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Chapter
5
States of Consciousness
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This 5-1
document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
Introduction
Consciousness: Awareness of the sensations, thoughts,
and feelings we experience at a given moment
Everyday we go through many changes in consciousness
In the past considered not scientific
But now use many different approaches
Measure brain-wave patterns under conditions and
consciousness ranging from sleep to waking to hypnotic
trances
How humans experience consciousness is an open
question-quantitative increase in stimulation vs. specific
way of stimulating neural pathways?
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This
Introduction
Consciousness:
Waking consciousness
We are awake and aware of our thoughts, emotions,
and perceptions
Altered states of consciousness
When we are sleeping, use drugs, under the influence
of hypnosis, deliberately alter the states of
consciousness
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jReX7qKU2yc
Sleep and Dreams
Sleep
While the exact Immune system
reason for sleep is not functioning
known, there is
evidence that sleep is
necessary for physical Cognitive functioning
and mental (problem solving,
restoration. creativity, and
memory)
• Sleep; natural state with reduction in voluntary body

movements and decreased awareness of the
surrounding-spend 1/3 of our lives
• Cleans chemicals-adenosine
• All mammals and birds sleep
Why we sleep?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y-
8b99rGpkM&t=74s
Figure 2 - Brain-Wave Patterns
The brain waves get slower in each successive step (NREM)

But, they are fast during REM and similar to relaxed
wakefulness
Stages of Sleep: Based on brain wave
activity-Non-REM sleep
Frequency; speed of waves
Amplitude; the height and the depth of the up and
down cycles.
1st stage: high-frequency, low-amplitude; stage of
transition lasts only for few seconds
Still images may appear
2nd stage: higher amplitude; daydreaming, drowsy,
meditating
More regular patterns
Makes up the half of sleep in 20’s
Sleep spindles: periodic bursts of EEG activity; believed to
help maintain a state of sleep
Stages of Sleep: Based on brain wave
activity-Non-REM sleep
3rd stage: lower frequency and higher amplitude;
breathing, hearth rate and blood pressure drops
4th stage: even higher amplitude and lower frequency

People least responsive to outside stimulation
Most likely to occur in the first half of the sleep
Then REM sleep-Each cycle lasts about 90 minutes
REM Sleep: The Paradox of
Sleep
Second half is dominated with 1st and 2nd stages
4-5 Sleep cycles through the night
Rapid eye movement sleep: Sleep occupying 20% of

an adult’s sleeping time-gradually gets longer
Increased heart rate and blood pressure
Breathing rate
Erections
Eye movements
The experience of dreaming-Mostly in REM
Major muscles of the body appear to be paralyzed
REM Sleep: The Paradox of Sleep
Rapid eye movement sleep (REM):
Believed to play a vital role in human functioning
Rebound effect - REM-deprived sleepers (by waking
them up several times) spend significantly more time
in REM sleep than they normally would
When allowed to rest undisturbed although you sleep as
usual (8 hours)
REM sleep plays a role in learning and memory
Allows us to rethink and restore information and
emotional experiences
Why do We Sleep, and How Much
Sleep is Necessary?
Exact reason for sleep is unknown; Explanations:
Evolutionary theory
Sleep permitted our ancestors to conserve energy at night, a time
when food was relatively hard to find
So, they were better able to look for food when the sun is up
Restoration for brain and body
Sleep restores and replenishes our brains and bodies.
Non-REM sleep may give neurons in the brain a chance to repair
themselves
Brain growth and development
The release of growth hormones is associated with deep sleep
Why do We Sleep?
Proof for restore and repair hypothesis; when participants
had enough sleep they showed less activation in the
amygdala (emotion processing center) in response to
emotional pictures
Why do We Sleep, and How Much
Sleep is Necessary?
Unable to establish
how much sleep is
absolutely required
Most people sleep
between 7–8 hours per
night
Varies among
individuals: women
fall asleep more
quickly, sleep longer
and more deeply than
men
Age differences
The Function and Meaning of Dreams
Dreams tend to be subjective to the person having
them
BUT, common elements frequently occur in everyone’s
dreams.
Typically encompass everyday events such as going to
the supermarket, working at the office, and preparing a
meal.
Students dream about going to class; professors dream
about lecturing.
Nightmares – frightening dreams
Fairly common
Study; students reported at least one nightmare
ever a 2-weeks period
Exam dreams represent basic anxiety having to do with
evaluation
Why do we dream about anxiety-provoking
events?
May be they help us cope with our fears
Common elements frequently occurring dreams;
mostly unpleasant themes
Unconscious wish fulfillment theory: by Sigmund
Freud
Dreams represent unconscious wishes that dreamers desire
to see fulfilled
Latent content of dreams: Disguised meanings of dreams,
hidden by more obvious subjects
Manifest content of dreams: its apparent story line
One should go deeper than the manifest content to
understand its true meaning; common symbols have
universal meanings
E.g., flying symbolizes a wish for sexual intercourse
Unconscious wish fulfillment theory: PET scan
research lend some support
The limbic and paralimbic regions of the brain are
particularly active during REM sleep
These areas are associated with emotion and motivation
May suggest that dreams actually are functional in wish
fulfillment
The associative areas of the prefrontal cortex
controlling logical analysis and attention are rather
inactive during REM sleep
Dreams-for-survival theory: Dreams permit
information that is critical for our daily survival:
To be reconsidered and reprocessed during sleep
Based in the evolutionary perspective
Legacy from ancestors who had small brains to
process all the information; Dreaming provided a
mechanism that permitted the processing of info 24
hours of the day
Dreams seen are consistent with everyday living;
Represent key concerns of our daily experiences
Dreams-for-survival theory: Dreams permit
information that is critical for our daily survival:
Evidence; certain dreams permit people to focus on or
consolidate memories; especially related to motor tasks
E.g., rats dream about mazes they learned
Study; participants learned a visual memory task late in
the day
They went to bed and awakened at certain times
Results; When awakened at times that did not disturb
dreaming, they performed better on the memory task
When awakened during REM sleep, their performance
declined
Activation-synthesis theory: The brain produces
random electrical energy during REM sleep that:
Stimulates memories stored in the brain
As a result of changes in the production of particular
neurotransmitters
Refined by the activation in formation modulation
(AIM) theory.
Dreams are initiated in the brain’s pons, which sends random
signals to the cortex
Areas of the cortex that are involved in particular waking
behaviors are related to the content of dreams
Sleep Disturbances: Slumbering
Problems https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y-8b99rGpkM
Insomnia
Sleep Apnea
• Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
Night Terrors
Narcolepsy
Sleep Talking
Sleep Walking
Sleep Disturbances: Slumbering
Problems
Sleep misperception; hard to determine whether
people have such problems since they may be mistaken
Sleep State Misperception; a condition in which a
person underestimates her amount of sleep on a regular
basis
Believe in not getting enough sleep but no indication of
physiological or medical evidence to support it
Positive Sleep State Misperception; occurs when
individuals regularly overestimate their sleep.
Deprived of sleep, suffer from attention problems and
afternoon sleepiness, but does not connect them
Circadian Rhythms: Life Cycles
Biological processes that occur regularly on
approximately a 24-hour cycle
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) - Controls circadian
rhythms
Seasonal affective disorder - Severe depression which
increases during the winter and decreases during the
rest of the year
Suprachi
Circadian Cycles: The asmatic

nucleus
(SCN)
Biological Clock Circadia

n
rhythm
Circadian
Circadian rhythms cycles
• Fundamental adaptation to 24
hours solar cycle of light and dark
• Found in other organisms

• SCN in humans release specific neurotransmitters
controlling our body temperature, metabolism, blood
pressure, hormone level, hunger
• E.g., epinephrine-lowest at midnight
• Working at night may make people prone to accidents
People’s moods also follow regular patterns; analysis
of the contents of Twitter accounts for negative and
positive associations
Across the globe and among different cultures, people
are happier during the morning, less so during the day,
and feel better during the evening
Moods are happier on certain days of the week.
Happier on weekends and holidays
Positive emotions increase from late December to late

June as the days get longer and negative emotions as
days get shorter
Fridays (orange dots), Saturdays (red dots), and
Sundays (dark blue dots) are happier than week days
Daydreams: Dreams Without Sleep
Fantasies that people construct while awake
Part of waking consciousness; under people’s control
Content related to immediate environmental events as compared
to dreams
But our awareness of the environment declines
Time spent in daydreaming varies from individual to
individual
Some scientists see a link between daydreaming and
dreams during sleep
The contents show many parallels, and the brain areas and
processes involved in daydreaming and dreams during sleep are
related
Sleeping better
Exercise during the day (at least six hours before
bedtime) and avoid naps.
Choose a regular bedtime and stick to it.
Regulate your internal mechanism
Avoid drinks with caffeine after lunch.
Drink a glass of warm milk at bedtime.
Contains trytopan, which helps to fall asleep
Avoid sleeping pills.
Disrupts normal sleep cycle
Try not to sleep.
Go to bed when you are tired; associate your bed with sleep
Introduction
Drugs of one sort or another are a part of almost
everyone’s life.
Many people purchase over-the –counter pain

relievers, vitamins, and cold-relief medicine,
These drugs rarely produce an altered state of
consciousness
In contrast, some substances, known as psychoactive

drugs, lead to an altered state of consciousness.
Introduction
Psychoactive drugs: Influence a person’s emotions,
perceptions, and behavior
Common in our lives; e.g., a cup of coffee, a bottle of beer
Affect nervous system differently; limbic system, mimic
neurotransmitters, etc.
Addictive drugs: Produce a biological or psychological

dependence (or both) in the user
Biological; Withdrawal leads to a craving for the drug that
may be nearly irresistible
Psychological; Believe they need the drug to respond to
the stresses of daily living
Introduction
Some block or enhance the release of transmitters, others
block the receipt or the removal of the neurotransmitters
Introduction
Reasons for drug intake
Perceived pleasure of the experience itself
Escape that a drug-induced high affords
Attempt to achieve a religious or spiritual state
Other factors that have little to do with the experience
itself
Highly publicized drug use of role models such as movie stars or
professional athletes
Easy availability of some drugs
Peer pressure
Genetic factors may predispose some people to be more
susceptible to drugs
Introduction
Drug addiction is among the most difficult to modify,
even with extensive treatment
The best hope is preventing people from getting involved
in the first place
DARE – Drug reduction program used in majority of
schools
Taught to 5th and 6th graders
Consists of 17 lessons on the dangers of the drugs, and the
gangs
Were shown to be unable to reduce drug use
Study; showed that the DARE graduates were more involved in
marijuana use than non graduates
Figure 1 - Number of Teenagers Who
Use Drugs
Stimulants: Drug Highs
Drugs that have an arousal effect on the central
nervous system;
Causing a rise in heart rate, blood pressure, and
muscular tension
Typically affect wakefulness and alertness.
Caffeine
Nicotine
Amphetamines
Methamphetamine
Cocaine
Caffeine; coffee, tea, soft drinks, and chocolate
Effects; Increase in attentiveness, and a decrease in
reaction time, improvement of mood by mimicking
adenosine
Excessive amounts; nervousness and insomnia
Build up biological dependence
Drops in amount results in headaches
Nicotine; cigarettes
Have a soothing effect
When dependent, develop a craving for it when stop using
Activates neural mechanisms similar to cocaine
Stimulants: Amphetamines
In small quantities, bring about a sense of energy and
alertness, talkativeness, heightened confidence, and a mood
“high”
Increase concentration and reduce fatigue
Also, cause a loss of appetite, increased anxiety, and irritability
Dexedrine and benzedrine
Methamphetamine
A white, crystalline drug that U.S. police now say is the most
dangerous street drug
Highly addictive, relatively cheap, and produces a strong,
lingering high
increases presynaptic release of dopamine and norepineprine, slows its
reuptake
Methamphetamine user age 42 on the left, two and a half years later
on the right
Stimulants: Cocaine; Crack
One most commonly abused stimulant-decreasing
Inhaled or “snorted” through the nose, smoked, injected
into the bloodstream
Rapidly absorbed into the body and affect almost
immediately.
When in small quantities, feelings of high psychological
well-being, increased confidence, and alertness
Blocks reabsorption of dopamine
Brain may become psychological and physical addicted;
Obsessed with obtaining the drug
Physical and mental deterioration/hallucinations/death
Figure 4 - Drugs and Their Effects
Depressants: Drug Lows
Depressants impede the nervous system by causing
neurons to fire more slowly.
Small doses result in at least temporary feelings of

intoxication—drunkenness—along with a sense of
euphoria and joy.
When large amounts taken, speech becomes slurred

and muscle control becomes disjointed, making
motion difficult.
Loss of consciousness
Alcohol; the most common depressant
Used by more people than is any other drug; cultural
differences
Most people claim that it increases their sense of
sociability and well-being.
Discrepancy between actual and perceived effects caused by
initial effects produced:
Release of tension and stress, feelings of happiness, and
loss of inhibitions.
Depressive effects increase as the dose increases
Emotional and physical instability; aggression, memory
problems, even death of alcohol poisoning
Alcohol
Intoxication
Women more susceptible to harms of alcohol; brain damage
Binge drinking
College students
Mostly men although differences diminishing
Depressive effects
Emotionally and physically unstable
Poor judgment and may act aggressively
Memory impairment
Diminished brain processing
Slurred speech
Depressants: Alcohol
People of East Asian background living in USA drink
less than Caucasians and African Americans
Their incidence of alcohol related problems is lower
The physical reactions such as sweating, high heart rate,
and flushing is more unpleasant for them
Even light drinkers reported side-effects

Studying or sleep disturbances in two-thirds
A quarter women reported being the target of an
unwanted sexual advance by a drunken class-mate
Binge drinking; having 5 or more drinks at one sitting
for men and 4 or more for women
Drinking behavior for the previous 2 weeks
Most fall into category of causal users
14 million have a drinking problem in USA
Alcoholics – come to rely on alcohol and continue to
drink even though it causes serious difficulties
Become immune to the effects of alcohol
So, they must drink more every time to experience the
initial positive effects
Some cases; must drink constantly in order to feel well
enough to function in life
Some cases; go on binges occasionally and consume
large quantities
The reasons for becoming alcoholic and develop a
tolerance is not clear
It happens to some people
Genetic cause; people having an alcoholic in family
are more likely to become one
But not all alcoholics have close alcoholic relatives
The role of environmental stressors
Barbiturates
Drugs such as Nembutal, Seconal, and phenobarbital
Produce a sense of relaxation
Frequently prescribed by physicians to induce sleep
or reduce stress-reduce amount of REM sleep
Large doses; altered thinking, faulty judgment; sluggishness
But physically and psychologically addictive
When combined with alcohol can be deadly; relaxes
the diagram to the degree that breathing stops
Rohypnol
Sometimes called the “date rape drug,”
When mixed with alcohol, it can prevent victims
from resisting sexual assault.
Sometimes people who are unknowingly given
the drug are so incapacitated that they have no
memory of the assault
Narcotics: Relieving Pain and Anxiety
Opiates -Drugs that increase relaxation and relieve
pain and anxiety
Morphine (poppy seed)
Heroin-abused in epidemic proportions
Methadone
Satisfies a heroin user’s physiological cravings for the drug
without providing the “high”
Oxycodone (oxycontin)- commonly abused pain reliever
Narcotics: Relieving pain and
anxiety
Morphine used medically to control severe pain
Heroin is illegal in the United States
Experiencing a sense of well-being and peacefulness for
3-5 hours
When wears off, extreme anxiety, desperate desire to
repeat experience
Larger amounts needed every time.
The effects of endorphins (neurotransmitters that
reduce pain and produce pleasurable sensations) are
magnified by opiates
Hallucinogens: Psychedelic Drugs
Produces hallucinations, or changes in the perceptual
process
Marijuana produced from canabis
Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
MDMA (ecstasy)
Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD or acid)
Hallucinogens: Marijuana
Typically smoked in cigarettes or pipes; can be cooked/eaten
The effects vary from person to person,
BUT typically consist of feelings of euphoria and general well-
being; a person’s sense of self-importance seems to grow.
Vivid and intense sensory experiences, magnifies both good
and bad feelings
Memory may be impaired, causing users to feel pleasantly
“spaced out.”
May not create an addiction but evidence that affect brain
similar to cocaine and heroine
Negative impact on cognition in long-run
Long-lasting effects on babies when used during pregnancy
Hallucinogens: Marijuana
Affects the ability of immune system to fight germs
Smoke damages lungs
Magnifies both good and bad feelings
Who is depressed more depressed
BUT its use is increasingly accepted

Prevent nausea from chemotherapy
Treat AIDS symptoms
Relive muscle spasms for people with spinal cord injury
Helpful in treatment of Alzheimer’s disease
Figure 7 - Teenagers Who Have Used
Marijuana in the Last Year
Both Ecstacy and LSD affect the operation of the
neurotransmitter serotonin
Causing an alteration in brain-cell activity and perception
May cause long-term changes in serotonin receptors
MDMA (ecstasy); users report a sense of peacefulness

and calm
Experience increased empathy and connection with
others as well as feeling more relaxed yet energetic
Some studies found declines in memory and performance
on intellectual tasks
Called club drug but known to cause overdoses and death
Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD or acid)
Perceptions of colors, sounds, and shapes are so altered that
even most mundane experiences can be seen as moving and
exciting
Time perception is distorted; some users report their

understanding of the world has increased
Usually experience flashbacks, in which they hallucinate

long after they initially used the drug.
Sometimes scarry if users had emotional difficulties in the
past
Identfying Drug and Alcohol
Problems
A number of signals indicate when drug use become
drug problems; e.g.,
Always getting high to have a good time
Getting high to get oneself going
Missing or being unprepared for class or work because
you were high
Feeling badly later about something you said or did
while you were high
Coming in conflict with laws because of drug use
Thinking about liquor or drugs all the time
Avoiding family and friends while using liquor or drugs

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Chapter

• Sleep; natural state with reduction in voluntary body

The brain waves get slower in each successive step (NREM)

4th stage: even higher amplitude and lower frequency

Then REM sleep-Each cycle lasts about 90 minutes

Rapid eye movement sleep: Sleep occupying 20% of

• Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

Circadian Cycles: The asmatic

Biological Clock Circadia

• Found in other organisms

Positive emotions increase from late December to late

Many people purchase over-the –counter pain

In contrast, some substances, known as psychoactive

Addictive drugs: Produce a biological or psychological

Small doses result in at least temporary feelings of

When large amounts taken, speech becomes slurred

Even light drinkers reported side-effects

BUT its use is increasingly accepted

MDMA (ecstasy); users report a sense of peacefulness

Time perception is distorted; some users report their

Usually experience flashbacks, in which they hallucinate

You might also like

Hnununımımo

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Chapter

• Sleep; natural state with reduction in voluntary body

 The brain waves get slower in each successive step (NREM)

 4th stage: even higher amplitude and lower frequency

 Then REM sleep-Each cycle lasts about 90 minutes

 Rapid eye movement sleep: Sleep occupying 20% of

• Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

Circadian Cycles: The asmatic

Biological Clock Circadia

• Found in other organisms

 Positive emotions increase from late December to late

 Many people purchase over-the –counter pain

 In contrast, some substances, known as psychoactive

 Addictive drugs: Produce a biological or psychological

 Small doses result in at least temporary feelings of

 When large amounts taken, speech becomes slurred

 Even light drinkers reported side-effects

 BUT its use is increasingly accepted

 MDMA (ecstasy); users report a sense of peacefulness

 Time perception is distorted; some users report their

 Usually experience flashbacks, in which they hallucinate

You might also like

The brain waves get slower in each successive step (NREM)

4th stage: even higher amplitude and lower frequency

Then REM sleep-Each cycle lasts about 90 minutes

Rapid eye movement sleep: Sleep occupying 20% of

Positive emotions increase from late December to late

Many people purchase over-the –counter pain

In contrast, some substances, known as psychoactive

Addictive drugs: Produce a biological or psychological

Small doses result in at least temporary feelings of

When large amounts taken, speech becomes slurred

Even light drinkers reported side-effects

BUT its use is increasingly accepted

MDMA (ecstasy); users report a sense of peacefulness

Time perception is distorted; some users report their

Usually experience flashbacks, in which they hallucinate