled bodies in art and media.[114]

Self advocacy

Some disabled people have attempted to resist marginalization through the use of the social
model in opposition to the medical model; with the aim of shifting criticism away from their
bodies and impairments and towards the social institutions that oppress them relative to their
abled peers. Disability activism that demands many grievances be addressed, such as lack of
accessibility, poor representation in media, general disrespect, and lack of recognition,
originates from a social model framework.

The creation of 'disability culture' stemmed from the shared experience of stigmatization in
broader society.[115] Embracing disability as a positive identity by becoming involved in disabled
communities and participating in disability culture can be an effective way to combat internalized
prejudice; and can challenge dominant narratives about disability.[116]

Intersections
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2018)

Three Black and disabled people in front of a pride flag.

The experiences that disabled people have to navigate social institutions vary greatly as a
function of what other social categories they may belong to. For example, a disabled man and a
disabled woman experience disability differently.[117] This speaks to the concept of
intersectionality, which explains that different aspects of a person's identity (such as their
gender, race, sexuality, religion, or social class) intersect and create unique experiences of
oppression and privilege.[118] The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities differentiates two kinds of disability intersection: race-disability intersection, and
gender-disability intersection.[119] However, many more intersections exist. Disability is defined
differently by each person; it may be visible or invisible, and multiple intersections often arise
from overlapping identity categories.

Race

Incidence of disability is reported to be greater among several minority communities across the
globe, according to a systematic analysis of the Global Burden of Disease Study.[120] Disabled
people who are also racial minorities generally have less access to support and are more
vulnerable to violent discrimination.[121] A study in the journal Child Development indicated that
minority disabled children are more likely to receive punitive discipline in low and middle income
countries.[122] Due to the fact that children with disabilities are mistreated more often than those
without disability; racialized children in this category are at an even higher risk.[123][124][125][126][127]
With respect to disability in the United States, Camille A. Nelson, writing for the Berkeley Journal
of Criminal Law, notes the dual discrimination that racial minorities with disabilities experience
from the criminal justice system, expressing that for "people who are negatively racialized, that
is people who are perceived as being non-white, and for whom mental illness is either known or
assumed, interaction with police is precarious and potentially dangerous."[128]

Gender

The marginalization of people with disabilities can leave persons with disabilities unable to
actualize what society expects of gendered existence. This lack of recognition for their gender
identity can leave persons with disabilities with feelings of inadequacy. Thomas J. Gerschick of
Illinois State University describes why this denial of gendered identity occurs:[129]

Bodies operate socially as canvases on which gender is displayed and

kinesthetically as the mechanisms by which it is physically enacted. Thus, the
bodies of people with disabilities make them vulnerable to being denied recognition
as women and men.

To the extent that women and men with disabilities are gendered, the interactions of these two
identities lead to different experiences. Women with disabilities face a sort of "double
stigmatization" in which their membership to both of these marginalized categories
simultaneously exacerbates the negative stereotypes associated with each as they are ascribed
to them. However, according to the framework of intersectionality, belonging to two (or more)
marginalised groups at the same time does not – in essence, gender and disability intersect to
create a unique experience that is not simply the coincidence of being a woman and having a
disability separately, but the unique experience of being a woman with a disability. It follows that
the more marginalised groups one belongs to, their experience of privilege or oppression
changes: in short, a black woman and a white woman will experience disability differently.[130]

According to The UN Woman Watch, "Persistence of certain cultural, legal and institutional
barriers makes women and girls with disabilities the victims of two-fold discrimination: as women
and as persons with disabilities."[131] As Rosemarie Garland-Thomson puts it, "Women with
disabilities, even more intensely than women in general, have been cast in the collective cultural
imagination as inferior, lacking, excessive, incapable, unfit, and useless."[132]

Socio-economic background

Similar to the intersections of race and disability or gender and disability, a person's
socio-economic background will also change their experience of disability. A disabled person
with a low socio-economic status will experience the world differently, with more obstacles and
fewer opportunities, than a disabled person with a high socio-economic status.[133][134]

A good example of the intersection between disability and socio-economic status is access to
education, as we know that there are direct links between poverty and disability - [134][135][136] often
working in a vicious cycle.[137] The costs of special education and caring for a disabled child are
higher than for a child with no acknowledged disability, which poses an immense barrier in
accessing appropriate education.[138] The inaccessibility of appropriate education (at any stage),
can lead to difficulties in finding employment, which often results in the vicious cycle of being
'bound' by one's experience as a poor and disabled person to remain in the same social
structure and experience socio-economic exclusion.[139][140] In short, this vicious cycle
exacerbates the lack of economic, social, and cultural capital for disabled people with a low
socio-economic background. On the other hand, a disabled person of a high socio-economic
status, may have an easier time accessing appropriate (special) education or treatment - for
example by having access to better aids, resources, or programmes that can help them
succeed.[141][142]

Disability culture
Sport
Main article: Disability sports

Wheelchair basketball match between South Africa and Iran at the 2008 Summer Paralympics
The Paralympic Games (meaning "alongside the Olympics") are held after the (Summer and
Winter) Olympics. The Paralympic Games include athletes with a wide range of physical
disabilities. In member countries, organizations exist to organize competition in the Paralympic
sports on levels ranging from recreational to elite (for example, Disabled Sports USA and
BlazeSports America in the United States).

The Paralympics developed from a rehabilitation program for British war veterans with spinal
injuries. In 1948, Sir Ludwig Guttman, a neurologist working with World War II veterans with
spinal injuries at Stoke Mandeville Hospital in Aylesbury in the UK, began using sport as part of
the rehabilitation programs of his patients.

In 2006, the Extremity Games were formed for physically disabled people, specifically limb loss
or limb difference, to be able to compete in extreme sports.[143]

Demographics
Estimates of worldwide and country-wide numbers of disabled people are problematic. The
varying approaches taken to defining disability notwithstanding, demographers agree that the
world population of individuals with disabilities is very large. For example, in 2012, the World
Health Organization estimated a world population of 6.5 billion people. Of those, nearly 650
million people, or 10%, were estimated to be moderately or severely disabled.[144] In 2018 the
International Labour Organization estimated that about a billion people, one-seventh of the
world population, had disabilities, 80% of them in developing countries, and 80% of working
age. Excluding disabled people from the workforce was reckoned to cost up to 7% of gross
domestic product.[145]

United States

According to the Centers for Disease Control's Morbidity and Mortality weekly report, one-fourth
of people in the United States are reported to be disabled as of 2016. 10% of young adults were
reported to have mental disabilities. The rates of mobility-related issues were highest among
middle-aged people and elderly people, with 18.1% and 26.9%, respectively.[146] In terms of race
or ethnicity, Asians have the lowest reported rate of disability at around 10%, while Native
Americans, the ethnic group with the highest reported incidence, are reported to have a
disability rate at an estimated 30% of adults. African Americans had a higher reported disability
rate of 25%, compared to 16% for white adults and 17% for Hispanic people.[147]

Canada

22.3% of Canadians over 15 are reported to have a disability, or 6,246,640 people, according to
the 2017 Canadian Survey on Disability Reports. In Canada, women and older people are more
likely to be disabled than working-class men. In comparison to working-age persons between 25
and 65, seniors over 65 reported a disability rate of 38%, which is nearly twice as high. In
Canada, women over 15 had a reported disability rate of 24.3%, compared to men's 20%.[148]
According to reports from the 2017 Canadian Survey of Disability, South Asians over the age of
15 in Canada had the greatest proportion of disability at 4%, while Latin Americans had a lower
rate at 1%.[149]

Australia

Nearly 1 in 5 Australians, or 4.4 million people, were estimated by the Australian Bureau of
Statistics to have a disability. A mental or behavioral issue was reported in over 25% of
Australians with disabilities. Male prevalence was 17.6 million, while female prevalence was
somewhat higher at 17.8 million between the sexes. Age-wise, 11.6% of adults between 0 and
64 in Australia had a disability, compared to 49.6% of seniors 65 and over. 53.4% of Australians
aged 15 to 64 who have a disability are employed.[150]

United Kingdom

According to the House of Commons Library, 14.6 million, or 22%, of the population in the UK,
were reported to be disabled in 2020–2021. In the UK, there were 9% of children, 21% of
working-age people, and 42% of persons over the state pension age who were disabled or
impaired.[151] Approximately 29% of White individuals, 27% of mixed-race people, 22% of Asian
people, 21% of Black people, and 19% of people from other ethnic groups were reported as
having impairments or disabilities, according to the Life Opportunities Survey, which surveyed
35,875 people in 2011. When compared to men, women are a little more likely than men to have
a disability, with 31% of women reportedly having one as opposed to 26% of men, according to
results of another survey taken the same year.[152]

China

According to Twenty-Year Trends in the Prevalence of Disability in China, a medical publication

from the National Library of Medicine, there were an estimated 84.6 million Chinese individuals
living with a disability in 2006. In a 2006 poll of 83,342 men and 78,137 women, the age groups
with the highest reported rates of disability are 18–44-year-old males (22.5%) and
65–74-year-old females (22.8%), according to polls published in the journal that were
representative of the country as a whole. In China, the percentage of people with disabilities
varies substantially between urban and rural regions, with men and women having reported
rates of 72.4% and 72.2%, respectively, in rural China, compared to reported rates of 27.6% and
27.8%, respectively, in urban China. Hearing and speech disabilities are the most commonly
reported in China, with males being more affected than females at rates 39.6% and 36.2%
among the disabled, respectively.[153]

South Korea

In South Korea, there were accounted to be 2.517 million people with disabilities in total, or
roughly 5.0% of the population, in 2018. When compared to Koreans without disabilities, people
with disabilities spent an average of 56.5 days in medical facilities, which was 2.6 more than the
national average. 34.9% of the entire workforce was employed in jobs connected to disabilities.
Families with disabilities made an average income of 41.53 million won, or 71.3% of total family
earnings. According to the Korean 2020 Statistics on the Disabled The majority of persons with
disabilities needed help with "cleaning" and "using transportation", among other everyday
tasks.[154]

Developing nations

Disability is more common in developing than in developed nations. The connection between
disability and poverty is thought to be part of a "vicious cycle" in which these constructs are
mutually reinforcing.[155]

See also
● Ableism
● Accessibility
● Assistive technology
● Disability abuse
● Disability Flag
● Disability hate crime
● Disadvantaged
● Frailty syndrome
● Physiological functional capacity

References
Citations

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