 The
most of the great religious centers in northern India in the course of his repeated CONTENTS:
BUILDING MATERIALS OF ANCIENT
CONSTRUCTION
Man kind has constructed buildings and other structures since prehistory. The
technology and economy of construction work has changed through out history. The story of construction
is the story of civilization. About 12000 years ago, human began to settle into villages and cities. As
civilization grows, people need more permanent buildings. Hence ancient people developed most of our
modern, building materials including binding material, glass, ricks, tiles etc.
The Indus Valley Civilization was the one of the world’s first great urban
civilizations. It flourished in the vast river plains and adjacent regions in what are now Pakistan and
western India. The earliest cities became integrated into an extensive urban culture around 4600 years ago
and continued to dominate the region for at least 700years, from 2600 to 1900BC. It was only in the 1920’s
that the buried cities and villages of the Indus valley were recognised by archaeologists as representing
the undiscovered civilization. The people who build and ruled these cities belong to what archaeologists
refer to as Harappan culture and Indus civilization. This civilization developed at approximately the same
time as the early city states of Egypt and Mesopotamia.
The Chronology of Ancient India
The Chronology of ancient India is fascinating puzzle. Archaeological
discoveries of five decades have led new theories and reassessment regarding ancient period can now be
made. One point of agreement is that Vedic age ended before 1000BC.
The history of architecture in India is not a continuous story. In India as in
other countries ,culture and architecture are connected with political power, religion was the main
inspiration behind the architecture achievements, and was dominating the political order. Accordingly
three distinct motivations and styles of building were built in three successive ages.

Indo-Aryan: the beginning of the first cycle cannot be precisely mentioned. It spanned between
5000Bx to the end of the 12th century AD.

Indo-Islamic: Second cycle started from the beginning of the 13th century and lasted until the middle
of the 18th century.

Indo-British Period: The third cycle was the period of British rule from 1858 to 1947.
The three distinct cultures created by the three political cycles can be classified as
Indo-Aryan, Indo-Islamic and Indo-British. Accordingly during the first period
Hindu and Buddhist monuments were made, during the second Islamic monument and in the third western
style buildings were constructed. Indian political history made yet another destructive impact on her
architecture. It is responsible for a completely one-sided view of the ancient Indian architecture, in which
the importance of the south is emphasized at the cost of north. The impression is that south India is the
land of temples and is different from the Gangetic basin in material culture. This is due to the historical
fact that the temples of the Gangetic basin were destroyed by the Muslims, who razed to the ground all
Hindu temples wherever they found them, except during the short period of Akbar 1556-1605. Even before
the establishment of Muslim power in India, in the 10th century, Sultan Mohamed of Ghazni had sacked
invasions. As a result of this widespread destruction, Hindu and Buddhist monument
survived in northern India only in those regions into which Muslims did not penetrate Chronology of
— Bundelkhand, Orissa, Rajasthan , Nepal and Himalayan foothills. In the northern
 Periods
ancient india
plain, temples began to rebuild only in the 18th century, when the Marathas became of
 Mud
dominant. indian art
Periods of Indian Art Architecture
All the surviving examples of ancient India
architecture are religious monuments. No residential buildings or any other form of
secular architecture have survived in he south, the elaborate palace complex of the
Hindu Kingdom of Vijayanagara was sacked by the Muslims after their conquest of SUBJECT:
PRACTICAL
the city in 1565. But Sanskrit literature contains numerous references to splendid
mansions and palaces which rose to the sky and there can be no doubt that domestic
TRANING
architecture of ancient India was elaborate.
NAME: M. Venkata
MUD ARCHITECTURE Krishna Sai
ROLL NO:
Architecture involves use of various different 314506301059
construction materials that require a unique construction technique. But most of SEMISTER: 4-1
these construction techniques are energy intensive techniques. All the natural COLLEGE:ANDHRA
UNIVERSITY ,
resources are depleting which has made it mandatory that we choose materials and
VSKP.
construction systems which require less energy for its execution. Mud construction
system is less energy intensive and very effective in different climatic conditions.
Earth is one of man's oldest building materials and most ancient civilizations used it REMARKS:
in some form. It was easily available, cheap, and strong and required only
simple technology. In Egypt the grain stores of Ramasseum built in adobe in 1300BC
still exist; the Great Wall of China has sections built in rammed earth over 2000
years ago. Iran, India, Nepal, Yemen all have examples of ancient cities and
large buildings built in various forms of earthen construction. It is significant
SIGNATURE:
that the oldest surviving examples of this building form are in the most arid areas of
the world. The strength of unsterilized earth walls comes from the bonding effect of
dried clay. If this becomes wet the strength is lost and indeed the wall will erode
or even fail completely. Different countries have different approaches to this
problem. From the earliest times men built dwellings that were closest at hand:
SHEET NO:
out of fibers, leaves, stone or unbaked-sundried-mud. But the onset of the
industrial revolution, bricks of baked clay and mass-produced materials such as
cement, steel and glass gradually supplanted the basic element of traditional
construction. The development of transportation made it possible to bring building
1
materials from far away; while the use of modern components and specialized
use of construction techniques brought about the less of craftsmanship and art
that had given each locale its sense of place. But it is the fact that unbaked mud is S.R Associates
still the most viable building material for one third of world’s population-
predominantly the poor who remain on the side-lines of money economy that depends
-Masters in
on manufactured materials. Furthermore building with mud has become an Landscaping
important factor in planning new development. Following the recent energy crisis,
technological progress has been made in certain countries, and the enthusiasm
of architects and land developers has added in the spread of these new techniques. Today we are Adobe
able to choose between conventional ‘international architecture’ and a more ‘down to earth’ approach that
 Mud
CONTENTS:
combines reasonable cost with traditional cultural motifs in a modern way Adobe is a natural building material made from sand, clay, water

 Manifestation
and some kind of fibrous or organic material (sticks, straw and or manure),which the Architecture
Mud as a Building material builders shapes into bricks using frames and dry in sun. Adobe buildings are similar

 Adobe
to cob and mud brick buildings. Adobe structures are extremely durable, and account of mud
Mud, a mixture of earth and water, is economical, practical, functional and
 Rammed earth
attractive. It is easy to work with, and it takes decoration as well. Mud is especially useful in humid and for some of the oldest existing building in the world. In hot climates, compared with

 Wattle and
hot climates. Mud is a natural building material that is found in abundance, especially where other building wooden buildings offer significant advantage due to their greater thermal mass, but
materials such as bricks, stone or wood are scarce due to affordability and or availability. The mud they are known to be particularly susceptible to earthquake damage. Buildings made
architecture is a great resource that focuses on architecture constructed of mud brick, rammed earth, up of sun-dried earth are common in the West Asia, Northern Africa, West Africa, daub
compressed earth block and other methods of earthen construction. The proliferation of concept to use South America, Spain, Eastern Europe and East Anglia.
mud and improved techniques in order to raise the level of living in the population is a very welcome idea. Energy required to produce different building materials
This can go a long way not only in the form of changing the look of population centers, rural as well as SUBJECT:
urban, but also in solving environmental problems and problems related to energy and other finite Building materials Quantity Unit Energy PRACTICAL
resources. Various reasons for using mud as a construction material is described below: (kWh) TRANING
Energy Consumption Cement Sack 50
In mud construction, minimum fossil fuel energy is consumed and is naturally
abundant throughout the world, where as in brick construction fossil energy is consumed for manufacturing Concrete Cubic meter 400-500 NAME: M. Venkata
process and Krishna Sai
transportation. Fried brick Cubic meter 1000 ROLL NO:
Recycling 314506301059
Recycling of modern materials for building construction is expensive. Re-cycling of Adobe Cubic meter 5 SEMISTER: 4-1
soil does not need fossil fuel and labour requirement is also less. The characteristic of recycled soil for COLLEGE:ANDHRA
construction remains UNIVERSITY ,
the same whereas in modern building material it acquires inferior character after recycling. VSKP.
Abundance REMARKS:
The abundance availability of soil in large areas helps the economically weaker Rammed earth
section of the society to afford the mud construction. It is easily adaptable and the technology can be Rammed earth is a technique used in the building of walls using the
transferred easily. raw materials of earth, chalk, lime and gravel. It is an ancient building method that has
Housing demand seen a revival in recent years as people seek more sustainable building materials and
A huge deficit of housing demand in urban and rural areas linked with limited natural building methods. Rammed earth walls are simple to construct, incombustible
resources on all fronts make it absolutely essential that the housing solution have o be best effective , to water damage. Traditionally, rammed earth buildings are found in every continent
except Antartica, from the temperate and wet regions of Northern Europe to semi-dry
through optimal and efficient use of all resources of land and building material. SIGNATURE:
deserts ,mountain areas and the tropics. Hinder land house Australia made of rammed
earth walls The compressive strength of rammed earth can be up to 4.3 MPa. This is
MANIFESTATION OF MUD less than that of a similar thickness of concrete, but more than strong enough for use
Depending on the characteristics of the mud available, availability of supporting in domestic buildings. Indeed, properly built rammed earth can withstand loads for
materials and technology used, different manifestations of mud are used. These include Adobe or Sun- thousands of years, as many still-standing ancient structures around the world attest.
dried bricks, Cob, Rammed earth, Pressed brick, Wattle and Daub etc. Rammed earth using re-bar, wood or bamboo reinforcement can prevent failure caused
Cob: The word cob comes from Old English root meaning “a lump of rounded mass”. It’s a traditional by earthquakes or heavy storms.
building technique using hand formed lumps if earth mixed with sand and straw. Cob is easy to learn and SHEET NO:
Wattle and Daub
inexpensive to build. It dries to hardness similar to lean concrete.This ancient technology doesn’t Wattle and daub is a building material used for making walls, in which
contribute to deforestation, pollution or mining, nor depend on manufactured materials or power tools. a woven lattice of wooden strips called wattle is daubed with a sticky material usually
Cob is non-toxic and completely recyclable. Regular working windows are embedded in the cob along made of some combination of wet
2
with their lintels while the layers are building up. If fixed window is needed we can use any kind of glass soil, clay, sand, animal dung and straw. It is an important construction material in
embedded into the cob. Cob houses have been known to last for centuries. many parts of the world. The wattle is made by weaving thin branches or slats between
upright stakes. The wattle may be made in place to form the whole of a wall. Daub is
generally created from a mixture of certain in gradients from three categories: binders, S.R Associates
aggregates and reinforcement. Binders hold the mix together and can include clay, -Masters in
Landscaping
lime, chalk dust and limestone dust. Aggregates give the mix its bulk and dimensional stability through Lime Mortar CONTENTS:
materials such as earth, sand, crushed chalk and crushed stone. Reinforcement is provided by staw hair,
hay or other fiberous material and helps to hold mix together as well as to control shrinkage and provide The setting speed can be increased by using impure limestone in the  Compressed
flexibility. The daub may be mixed by hand or by treading either by humans or livestock it is then applied kiln, to form a hydraulic lime that will set on contact with water. Such a lime must be

earth blocks
to the wattle and allowed to dry and often then whitewashed to increase its resistance to rain. stored as a dry powder. Alternatively, a pozzolanic material such as calcined clay or

Ancient mortar
Compressed Earth Blocks brick dust may be added to the mortar mix. Addition of a pozzolanic material will make

Lime mortar
The soil, raw or stabilized , is slightly moistened, poured into a steel press and then the mortar set reasonably quickly by reaction with the water.
Methodology
compressed either with a manual or motorized press. It is developed from traditional rammed earth. The
input of soil stabilization allowed building higher with thinner walls, which have a much better It would be problematic to use Portland cement mortars to repair older
compressive strength and water resistance buildings originally constructed using lime mortar. Lime mortar is softer than cement
mortar, allowing brickwork a certain degree of flexibility to adapt to shifting ground
or other changing conditions. Cement mortar is harder and allows little flexibility. The
SUBJECT:
Ancient mortar contrast can cause brickwork to crack where the two mortars are present in a single
wall.
PRACTICAL
The first mortars were made of mud and clay. Because of a lack of stone and an TRANING
abundance of clay, Babylonian constructions were of baked brick, using lime or pitch for mortar. Lime mortar is considered breathable in that it will allow
According to Roman Ghirshman, the first evidence of humans using a form of mortar was at the Mehrgarh moisture to freely move through and evaporate from the surface. In old buildings with
of Baluchistan in Pakistan, built of sun-dried bricks in 6500 BCE. The ancient sites of Harappan walls that shift over time, cracks can be found which allow rain water into the structure. NAME: M. Venkata
civilization of third millennium BCE are built with kiln-fired bricks and a gypsum mortar. Gypsum mortar, The lime mortar allows this moisture to escape through evaporation and keeps the wall Krishna Sai
also called plaster of Paris, was used in the construction of the Egyptian pyramids and many other ancient dry. Re−pointing or rendering an old wall with cement mortar stops the evaporation ROLL NO:
structures. It is made from gypsum, which requires a lower firing temperature. It is therefore easier to make and can cause problems associated with moisture behind the cement. 314506301059
than lime mortar and sets up much faster which may be a reason it was used as the typical mortar in ancient, SEMISTER: 4-1
brick arch and vault construction. Gypsum mortar is not as durable as other mortars in damp conditions Pozzolanic mortar
COLLEGE:ANDHRA
In the Indian subcontinent, multiple cement types have been observed in the sites of the Pozzolana is a fine, sandy volcanic ash. It was originally UNIVERSITY ,
Indus Valley Civilization, such as the Mohenjo-daro city-settlement that dates to earlier than 2600 BCE. discovered and dug at Pozzuoli, nearby Mount Vesuvius in Italy, and was subsequently VSKP.
Gypsum cement that was "light grey and contained sand, clay, traces of calcium carbonate, and a high mined at other sites, too. The Romans learned that pozzolana added to lime mortar
percentage of lime" was used in the construction of wells, drains and on the exteriors of "important looking allowed the lime to set relatively quickly and even under water. Vitruvius, the Roman REMARKS:
buildings." Bitumen mortar was also used at a lower-frequency, including in the Great Bath at Mohenjo- architect, spoke of four types of pozzolana. It is found in all the volcanic areas of Italy
daro in various colours: black, white, grey and red. Pozzolana has since become a generic
term for any siliceous and/or aluminous additive to slaked lime to create hydraulic
Ordinary Portland cement mortar, commonly known as OPC mortar or just cement mortar, cement.
is created by mixing powdered Ordinary Portland Cement, fine aggregate and water.
SIGNATURE:
Fire stop mortar
It was invented in 1794 by Joseph Aspdin and patented on 18 December 1824, largely as a
result of efforts to develop stronger mortars. It was made popular during the late nineteenth century, and Firestop mortars are mortars most typically used to firestop
had by 1930 became more popular than lime mortar as construction material. The advantages of Portland large openings in walls and floors required to have a fire-resistance rating. They are
cement is that it sets hard and quickly, allowing a faster pace of construction. Furthermore, fewer skilled passive fire protection items. Firestop mortars differ in formula and properties from
workers are required in building a structure with Portland cement. most other cementitious substances and cannot be substituted with generic mortars SHEET NO:
without violating the listing and approval use and compliance.
As a general rule, however, Portland cement should not be used for the repair or repointing
of older buildings built in lime mortar, which require the flexibility, softness and breathability of lime if Firestop mortar is usually a combination of powder mixed with water, forming a 3
they are to function correctly cementatious stone which dries hard. It is sometimes mixed with lightweight
aggregates, such as perlite or vermiculite
Polymer cement mortars (PCM) are the materials which are made by partially replacing the
cement hydrate binders of conventional cement mortar with polymers. The polymeric admixtures include Methodology
latexes or emulsions, redispersible polymer powders, water-soluble polymers, liquid thermoset resins and S.R Associates
monomers. It has low permeability, and it reduces the incidence of drying shrinkage cracking, mainly Traditionally, natural materials are being used as
construction material as well as sanitation such as mud, timber, stone, lime, -Masters in
designed for repairing concrete structures. For an example see MagneLine.
Landscaping
herbs and plant etc. In India more than 80% of the population is sheltered in structures built with 2. Garbhagriha refers to the womb chamber which is the innermost chamber
 Methodology
CONTENTS:
biomass. Locally available materials are the most environmentally sustainable. of any temple where the deity resides. It is mainly square in layout and is entered
through eastern side.  Elements of
Lime as construction material
 The Geometry
Hindu Temples
3. Pradakshina Patha refers to the ambulatory passageway for circumambulation
Lime is being used vastly as a binding material with some natural and comprises of enclosed corridor outside the garbhagriha. The devotees walk
of Hindu
additives in to it as it has very good cementing ability. In various scriptures like Bhrugu Samhita around the deity in clockwise direction, paying their respect to the deity. Temple
the procedure of preparation of lime mortar is described in detail .As per our practice, the one part of lime
to the two part of river sand is used with 1/10 part of jaggery as natural polymer and chopped grass 4. Mandapa is the pillared hall in front of the garbhagriha ,used as assembling
fibers. The mortar was successfully sed for brick masonry, plastering, and tiling. Various tests point by devotees for chant; rituals meditate or observe the priests perform the
were carried out on the lime confirming to IS1624-1986. rituals. Sometimes, „Natamandira‟ is also provided in some temples which mean the
hall for dancing. In some early temple structures, the mandapa was isolated and
HYDROCHLORIC ACID TEST separate structure from the sanctuary. SUBJECT:
PRACTICAL
Procedure-Place sufficient quantity of powder lime into a 50-ml graduated glass 5. Antarala refers to the intermediate chamber which joins the main sanctuary TRANING
cylinder, which on gentle tapping for about two minutes or so, settles down to about S-ml mark and the pillared hall of the temple premises.
with a neat surface on the top. Into this cylinder, fill up to 25-ml mark hydrochloric acid 6.Ardhamandapa refers to the front porch in the main entrance of the temple
( 1 : 1 ), preferably along a glass rod placed in the cylinder so that the acid does not get smeared all
which leads to the main templeSome other essential structural elements found
over the side of the cylinder. The contents, after stirring with a glass rod, should not leave much inert NAME: M. Venkata
in the Hindu temples are:
material at the bottom of the cylinder. To ensure that the inert material left at the bottom of the cylinder Krishna Sai
7 .Mainly found in the south Indian temples, Gopurams ‟are the ROLL NO:
after stirring with a glass rod ,does not contain any calcium carbonate, add excess of hydrochloric acid monumental and ornate entrance to the temple premises. 314506301059
drop by drop with constant stirring till there is no effervescence. The cylinder with its contents shall SEMISTER: 4-1
then be kept standing for about 24 hours for observation of gel formation .Test observations & 8. Pitha or the plinths of the main temple. COLLEGE:ANDHRA
result-A good thick gel was formed and below it some inert material was deposited. Hence by UNIVERSITY ,
observations it can be said that the lime is of class B. 9.The gateways typical to north Indian temples are Toranas
VSKP.
10. The Amalaka is the fluted disc like stone placed at the pinnacle of sikhara REMARKS:
BALL TEST
THE GEOMETRY OF HINDU TEMPLE
Procedure –Make balls of about 50mm diameter of quick lime mixed with just sufficient
The Hindu architecture was among the first ones that established
water to give a stiff paste, and leave them undisturbed for a period of six hours. Immerse in a basin of
a relationship between human figure and the system of proportion which
water.
was later studied by Leonardo da Vinci and Le Corbusieer in modular SIGNATURE:
Test observations & result-Very little expansion and numerous cracks seen on the surface system of measurement. It is based on the geometry of
how that the lime may be of class B Vastupurashamandala in which the form of Purasha was made to fit the
abstract idea of square as the highest geometric form [10]. The basic form
of Vastupurashamandala is the square which represents the earth and the
ELEMENTS OF HINDU TEMPLE circle represents the universe suggesting timelessness and infinity . The SHEET NO:
mandalais actually a square divided into smaller squares arranged in the
The Hindu temples adopted a definite structure in the later half of the 7th century . The form of a grid. Each smaller square depicts the area of the respective
common elements of the Hindu temples in their original Sanskrit terms are as followed [2,8]: Gods. The most commonly used mandalais the square subdivided 4
The main compound of the temple is known as Vimana which comprises of two parts. into 64 and 81 squares. Thus, the Vastupurashamandala was the
The top portion of the Vimana is known as Sikhara and the lower portion which lies inside the basis of the ground floor plan for all Hindu temples. The basic shape of
the temple plan was : the outermost ring of square of the mandala from
S.R Associates
Vimana is called Garbhagriha (cella or inner chamber)
thickness of walls of main shrine, the central 4 squares was reserved for the -Masters in
1. ”Sikhara‟ refers to the spire or the tower. It is shaped as pyramidical and tapering representing main deity, the inner ring of 12 square form the walls of the Landscaping
the mythological „Meru ‟or the highest mountain peak. garbhagrihaand the next 16 to 28 forms the pradkshina patha. These
simple divisions of square with permutation and combination became the
base for the development of more complex temple compound
 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS Mud, stone, and fibrous plants are the most basic building materials, aside CONTENTS:
from tents made of flexible materials such as cloth or skins. People all over the world
The temples were constructed with all types of materials depending upon the have used these three materials together to create homes to suit their local weather  Construction
availability from region to region. The materials varied from timber to mud, plaster, brick or stone conditions. In general stone and/or brush are used as basic structural components in

Materials
incorporating the entire India. The material played a significant role in overall aesthetics, these buildings, while mud is used to fill in the space between, acting as a type of Modern
construction techniques and monumental character of the temple. Earlier temple structures were concrete and insulation.A basic example is wattle and daub mostly used as permanent Building
constructed with less durable materials such as timber, brick or plaster and thus, have mostly housing in tropical countries or as summer structures by ancient northern peoples.

materials
disappeared or only fragment remains. Sites excavated in Vaisali in Bihar shows examples of Types of
temples constructed with mud or mud brick. The usage of timber and bamboo was mainly in the Fabric building
temples of Himalayan valleys and the region of West Bengal and Kerala. The construction of the materials used
temples with bricks was prominent in pre Christian era but were limited to those area where The tent used to be the home of choice among nomadic groups the world in construction
suitable stone or bricks are available. The use of stone for temple construction was one of the over. Two well known types include the conical teepee and the circular yurt. It has
prominent developments in Indian temple architecture . The construction from stone evolved from been revived as a major construction technique with the development of tensile
rock cut sanctuaries (Stupa, Sanchi) to more complicated structure with ornate carvings and architecture and synthetic fabrics. Modern buildings can be made of flexible material SUBJECT:
sculptings. Fine grained dark marble and soapy chloritic schist was used by later western chalukyas such as fabric membranes, and supported by a system of steel cables or internal (air
who established themselves in the tenth century around the areas of Malkhed and kalyani. Jain pressure.) PRACTICAL
temple of Lakkundi is a great example of this era. Earlier Pallava temples were constructed of
TRANING
hard igneous rocks such as granite (Olakkannesvara temple), leptinite (shore temple of Mud and clay
Mamallapuram) and gnesis (Mukundanayanar temple). At later stages especially during Pandya era
NAME: M. Venkata
(around 6 century), the lower portion of the temples were being constructed using solid granite The amount of each material used leads to different styles of buildings.
Krishna Sai
stone masonry whereas the lighter materials like brick, timber and plaster were used to construct The deciding factor is usually connected with the quality of the soil being used. Larger
ROLL NO:
the super structure . The Hoyasala Empire (a prominent souther empire) which ruled over parts amounts of clay usually mean using the cob/adobe style, while low clay soil is usually
314506301059
of Karnatka, parts of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh used greenish grey soapstone which were associated with sod building. The other main ingredients include more or less
SEMISTER: 4-1
soft and sculptor friendly . The temples of Kerala primarily used timber, tiles or copper sheet to build sand/gravel and straw/grasses. Rammed earth is both an old and newer take on
super structure whereas the vimana was constructed using granite or hard laterite blocks. The creating walls, once made by compacting clay soils between planks by hand, now
COLLEGE:ANDHRA
temples of Himachal Pradesh were generally built using the combination of wood and stones forms and mechanical pneumatic compressors are used.
UNIVERSITY , VSKP.
generally in dry stone machinery. The architects of Bengal used laterite, bricks, wood, terracotta or mud
for erecting different types of temples with lime or mud mortar as binding materials. Soil and especially clay is good thermal mass; it is very good at keeping REMARKS:
temperatures at a constant level. Homes built with earth tend to be naturally cool in
the summer heat and warm in cold weather. Clay holds heat or cold, releasing it over
Modern Building Materials a period of time like stone.
Building material is any material which is used for a construction purpose. Many Earthen walls change temperature slowly, so artificially raising or lowering the
naturally occurring substances, such as clay, sand, wood and rocks, even twigs and leaves have been used temperature can use more resources than in say a wood built house, but the SIGNATURE:
to construct buildings. Apart from naturally occurring materials, many man-made products are in use, some heat/coolness stays longer.
more and some less synthetic. The manufacture of building materials is an established industry in many
countries and the use of these materials is typically segmented into specific specialty trades, such as Peoples building with mostly dirt and clay, such as cob, sod, and adobe,
carpentry, plumbing, roofing and insulation work. This reference deals with habitats and structures resulted in homes that have been built for centuries in western and northern Europe as
including homes. well as the rest of the world, and continue to be built, though on a smaller scale. Some SHEET NO:
of these buildings have remained habitable for hundreds of years.
Types of Building Materials Used in Construction
Rock 5
Natural Building Materials
Rock structures have existed for as long as history can recall. It is the longest
Building materials can be generally categorized into two sources, natural and synthetic. lasting building material available, and is usually readily available. There are many
Natural building materials are those that are unprocessed or minimally processed by industry, such as types of rock through out the world all with differing attributes that make them better S.R Associates
lumber or glass. Synthetic materials are made in industrial settings after much human manipulations, such or worse for particular uses.

as plastics and petroleum based paints. Both have their uses.

-Masters in
Landscaping
 Rock is a very dense material so it gives a lot of protection too, its main draw-back as a material
is its weight and awkwardness. Its energy density is also considered a big draw-back, as stone is hard to
keep warm without using large amounts of heating resources.
Dry-stone walls have been built for as long as humans have put one stone on top of another.
Eventually different forms of mortar were used to hold the stones together, cement being the most
commonplace now.The granite-strewn uplands of Dartmoor National Park, United Kingdom, for example,
provided ample resources for early settlers. Circular huts were constructed from loose granite rocks
throughout the Neolithic and early Bronze Age, and the remains of an estimated 5,000 can still be seen
today. Granite continued to be used throughout the Medieval period (see Dartmoor longhouse) and into
modern times. Slate is another stone type, commonly used as roofing material in the United Kingdom and
other parts of the world where it is found.
Mostly stone buildings can be seen in most major cities, some civilizations built entirely with
stone such as the Pyramids in Egypt, the Aztec pyramids and the remains of the Inca civilization.
Thatch
Thatch is one of the oldest of building materials known; grass is a good insulator and easily
harvested. Many African tribes have lived in homes made completely of grasses year round. In Europe,
thatch roofs on homes were once prevalent but the material fell out of favour as industrialization and
improved transport increased the availability of other materials.
Today, though, the practice is undergoing a revival. In the Netherlands, for instance, many of
new builds too have thatched roofs with special ridge tiles on top.
Brush
Brush structures are built entirely from plant parts and are generally found in tropical and sub-
tropical areas, such as rainforests, where very large leaves can be used in the building. Native Americans
often built brush structures for resting and living in, too. These are built mostly with branches, twigs and
leaves, and bark, similar to a beaver’s lodge. These were variously named wikiups, lean-tos, and so forth.
Ice
Ice was used by the Inuit for igloos, but has also been used for ice hotels as a tourist attraction in
northern areas that might not otherwise see many winter tourists.
Wood
Wood is a product of trees, and sometimes other fibrous plants, used for construction purposes
when cut or pressed into lumber and timber, such as boards, planks and similar materials. It is a generic
building material and is used in building just about any type of structure in most climates. Wood can be
very flexible under loads, keeping strength while bending, and is incredibly strong when compressed
vertically.
There are many differing qualities to the different types of wood, even among same tree species.
This means specific species are better for various uses than others. And growing conditions are important
for deciding quality.
Historically, wood for building large structures was used in its unprocessed CONTENTS:

form as logs. The trees were just cut to the needed length, sometimes stripped of
bark, and then notched or lashed into place. Types of
building
In earlier times, and in some parts of the world, many country homes or materials
communities had a personal wood-lot from which the family or community would
grow and harvest trees to build with. These lots would be tended to like a garden.
With the invention of mechanizing saws came the mass production of
dimensional lumber. This made buildings quicker to put up and more uniform. Thus
the modern western style home was made.
Brick and Block
A brick is a block made of kiln-fired material, usually clay or shale, but SUBJECT:
also may be of lower quality mud, etc. Clay bricks are formed in a moulding (the soft
mud method), or in commercial manufacture more frequently by extruding clay PRACTICAL
through a die and then wire-cutting them to the proper size (the stiff mud process). TRANING
Bricks were widely used as a building material in the 1700, 1800 and NAME: M. Venkata
1900s. This was probably due to the fact that it was much more flame retardant than Krishna Sai
wood in the ever crowding cities, and fairly cheap to produce. Another type of block ROLL NO:
replaced clay bricks in the late 20th century. It was the Cinder block. Made mostly 314506301059
with concrete. An important low-cost building material in developing countries is the SEMISTER: 4-1
Sandcrete block, which is weaker but cheaper than fired clay bricks.
COLLEGE:ANDHRA
Concrete UNIVERSITY , VSKP.
Concrete is a composite building material made from the combination of
aggregate (composite) and a binder such as cement. The most common form of REMARKS:
concrete is Portland cement concrete, which consists of mineral aggregate (generally
gravel and sand), portland cement and water. After mixing, the cement hydrates and
eventually hardens into a stone-like material. When used in the generic sense, this is
the material referred to by the term concrete.
SIGNATURE:
For a concrete construction of any size, as concrete has a rather low tensile
strength, it is generally strengthened using steel rods or bars (known as rebars). This
strengthened concrete is then referred to as reinforced concrete.
In order to minimise any air bubbles, that would weaken the structure, a SHEET NO:
vibrator is used to eliminate any air that has been entrained when the liquid concrete
mix is poured around the ironwork. Concrete has been the predominant building
material in this modern age due to its longevity, formability, and ease of transport. 6
Metal S.R Associates
Metal is used as structural framework for larger buildings such as
skyscrapers, or as an external surface covering. There are many types of metals used -Masters in
for building. Steel is a metal alloy whose major component is iron, and is the usual Landscaping
choice for metal structural building materials. It is strong, flexible, and if refined well

and/or treated lasts a long time. Corrosion is metal’s prime enemy when it comes to longevity. The lower
density and better corrosion resistance of aluminium alloys and tin sometimes overcome their greater cost.
Brass was more common in the past, but is usually restricted to specific uses or specialty items today.
Metal figures quite prominently in prefabricated structures such as the Quonset hut, and can be
seen used in most cosmopolitan cities. It requires a great deal of human labor to produce metal, especially
in the large amounts needed for the building industries. Other metals used include titanium, chrome, gold,
silver. Titanium can be used for structural purposes, but it is much more expensive than steel. Chrome,
gold, and silver are used as decoration, because these materials are expensive and lack structural qualities
such as tensile strength or hardness.
CONTENTS:
Wood and natural fibres are composed of various soluble organic
compounds like carbohydrates, glycosides and phenolics. These compounds are  Types of
known to retard cement setting. Therefore, before using a wood in making cement building
boned composites, its compatibility with cement is assessed. materials
Wood-cement compatibility is the ratio of a parameter related to the
property of a wood-cement composite to that of a neat cement paste. The
compatibility is often expressed as a percentage value. To determine wood-cement
compatibility, methods based on different properties are used, such as, hydration
characteristics, strength, interfacial bond and morphology.

Glass Various methods are used by researchers such as the measurement of SUBJECT:
hydration characteristics of a cement-aggregate mix; the comparison of the
Clear windows have been used since the invention of glass to cover small openings in a building. mechanical properties of cement-aggregate mixes and the visual assessment of PRACTICAL
They provided humans with the ability to both let light into rooms while at the same time keeping microstructural properties of the wood-cement mixes. TRANING
inclement weather outside. Glass is generally made from mixtures of sand and silicates, and is very brittle.
It has been found that the hydration test by measuring the change in NAME: M. Venkata
Modern glass “curtain walls” can be used to cover the entire facade of a building. Glass can also hydration temperature with time is the most convenient method. Recently, Karade et Krishna Sai
be used to span over a wide roof structure in a “space frame”. al. have reviewed these methods of compatibility assessment and suggested a method ROLL NO:
based on the ‘maturity concept’ i.e. taking in consideration both time and temperature 314506301059
Ceramics of cement hydration reaction. SEMISTER: 4-1

Ceramics are such things as tiles, fixtures, etc. Ceramics are mostly used as fixtures or coverings Modern Industry COLLEGE:ANDHRA
in buildings. Ceramic floors, walls, counter-tops, even ceilings. Many countries use ceramic roofing tiles UNIVERSITY ,
to cover many buildings. Ceramics used to be just a specialized form of clay-pottery firing in kilns, but it Modern building is a multibillion dollar industry, and the production VSKP.
has evolved into more technical areas. and harvesting of raw materials for building purposes is on a worldwide scale. Often
being a primary governmental and trade key point between nations. Environmental REMARKS:
Plastic concerns are also becoming a major world topic concerning the availability and
sustainability of certain materials, and the extraction of such large quantities needed
Plastic pipes penetrating a concrete floor in a Canadian highrise apartment building. The term for the human habitat.
plastics covers a range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic condensation or polymerization products that
can be molded or extruded into objects or films or fibers. Their name is derived from the fact that in their Virtual materials SIGNATURE:
semi-liquid state they are malleable, or have the property of plasticity.
Certain materials like photographs, images, text may be considered
Plastics vary immensely in heat tolerance, hardness, and resiliency. Combined with this virtual. While, they usually exist on a substrate of natural material themselves, they
adaptability, the general uniformity of composition and lightness of plastics ensures their use in almost all acquire a different quality of salience to natural materials through the process of
industrial applications today representation.
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Foam Building Products

Foamed plastic sheet to be used as backing for firestop mortar at CIBC bank in Toronto. More recently
synthetic polystyrene or polyurethane foam has been used on a limited scale. It is light weight, easily
shaped and an excellent insulator. It is usually used as part of a structural insulated panel where the foam
is sandwiched between wood or cement.
Cement composites
Cement bonded composites are an important class of building materials. These products are made
of hydrated cement paste that binds wood or alike particles or fibers to make precast building components.
Various fibrous materials including paper and fiberglass have been used as binders.
When we talk about building products we refer to the ready-made 7
particles that are fitted in different architectural hardware and decorative hardware
parts of a building. The list of building products exclusively exclude the building
materials, which are used to construct the building architecture and supporting S.R Associates
fixtures like windows, doors, cabinets, etc. Building products do not make any part
of a building rather they support and make them working.
-Masters in
Landscaping