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Abdul Rauf Bhatti

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 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENERGY RESEARCH
Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:439–461
Published online 23 December 2015 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002/er.3472

REVIEW PAPER

A critical review of electric vehicle charging using solar

photovoltaic
Abdul Rauf Bhatti1,4, Zainal Salam1,3,*,†, Mohd Junaidi Bin Abdul Aziz2 and Kong Pui Yee2
1
Centre of Electrical Energy Systems, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
2
Power Electronics and Drives Research Group, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
3
Insitute of Future Energy, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
4
Department of Electrical Engineering, Government College University, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan

SUMMARY
The application of renewable sources such as solar photovoltaic (PV) to charge electric vehicle (EV) is an interesting option
that offers numerous technical and economic opportunities. By combining the emission-free EV with the low carbon PV
power generation, the problems related to the greenhouse gases due to the internal combustion engines can be reduced.
Over the years, numerous papers, including several review work, have been published on EV charging using the grid elec-
tricity. However, there seems to be an absence of a review paper on EV charging using the PV as one of the energy sources.
With growing interest in this topic, this review summarizes and updates some of the important aspects of the PV-EV charg-
ing. For the benefit of a wider audience, it provides the background on the EV fundamentals, batteries and a brief overview
on the PV systems. Two types of PV-EV charging, namely the PV-grid and the PV-standalone, are comprehensively cov-
ered. Moreover, a case study is carried out in comparison to the grid-only charging to critically analyse the technical and the
economical feasibilities of both types using Matlab simulation. At the end, recommendations and future directions are pre-
sented. It is envisaged that the material gathered in this paper will be a valuable source of information for the researchers
working on this topic. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

KEY WORDS
electric vehicle (EV) charging system; photovoltaic (PV) system; PV-EV charging; PV-standalone charging; PV-grid charging; energy
storage unit (ESU); battery management system (BMS); state of charge (SOC)

Correspondence
*Zainal Salam, Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
†
E-mail: zainals@fke.utm.my

Received 16 July 2015; Revised 22 October 2015; Accepted 11 November 2015

1. INTRODUCTION With continuous downward trend on the prices of the

The environmental, technical and economical prospects of
the EV have initiated the integration of the electrical power
and the transportation systems in a way that is conceivable
before [1]. The main link between the two sectors is the
charging of the batteries—the source of power for the EV
traction, control, lighting and air-conditioning system.
However, charging the EV through the electrical grid im-
poses an extra burden on the utility, particularly during
the peak demand duration [2,3]. One viable solution to re-
duce the negative impact on the grid is to promote the
charging using renewable sources. The use of these kinds
of clean energy is envisaged to reduce the environmental
impacts and improve the overall charging system effi-
ciency [4,5].
photovoltaic (PV) modules, the solar power is increasingly
recognized as the competitive energy source to comple-
ment the grid [6,7]. Furthermore, the PV system is almost
maintenance free, both in terms of fuel and labour [8].
The application of the PV to charge the EV (i.e. the PV-
EV charging) has been further enhanced by the advance-
ment in the power conversion technologies, battery
management systems and the improved installation prac-
tices and design standards [9]. In large number of instances,
particularly during the daytime, the EV is parked idly in the
parking area under the exposure of the full sun. This gives
rise to an opportunity to charge the EV directly using the
principle of ‘charging-while-parking’, to complement the
more commonly practised ‘charging-by-stopping’ [10].
For example, by fitting the PV roof of the car park

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 439

A. R. Bhatti et al. A critical review of PV-EV charging

[11,12], the EV can be conveniently charged while the ve-
hicle’s owner engages with other activities [8]. Authors in
[13] have listed numerous benefits of the PV powered
charging station. Because the charging is carried out during
the daytime, where the load demand and electricity tariff is
at its peak, the savings is very substantial. Furthermore, it
requires minimum fuel cost, and it exhibits very low CO2
emission. Structural-wise, the roofed-parking facilities pro-
vide free shelters from sun and rain, which is a favourable
feature in hot climate countries [14].
Numerous PV-EV charging methods have been pro-
posed. However, only two approaches appear to be viable:
(1) the PV-grid, i.e. by combining of the PV power and the
grid; and (2) the PV-standalone, i.e. using only the PV as
the energy source. By far, the PV-grid charging is more
popular. It uses the PV power whenever possible but
switches to the utility grid when the PV power is unavail-
able. For the PV-standalone, the charging is carried out
without interconnection to the utility grid [15]. There are
several variations for the standalone type, for example,
the inclusion of a battery bank or a fuel cell as part of the
charging system. There are also efforts to integrate the PV
modules/cells onto the body of the EV. However, because
of the limited surface area, its application is limited to the
auxiliary components, rather than the EV propulsion itself.
For many years, numerous aspects of EV charging
using the utility supply (grid-only) is extensively reported
in literature [16]. In addition, a number of review papers
have been published in this area [17]. However, the same
cannot be said about the PV-EV charging. Despite the
growing interest in this topic, there seems to be an absence
of a comprehensive paper to review, compile, summarize,
update and present it as a single reference [18]. Hence, this
work is carried out. To facilitate the readers in going
through the paper, the outline is given as follows. The first
part provides the background on EV fundamentals, batte-
ries and a brief overview on the PV. This is followed by
a discussion on important components of the PV-EV
charging system, namely the MPPT dc–dc converter, the
bidirectional dc charger and the bidirectional inverter.
Then the modes of operation for the charging process are
described followed by a summary table of the latest re-
search work. In addition to all these, a case study is dedi-
cated to critically analyse the technical and economical
feasibilities of the PV-grid and PV-standalone in compari-
son to the grid-only charging. This is carried out using
Matlab simulation using well-known models. Finally, the
main findings, recommendations and possible future direc-
tion are highlighted.
2. BACKGROUND OF EV
TECHNOLOGIES
2.1. Evolution of EV
Generally, EV is referred to as an electrically driven vehi-
cle that uses one or more electric motors for its propulsion.
It may include an electric car, train, lorry/bus and
motorcycles/scooters. In this paper, however, the definition
of EV is limited to the hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), the
plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) and purely the bat-
tery electric vehicle (BEV). Table I [19] describes the var-
iations of the EV relevant to this paper. A surprising fact
that is not known to many is that the EV was built and
driven much earlier than the internal combustion engines
(ICE) vehicles [14]. The first EV was commissioned in
1828 and experienced the peak development in late nine-
teenth century. However, at the beginning of twentieth
century, the advancement in ICE has contributed to a dra-
matic decline on the production of the EV. The ICE has
a much superior driving range, shorter refuelling time
and vast network of refilling infrastructure compared with
the EV [20,21]. Despite these limitations, the recent resur-
gence of EV is fuelled by concerns on the impact of the
ICE to the global warming. The EV also offers several
other advantages such as no vibration, smell, noises and
ease of gear changes relatively to gasoline vehicle. With
the technological advancement in battery technology,
power electronics, converters, control and microelectron-
ics, the EV is expected to make serious inroads to the mo-
tor industry.
2.2. Battery
The electrical energy is the lifeline of not only EV but also
a part and parcel of every aspect of life [22,23]. So, the bat-
tery is a main device in EV to store the electrical energy

Table I. The brief descriptions on HEV, PHEV and BEV [19].

Types of EV Overview/characteristics Manufacturer

Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) • ICE • Ford Fusion Hybrid

• Smaller electric battery pack • Toyota Prius
• Dual-fuel vehicle • Honda Civic hybrid
• Battery recharged by ICE and regenerative braking •
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) • ICE • Chevrolet Volt
• Electric battery pack • Toyota Prius PHV
• Dual-fuel vehicle •
• Battery recharged by ICE, regenerative braking and plug-in •
Battery electric vehicle (BEV) • Electric battery pack • Nissan Leaf
• Battery recharged by plug-in • Tesla Roadster

440 Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:439–461 © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
A critical review of PV-EV charging A. R. Bhatti et al.

Table II. Charging characteristics of popular EVs using lithium battery [32–40,106].

Battery Maximum Approximate charging time for full charge (h)

capacity driving
Vehicle model (kW h) range (km) Level 1 (120 Vac) Level 2 (240 Vac) Level 3 (dc), at 80% (state-of-charge)

Chevrolet Volt PHEV 16.0 610 10–16 4–5 N/A

Ford Focus EV 23.0 122 <20 4–5 N/A
Tesla Model S EV* 85.0 426 >24 9–15 0.5
Nissan Leaf EV 24.0 117 12–16 6–8 0.5
Mitsubishi i-MiEV 16.0 100 22 7–8 0.5
Fisker Karma PHEV 20.1 370 <15 4–5 N/A
BMW i3 22.0 160 7–10 3–5 0.5
Toyota Prius PHEV 4.40 870 3 1.5 N/A
Honda Fit EV 20.0 132 <15 4–5 N/A
*
Available for fast battery swapping.

and use it for traction purpose especially. Because of its
simplicity, safety and relatively high energy density, re-
chargeable battery is the most common energy storage
for the EV propulsion system. Despite the introduction
of other storage elements such as the ultra-capacitor, fly-
wheel and hydrogen fuel cell, they could not match the
cost-effectiveness of batteries. However, a battery has sev-
eral major drawbacks: (1) limited energy capacity; (2)
long charging time; and (3) finite charging cycles. These
factors result in limited driving range and expensive re-
placements. The performance of a battery is characterized
by its specific energy, efficiency, maintenance, cost and
impact to environment [24]. Battery technology continues
to advance with smaller sizes, while capable of storing
more energy [25,26]. The evolution of the battery technol-
ogy begins with the lead acid, progressing to nickel-based
and currently to lithium battery [27]. Modern EV is no
longer using lead acid for propulsion due to its high
weight, low specific energy, risk of chemical leakage
and poor temperature characteristics. However, it is still
widely used in conventional ICE vehicle for the ignition,
audio/video and lighting system. On the other hand, the
nickel-based battery offers higher specific energy com-
pared with the lead acid battery. In addition, it is more
environment-friendly, has longer life cycle, good tempera-
ture characteristics and flat discharge profile and exhibits
negligible corrosion. Despite these advantages, nickel-
based battery suffers from memory effect,‡ making it un-
suitable for frequent charge/discharge application such as
EVs [28].
Currently, lithium battery is the preferable choice be-
cause of its higher energy efficiency, power density, com-
pactness and lighter weight [29,30]. Moreover, it
provides fast charging capability, wide operating tempera-
ture range, no memory effect, long life cycle and low self-
discharge rate.
Lithium-based battery includes a wide diversity of
chemical substances; for instant, the Lithium Ferro
‡
The effect that causes nickel-based batteries to hold less
charge is called memory effect.
Phosphate LiFePO4 provides an ease in terms of handling
because of its superior thermal stability in fully charged
condition and low risk of explosion when the battery is ac-
cidentally overcharged or short circuited. Lithium-titanate
is the latest type; it provides a wider operating temperature
range, faster to recharge and accepts higher recharge rate
(>10C) [31].
In the future, the existing lithium-based battery will be
further optimized to suit the application of the EV. The ap-
plications of various types of lithium batteries for the EV
currently available in the market are shown in Table II
[32–40].
3. PV SYSTEM
Solar energy is converted to electricity by the PV modules.
The most widely used modules are based on polycrystal-
line or monocrystalline technology [41]. However, re-
cently, thin films are becoming popular, as they are easier
to manufacture, are more cost-effective and exhibit better
performance at higher temperatures [42]. Other more ex-
otic technologies such as the heterojunction with intrinsic
thin layer [43] and multijunction modules are more effi-
cient [44], but they are not used for general applications
owing to their much higher cost. A typical commercial
module is rated between 200 and 300 W with an open cir-
cuit voltage of about 20–30 V dc. The modules are ar-
ranged in series strings to achieve the required working
voltage; for the EV applications, this voltage is in the range
of 200–500 V dc. To increase the array power, several
strings are connected in parallel; this configuration is
known as series–parallel connection. The behaviour of a
PV system under varying irradiance (G) and temperature
(T) can be understood by examining its current–voltage
(I–V) and power–voltage (P–V) characteristics. The
changes in G and T result in nonlinear I–V and P–V curves,
as shown in Figure 1(a), and 1(b), respectively [45]. At any
time, there exists a unique operating point at which the
power is at peak, i.e. the maximum power point (MPP).
The MPP fluctuates continuously as G or T varies. Because
of these dynamics, an MPP tracker (MPPT) is needed to

Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:439–461 © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 441
DOI: 10.1002/er
A. R. Bhatti et al.
Figure 1. The behaviour of a PV system under varying irradiance
(G) and temperature (T): (a) The I–V and the P–V curves under
varying G and (b) the I–V and the P–V curve under different T [45].
ensure that the maximum power is extracted from the mod-
ules under any values of G and T. Various MPPT techniques
are used, for example, the perturb and observe [46], the
incremental conductance [47] and hill climbing [48].
Recently, more advanced soft computing methods such as
the artificial neural network (ANN), the particle swarm opti-
mization (PSO), the fuzzy logic control and the evolutionary
algorithm have been proposed for the MPPT [49]. These
methods are more adaptable in handling abnormal conditions
such as partial shading and module mismatch [50].
4.0. PV-EV CHARGING
APPROACHES
There are two possible approaches to charge the EV using
the PV, namely the PV-grid and the PV-standalone. The
PV-grid charging has the advantage that during insufficient
solar irradiance, the charging can be carried out using the
grid [51]. It is also more flexible because in the absence
of the EV (to be charged), the PV power can be injected
to the grid. On the other hand, the PV-standalone is more
beneficial in remote areas where utility supply is not avail-
able or too costly [52,53]. Its configuration is simpler be-
cause of the less power conversion stages needed.
4.1. PV-grid charging
Electric vehicle charging imposes an additional loading to
the electricity grid because the current drawn from the grid,
particularly for fast charging, can be very large [1,54].
442
A critical review of PV-EV charging
Furthermore, if the charging takes place during the peak
hours, the owner has to pay a high premium for the tariff.
To offset this burden, a PV-grid charging system is pro-
posed [55]. The availability of PV power reduces the
spinning reserve capacity and improves the grid stability
[56]. Besides that, during the absence of vehicle, the elec-
tricity from the PV can be exported to the grid for mone-
tary gains [57].
A typical setup for the PV-grid charging system is
shown in Figure 2. It has three main components, namely
(1) an MPPT dc–dc converter (i.e. dc to dc power con-
verter with a built-in MPPT), (2) a bidirectional inverter
and (3) a bidirectional dc charger. In addition, many re-
searchers have recommended the use of energy storage
unit (ESU) to stabilize the dc bus voltage. It also compen-
sates for the intermittent nature of renewable sources [58].
Despite these advantages, the ESU requires substantial ini-
tial, operating and maintenance costs. However, low-cost
lead acid battery can be used to reduce the initial invest-
ment. In addition to that, battery management system
(BMS) can be integrated into the system for safety and
long life of the battery of the EV or the ESU. The dc com-
mon bus provides a convenient point for the integration of
all main components [59]. Its voltage varies for different
systems, but 200–400 V range is typical. The dc bus can
also be utilized as a signalling medium, i.e. to transmit con-
trol signals around the system [60]. For centralized or
decentralized coordinated charging, a central controller is
integrated in the system. This controller gathers the grid,
EV, PV and ESU related data for decision making about
power flow direction by controlling the converters auto-
matically (without operator) as shown in Figure 2.
The MPPT dc–dc converter is used to harvest the max-
imum power from the PV array. Typically, it is based on
the buck-boost or boost topology. The operation of the
MPPT dc–dc converter can be described by the aid of
Figure 3. At a particular sampling cycle, the current and
voltage of the PV array are sensed by current and voltage
sensors, respectively [50]. These values are fed into an
MPPT block that computes the MPP; once found, it de-
livers the reference values for the current (IPV*) and the
voltage (VPV*). These are the values that need to be
matched by the dc–dc converter. In most cases, only one
variable (usually voltage) is selected. Then, the measured
power value is compared with the reference value of the
MPP. If there is a difference between the two, the duty cy-
cle (d) of the dc–dc converter is adjusted in an effort to re-
duce the difference. This adjustment is carried out by a PI
or a hysteresis controller. When the measured power
equals to the reference values, the maximum power from
the array is extracted.
The bidirectional inverter is capable of operating in all
four quadrants of the voltage/current regime; hence, it
may function as an inverter or a rectifier by applying the
proper drive signals. In essence, it behaves as a boost con-
verter at the time of rectification and as a buck converter
while doing inversion [61]. Figure 4 shows a three-phase
bidirectional inverter, for a single-phase version that uses
Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:439–461 © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
A critical review of PV-EV charging A. R. Bhatti et al.

Figure 2. General block diagram of the PV-grid charging system.

Figure 3. The dc–dc converter with MPPT.

Figure 4. The bidirectional inverter.

four switches. At the time of inversion, the switches specific sequences, with the objectives of synthesizing
(which comprise semiconductor transistors and free- the sinusoidal voltage. Normally, the sinusoidal pulse-
wheeling diodes) are turned on and turned off using width modulation (PWM) schemes are used [62]. The

Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:439–461 © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 443
DOI: 10.1002/er
A. R. Bhatti et al.
chopped ‘ac voltage’ is filtered using a low pass L-C filter,
before being connected to the grid. In the rectification
mode, the free-wheeling diodes act as rectifiers and pro-
duce a dc voltage at the dc common bus. The dc filter is
used to smooth the dc voltage by eliminating the low fre-
quency ripple. Alternatively, the PWM rectifier can be uti-
lized. It results in a much improved dc voltage with
reduced dc capacitor size. However, to implement the
PWM rectifier, the free-wheeling diode need to be replaced
by a semiconductor switch, connected anti-parallel to the
original transistors.
The bidirectional dc charger is used to control the
voltage and current so that it suits the EV or the ESU that
is being charged. It has power flow capability in both di-
rections. If the power on the dc bus is to be fed back to
the grid, it behaves as a dc–ac converter (i.e. in inversion
mode). On the other hand, if power needs to be drawn
from grid to charge the dc bus, it has to be configured
as an ac–dc converter (rectification mode). An efficient
charger is important because it can affect the battery life
and maintenance requirements [63]. One example of
charger topology is shown in Figure 5. It acts as a buck
converter at the time of the EV charging and as a boost
converter during reverse power flow [64,65]. This circuit
is controlled using the PWM control. During the buck op-
eration, the power is transferred from VD to VB. When T1
is closed and T2 is opened, because VD > VB, conse-
quently, VL = VD VB and the inductor current IL builds
up. When T1 is opened, the inductor current IL continues
to flow through D2 and VL = VB. In boost operation, the
power is transferred from VB to VD. When T2 is closed
and T1 is opened, VB and the inductor form a short circuit
through switch T2; therefore, VL = VB and the inductor
current IL builds up. When T1 is opened, the inductor cur-
rent continues to flow through D1 to VD; therefore,
VL = VD VB [66].
The dc–dc charger is normally accompanied by a BMS
to ensure safe and efficient charging. The battery’s state-of-
charge (SOC) is continuously monitored by the BMS to
avoid overcharging and unintentional depletion [67]. This
will increase the life of the battery. Furthermore, if the
Figure 5. The bidirectional dc–dc charger.
444
A critical review of PV-EV charging
charging system has vehicle-to-grid (V2G) capability
[25,68], over-discharging is also taken care of. The BMS
comprises sensors, switches and controllers. The voltage,
current and temperature are continuously monitored [69].
The microcontroller executes various functions, namely
to determine the SOC, cell balancing and thermal manage-
ment. The extremely high or low SOC may lead to perma-
nent damage in the battery. Similarly, the imbalance
among the cells worsens with time as the weak cells charge
less effectively compared with the stronger cells [70]. The
BMS protects the cells by performing charge equalization
among the cells. Furthermore, the cell imbalance and its
open circuit voltage vary with the temperature difference.
Thus, the BMS continuously monitor and regulate the bat-
tery to prevent the damage of the cells [71].
4.1.1. Charging operation
When the EV is first plugged in, its SOC is normally
less than 100%. In the most general PV-grid system (with-
out the ESU, V2G and V2V operations), the charging pri-
orities in general are sequenced as follows [51]:
• Case 1: If the PV produces power that is higher than
what is required by the EV, then all of it will be used
to charge the EV. The grid power is not utilized for
charging purpose. If there is still excess power re-
maining, it will be fed to the grid.
• Case 2: In the case where the PV power is not avail-
able at all, because of unfavourable weather condition
or during the night, the charging will be carried out by
grid alone. Furthermore, if the PV system experiences
a fault condition, the same process will take place.
• Case 3: If the available PV power is not sufficient to
charge the EV because of low irradiance, then what-
ever power from PV will be used to charge EV. The
remaining (balance) will be supplied from the grid.
• Case 4: In the case where the charging station has
no commitment to charge (i.e. no EV to be
charged), the energy from PV will be fed into the
utility grid directly, normally with certain monetary
gain to the owner.
Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:439–461 © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
A critical review of PV-EV charging A. R. Bhatti et al.

The previously mentioned cases are applicable only the important cases of systems including these features,
for the limited systems without involvement of the ESU all available operating modes in literature (summarized
and the operations of V2G and V2V. But to cover all in Table III) are shown in Figure 6(a–j). Based on these

Figure 6. The important possible operating modes. (a) Mode 1: Sufficient PV energy and no need from grid; (b) Mode 2: No PV energy
and charging from grid; (c) Mode 3: PV energy available but not enough and remaining from grid; (d) Mode 4: No EV and PV energy
supplied to grid; (e) Mode 5: V2G concept; (f) Mode 6: V2V concept; (g) Mode 7: No EV and charging ESU form PV; (h) Mode 8: No
PV and EV, and ESU takes energy from grid when less SOC; (i) Mode 9: No PV and ESU feeds EV when enough SOC; (j) Mode 10:
PV and ESU feed EV due to insufficient PV generation.

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DOI: 10.1002/er
A. R. Bhatti et al.
modes, a case study is carried out to show the most ap-
propriate EV charging system under the prescribed condi-
tions in Section 5. For convenience of referencing, the
overall configuration is drawn in Figure 2.
Mode 1 (PV charging mode)
If the PV energy is sufficient to charge the EV, then the
charging is entirely carried out by the PV. It is carried out
via the dc–dc converter and the dc charger, as shown in
Figure 6(a) [72]. In this case, the PV will independently
do the charging, and the system is electrically disconnected
from the grid. The dc charger is used to regulate the dc
voltage to suit the charging profile of a particular EV.
Mode 2 (Grid-connected rectification mode)
On the other extreme, if the PV is totally incapable of
supplying any power (in the case of zero or extremely
low irradiance), the EV will be charged directly from the
grid. The grid ac power is first converted from ac to dc
using the bidirectional inverter, operated in the rectification
mode. Then the dc voltage is further conditioned by the dc
charger. This situation is shown in Figure 6(b) [72].
Mode 3 (PV charging and grid-connected rectification
mode)
In cases where the PV is able to deliver certain portion
of energy (but not sufficient for full independent charging),
then both the PV and the grid contribute to the charging, as
shown in Figure 6(c) [72]. Typically, the amount of energy
derived from the grid depends on how much energy the PV
can deliver. The deficit will be fulfilled by the grid. Obvi-
ously, because the irradiance conditions is very dynamic,
the controller has to continuously monitor the power deliv-
ered by the PV and accordingly adjust the intake from the
grid to ensure that the required power to the EV is
sustained.
Mode 4 (Grid inversion mode)
When no EV is available for charging and the PV is
generating power, all the energy is sold to the grid via
two-step conversion processes, i.e. by the dc–dc converter
and the bidirectional inverter. This operation is shown in
Figure 6(d) [72]. In certain situations, it may be more eco-
nomical to operate in this mode, even if the EV is available
for charging. This is when the feed-in-tariff rate is much
higher that makes such proposition viable.
Mode 5 (Vehicle-to-grid mode)
In this mode, the idea of power from vehicle to grid
(V2G) is introduced [25,53,68,73,74]. In certain hours of
the day, the tariff is very high; thus, there is surplus energy
from the EVs standing idly in parking lot, then energy can
be fed from EV to grid. This can be carried out through the
446
A critical review of PV-EV charging
bidirectional dc–dc charger and the inverter as shown in
Figure 6(e). This process may shorten the battery life; thus,
it is not very common, unless the economic gain can be
justified.
Mode 6 (Vehicle-to-vehicle mode)
The idea of power flow from vehicle to vehicle (V2V) is
shown in Figure 6(f) [25,68]. In certain hours of the day, it
may happen when there is a surplus of energy from one of
the EVs standing idle in a parking lot, then the energy can
be fed to other EV that has higher priority because of leav-
ing parking lot earlier or has very low SOC than the former
one. This process can also shorten the battery life and
hence is not very common.
Mode 7 (PV to ESU mode)
When there is no EV to be charged and the PV power is
less or equal to the required ESU SOC, then all the PV
power will flow to the ESU as shown in Figure 6(g)
[51,72,75]. This mode helps the charging system, decreas-
ing the grid dependence by storing energy in the ESU for
future use. This stored energy will be utilized during the
time of grid overloading condition.
Mode 8 (Grid to ESU mode)
During night time when the grid is not overloaded and
the grid-electricity (GE) prices are very low and the ESU
has less SOC, then the power will flow from the grid to
the ESU to charge it as shown in Figure 6(h) [51,72,75].
This mode actually avails the opportunity of low grid tariff
to increase the charging station profit.
Mode 9 (ESU to EV mode)
This mode helps the grid during overloaded conditions
to charge the EV from the ESU as shown in Figure 6(i)
[51,72,75]. Also, this mode can be applied for night time
charging of the EV when no PV power is available or dur-
ing the daytime when the PV power is not enough to fulfil
the EV demand alone.
Mode 10 (PV and ESU to EV mode)
Two modes perform the combined operations of the PV
and the ESU to charge the EV as shown in Figure 6(j)
[51,72,75]. This mode becomes operative when the PV
alone is not able to fulfil the demand of the EV and the
ESU has sufficient amount of SOC. The operation of this
mode will help to reduce the grid burden due to the EV
charging.
4.1.2. Practical PV-grid charging systems
For ease of referencing, the PV-grid charging schemes
reported in literature are summarized in Table III. It is clear
that with the passage of time, the PV-grid charging is
Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:439–461 © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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A critical review of PV-EV charging

Table III. Summary of work related to practical PV-grid charging systems.

Ref. Author Scheme Features Remarks

[107], 2011 Masoum et al. A fully coordinated The SLM coordinated/centralized strategy The system constraints in this scheme
smart load management for PEV charging based on peak demand may reduce the autonomy of EV owner.
(SLM) for multiple PEV shaving is proposed and developed in Peak shaving and valley filling are discussed
using peak shaving strategy. Matlab environment. It can, also, improve in refs [108,109] in detail and defined at
the voltage profile and minimize the the footnote of table*.
power losses. Furthermore, the developed
SLM approach takes into consideration the
PEV owner preferred charging time zones
based on a priority selection scheme, but
SLM will endeavour to respect PEV owner
designated charging time zones as long as
system constraints (e.g. voltage regulation
and limiting system peak) are not violated.
[110], 2014 Zhang et al. Decentralized valley-filling To avoid the effects of uncoordinated/ Because EV owner can plan the charging
charging scheme uncontrolled charging on grid and to reduce according to the price scheme given to him,
the cost of charging, a decentralized therefore, there is no requirement for a
valley-filling charging strategy is proposed, bidirectional communication or control
in which a day-ahead pricing scheme is network between the grid and EV owners.
designed by solving a minimum-cost But this scheme causes the uncertainty
optimization problem. The pricing scheme about charging price to EV owner every day.
can be broadcasted to EV owners, and the
individual charging behaviour can be indirectly
coordinated. Here, EV owners can reduce
their electricity cost by improving their
response capability. It is very important to
design an accurate electrical energy
management system as much as possible
due to ever increasing energy crisis and
high energy costs [111].
[51,72], Goli and ESU based charging setup The system operates in a smart grid environment. Using the ESU reduces the grid burden during
2012, 2014 Preetham with four modes operation It has an additional battery bank as the energy the peak load hours. The ESU charging through
controlled by BMS storage unit (ESU), which is used for the grid during the off-peak time is controlled
emergency charging during the grid peak load by the BMS.

A. R. Bhatti et al.
conditions. The operational modes are about It should be noted that the use of a dc
similar to Section 4.1.1, but it has no V2G capability. common bus in the system reduces the
Furthermore, the BMS is used to keep the EV power losses.
447

(Continues)
 448

A. R. Bhatti et al.
Table III. (Continued)

Ref. Author Scheme Features Remarks

battery safe from overcharging and to control

the rate of charge. The BMS is also responsible
for the switching between the grid and the ESU
to charge the EV battery when the situation
demands. In this approach, the output of dc–dc
boost converter and the input of the dc–ac
bidirectional converter share a common dc bus.
[25,68], Ma and Fuzzy logic based An intelligent fuzzy logic based smart charging Because of high nonlinearity of the system,
2014, 2012 Mohammed smart charging system for parking lots. It manages energy in real a fuzzy logic controller is a good choice for
time using forecasting models for the PV output solving various but limited (not many) issues.
power and the EV power requirement. For accurate The V2V and the V2G services are also introduced.
prediction, hourly data, which have been collected
over 15 years, are used. The system sets the charging
priorities and the rate of charging. The charging
priorities depend upon the charging requirements of
the EV like the SOC and the time of stay. While the
charging rates depend upon the predicted PV output
power, the EV power demand and the grid energy price.
[112], 2014 Fattori et al. EVLS based EV charging An EV Learning Static (EVLS) model is built to check EVLS is a linear optimization model used to
Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:439–461 © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

analysis with different the feasibility of the EV charging through the detect the effects of EVs on an energy system.
charging modes grid-connected PV system. This analysis is carried It is available from [113].
out under uncontrolled charging, smart charging and
V2G scenarios. Authors concluded under uncontrolled
charging that the PV can cover only the small portion
of the EV demand as opposed to the smart charging
scheme.
[114], 2014 Honarmand et al. MG based EV An energy management system for a microgrid (MG) Besides MG, the main grid has also been involved

A critical review of PV-EV charging

charging under IPL to charge the EVs. The MG consists of an intelligent to perform the G2V or the V2G operation during the
parking lot (IPL), a PV system, a wind turbine, time of need. Moreover, the V2G helps the grid to
a microturbine and a fuel cell. The IPL plays a role to shave the peak load, and G2V or grid to ESU can
prevent unexpected power mismatch in the power perform valley filling in a better way.
system, and also it acts as an aggregator to facilitate
the interaction between the EVs owners and the
microgrid operator. Here, EV batteries work as energy
DOI: 10.1002/er

storage units when these are idle and their owners

(Continues)
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A critical review of PV-EV charging

Table III. (Continued)

Ref. Author Scheme Features Remarks

obtain incentive by allowing the V2G operation when

needed.
[96], 2014 N. Liu et al. MG based EV charging The microgrid based EV charging is proposed. Unlike previous studies, this work is based on the
using heuristic strategies The heuristic strategies are applied during the EV charging real-time data acquisition like in [115] without
to maximize the utilization of the PV power and reducing forecasting of the PV output or the EV charging
the effect of charging on grid. The work is divided into demand. Also, rule-based heuristic strategies are
three parts: the model of EV feasible charging region (FCR), better option when conventional optimizations like
the mechanism of dynamical event triggering (DET) and the GA or PSO are not applicable.
algorithm of real-time power allocation (RTPA) for EVs.
Here, the FCR model ensures that when the EV leaves its
battery, the SOC should be maximum. The DET mechanism
can cut down the calculation frequency to avoid unnecessary
calculation, while the RTPA is used to allocate the power
to each EV.
[94], 2014 Zhang et al. Daytime EV Daytime charging strategies for the EVs using the PV and Proposed method fails to manage the wastage of
charging using PSO the main grid with absence of the ESU as energy the PV energy when it is more than the need of
storage device. The main objective is to maximize the the EVs and the grid.
PV utilization and reduction of EVs charging and the
operator electricity cost. This is achieved by using
PSO algorithm.
[101], 2015 Honarmand et al. Stochastic type EV An intelligent parking lot (IPL) for the EV that also System uses two energy storage units:
charging model under IPL acts as an aggregator between the PV and the microturbine and EVs
distributed generators. A stochastic charging and
discharging scheduling model is proposed using spinning
reserves (the microturbine and the EVs) in order to
eliminate generation and consumption mismatch.
Moreover, the EV owners could earn profit by discharging
their vehicles as well as having desired the SOC in
the departure time.
[116], 2015 H. Liu et al. MG based centralized A microgrid (MG) for charging the EVs using multi-objective Integration of more sources would guarantee the
coordinated EV charging economic dispatch approach. The MG contains wind turbines, availability of power for the EV, but this
using multi-objective PV, diesel engines, fuel cells and a battery. The multisource integration may raise the complexity
economic dispatch approach multi-objectives in the model are the lowest operating and hence control of the system. Also, this

A. R. Bhatti et al.
cost, the least carbon dioxide emissions and the lowest integration increases the capital cost, but it may
pollutant treatment cost. The economic dispatch of the be economical when long-term running cost
MG system in the presence of the V2G operation is analysed is considered [117].
449

(Continues)
 450

A. R. Bhatti et al.
Table III. (Continued)

Ref. Author Scheme Features Remarks

with an improved PSO algorithm under different

charging modes. Work concludes that centralized coordinated
charging and discharging mode has better operational
economics than the autonomous charging mode.
[118], 2015 Rautiainen Realistic controlled charging The proposed strategy is simpler than others because Reduces charging cost but power losses are
the distribution system operator (DSO) and the charging increased a bit as compared with other
service provider are treated as separate entities. So, DSO controlled schemes.
will not be burdened by the EV information, and the charging
service provider is aware only of the EV locations in the
electric network, hence makes control simpler.
[75], 2015 Locment and The dc microgrid The dc microgrid consists of the PV, the ESU, and the grid. Although the system is less complex by removing
Sechilariu for EV Charging In the proposed system, the PV is coupled directly to the dc the static converter, this removal may cause
link without a static converter to reduce the control system stability problem.
complexity. Also, a real-time rule-based algorithm is
proposed to manage power among the PV, the battery
Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:439–461 © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

and the grid. Here, grid is taken as a backup and given

[119], 2015 S. Hajforoosh et al. Fuzzy GA and fuzzy
PSO based coordinated
EV charging
last priority to charge the EV.
Proposes two approaches for coordination of PEV charging
based on fuzzy genetic algorithm (FGA) and fuzzy discrete
particle swarm optimization (FDPSO) to minimize the costs
associated with energy generation and grid losses. For a
further reduction in overall cost and transformer loading,
GA and PSO exhibit high computational cost and
poor constraint handling abilities. Also, tuning a
fuzzy system is very difficult especially when
variables are more in number [96]. Also, in
coordinated charging (if centralized), the freedom

A critical review of PV-EV charging

fuzzy reasoning for charging demand shifting is used. of the EV owner could be cut, and normally they
are not allowed to start immediate charging
[1,77]. So, decentralized coordinated approach is
recommended for EV owner autonomy [97,120].
*
Peak shaving and valley filling refers to the shifting of load from the system peak into the hours when the load is low and the network’s capacity is high.
DOI: 10.1002/er
A critical review of PV-EV charging
becoming more complex with numerous functions embed-
ded into the system. With the new features, particularly the
BMS, the system flexibility and the battery lifetime in-
crease [76]. Furthermore, with the expected proliferation
of the smart grid§ topologies [11], the charger can be inte-
grated into the utility system readily. There are also efforts
to introduce the vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and vehicle-to-
grid (V2G) concepts, as mentioned in [25,68]; while it
may be useful for immediate or emergency charging, cau-
tions have to be exercised with regards to the possible
shortened battery life. Adding an additional battery storage
unit into the system [51,53] is also beneficial to reduce the
grid burden, but at the expense of initial investment and
maintenance. Furthermore, fully coordinated centralized
charging limits the autonomy of the EV owner, which
would be retained using coordinated decentralized charging
system. The generation side is centrally controlled, and the
grid burden is reduced by controlling the ESU and the renew-
able sources as suggested in [77]. The owner will be pro-
vided full autonomy to start immediate charging of vehicle.
4.2. PV-standalone charging
The PV-standalone charging refers to the charging of the
EV solely by the PV power, i.e. without the involvement
of utility (grid) as shown in Figure 7 [78]. It is more efficient
because of the fewer power conversion stages [79,80]. How-
ever, the PV array must be sufficiently large to fulfil the
charging requirement for the designated number of vehicles
[81]. There are two main approaches to achieve the charging
goals: (1) by the direct PV to the EV connection, as shown
in Figure 8(a) [82], and (2) with an intermediate ESU, as
shown in Figure 8(b) or 8(c) [52,83]. In addition, there are
several methods that involve hybrid solutions.
The main disadvantage of the direct charging method is
the inadequacy and intermittency of the PV power to contin-
uously charge the EV. On the other hand, the ESU enables
the excess energy to be stored and to be utilized later when
the PV power is unavailable [53]. Although this is more ad-
vantageous, the initial investment cost for the ESU may not
be feasible [84]. For both cases, the crucial component of it
is the charge controller. Basically, it is a dc–dc converter
with an MPPT capability, with a special role to regulate the
PV voltage so as to ensure the charging current is optimized.
4.2.1. Other PV-standalone charging systems
Authors in [85] proposed a hybrid solution for the PV-
standalone charger, which combines the EV battery with a
hydrogen fuel cell system. The conceptual diagram is shown
in Figure 8. The PV is deployed into two separate tracks: (1)
to charge a lead acid battery (ESU) for the EV and (2) to
charge a fuel cell vehicle. The PV power is used to charge
the ESU and maintain it at full SOC. If the EV charging is
§
Smart grid refers to the electricity delivery system, which trans-
ports, converts and distributes the power efficiently (from pro-
ducers to consumers), integrated with communications and
information technology.
Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:439–461 © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
A. R. Bhatti et al.
required, the energy from the ESU is transferred to the EV
battery via a battery charger. On a separate track, the PV
power is utilized to produce hydrogen (to replenish the fuel
cell) through electrolysis of water. Using this arrangement,
the system is able to charge the EV during the daytime as
well as the night. In another work [54], an innovative hybrid
standalone charging using multiple energy storages, which
includes ESU, super-capacitors and fuel cells, is introduced.
By utilizing more energy sources, the reliability of the sys-
tem can be improved [52,85]. The authors use two control
algorithms; the first is used to interface between batteries
and fuel cells, while the second manages the power between
supercapacitors and batteries. Authors in [82] propose a
novel PV charging technique based on the flexible ac trans-
mission system (FACTS) topology. FACTS is normally de-
signed to improve the control and power transfer capability
of electrical network [86]. In this work, a PV-EV charging
station with a dc common bus employs a unique green
plug-filter compensator and dual-action regulator. Every reg-
ulator uses a tri-loop error operated by a modified PID con-
troller to ensure a quick remove of the dc side inrush and
transient changes. The uniqueness of this work is that the
FACTS devices are used to stabilize the dc common bus.
In [83], a mathematical modelling of the PV-standalone
charging station, as shown in Figure 8(c), is presented using
solar energy at domestic level. System sizing is also proposed,
and the home ESU is charged by the PV current until it
reaches the full SOC. For this purpose, model parameters of
the PV panel and the lead acid ESU are identified using the
fitting methodology, and their models are validated experi-
mentally. To obtain the maximum PV power, the MPPT con-
trol is applied. This kind of system is not fully reliable to fulfil
the demand of the EV during winter or bad weather condi-
tions because of the low solar irradiance. The failure of this
kind of system is proved under Section 5.1 of this paper.
Authors in [87] propose yet another elegant solution:
charging using the PV cells embedded on the EV body.
This concept is known as the vehicle-integrated PV
(VIPV). Typically, thin film cells are mounted on the roof
of the EV while an on-board dc–dc converter is used to
charge the batteries [8]. In a separate work [88], a VIPV
using a brushless permanent magnetic dc motor is pro-
posed. However, the authors conclude that the solution is
impractical because of the limited space for the PV cells.
The extracted power is insufficient to drive the propulsion
system. Despite this fact, the VIPV concept can be de-
ployed as a secondary charger that can improve its effi-
ciency up to about 10–20% [87]. The embedded PV cells
can also be used as an auxiliary power source to run the
air-conditioning system during parking [89]. At the very
least, the VIPV system is suitable to run auxiliary devices
such as fan, audio players and igniters [90–92]. In a more
revolutionized work, the silicon crystal with fixed quantum
points are mixed with special paintings that can be painted
on the car body [8]. This is an interesting development de-
spite the unproven reliability of the solution. The system
has a very low efficiency (less than 2%), but the future of
this technology might be exciting.
451
A. R. Bhatti et al.
Figure 7. The PV-standalone charging system: (a) without a battery, (b) and (c) with a battery.
Figure 8. The PV docking alternate track system for the EV charging [104].
5. CASE STUDY: A COMPARATIVE
ANALYSIS OF THE PV-EV
CHARGING SYSTEMS
Today’s world is looking for optimal utilization of energy
in full technical and engineering approach to cope with
the issue of energy crisis in every field and especially for
EV charging system [93]. Various approaches of the PV-
grid and the PV-standalone charging have been summa-
rized in the previous sections. In this section, a case study
to evaluate the charging efficiency and the potential return
of investments is carried out. The PV-grid (without ESU)
[94] and the PV-standalone (with the ESU) [83] chargers
are to be benchmarked with a ‘standard’ EV charger that
utilizes the grid-only [95]. For the PV-grid charging,
452
A critical review of PV-EV charging
because the ESU is not involved, four modes of operation,
i.e. mode 1 through mode 4 (as shown by Figure 6(a–d)),
are considered. For the PV-standalone, the ESU requires
modes 1, 7 and 10. In case of the grid-only charging, only
mode 2 is in operation. Furthermore, the V2G and V2V
operations are not included because of the drawbacks al-
ready mentioned earlier.
5.1. Simulation Setup
All three systems are modelled and simulated in the
Matlab using the rule-based heuristic strategies [96]. To
facilitate EV owner with autonomy to start the charging
immediately or any time, the decentralized coordinated
approach is adopted [97]. Also, to obtain fast charging in
Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:439–461 © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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A critical review of PV-EV charging
office parking lot, the level 3 charging system is employed
as shown in Table II. The systems are developed for day-
time charging, similar to the one published in [98]. The
main parameters of the systems are given in Table IV.
The system size and the number of vehicles are chosen
according to [75]. The levelized cost of electrical energy
(LCOE)¶ [99] for the PV and the lead acid battery (used
as the ESU in the PV-standalone system) is taken from
[100]. It is assumed that LCOE for the ESU includes the
replacement cost as well. A variety of electricity prices,
based on a highly dynamic tariff structure, are adopted
from [101].
The meteorological (temperature and irradiance) data
are obtained from the official website of the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory [102]. Based on this infor-
mation, the generated PV power is calculated using the
Newton–Raphson iteration method. Then, the ANN
method is applied to predict the future PV power genera-
tion. Furthermore, to determine the power demanded by
the EV for charging, the statistical model proposed by
[25] is used. The energy is purchased from the grid at the
GE price, but the surplus PV energy is sold to the grid
lower than the GE price.
Based on conditions mentioned previously and
neglecting the system power losses, the flowcharts for the
three charging models are shown in Figures 9, 10 and 11,
respectively. To simulate the grid-only charging, initially
all the hourly based datasets related to the EV demand
(EVDmd) and the GE price are loaded. Then EVDmd is
checked; zero demand means no vehicle to be charged
and the operation is terminated by doing nothing. On the
other hand, if the EVDmd is greater than zero, the grid
feeds the vehicles at the present GE price. This is achieved
by operating in mode 2. Finally, the purchasing and selling
prices for the grid and the EV are calculated, respectively.
The profit is the difference between the purchasing and
the selling prices. The total profit is the sum of the profits
for all hours of operation. Because 1-h interval is used, all
variables are updated hourly.
The flowchart of the PV-grid charging is shown in
Figure 10. The additional source of power, i.e. the PV
power (PVPwr), is included. First, the hourly datasets for
the predicted PVPwr, the estimated EVDmd and the GE
prices are loaded. In addition, the LCOE for the PV is ini-
tialized. The charging operation is divided under three sce-
narios: (1) the no-load condition, where the EVDmd is
zero; (2) the overload condition (the EVDmd is greater
than the PVPwr); and (3) the underload condition (the
EVDmd is less than the PVPwr). At any time, only one
of the three scenarios exists. For the no-load condition,
the total PVPwr is sold to the grid at the lower price of
the GE. In this case, the operation is in mode 4. During
the overload condition, the EVDmd could not be fulfilled
¶
The LCOE is a concept used to determine the total costs that
occurs during the lifetime of a technology, divided by the life-
time energy production.
Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:439–461 © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
A. R. Bhatti et al.
Table IV. The data for analysis of various EV charging
possibilities (rate is in USD).
Parameter Value
PV rating 140 kW
ESU rating (for PV-standalone) 97 kW h
Grid-electricity price Adopted from [101]
LCOE of PV 16.7 cents/kW h
LCOE of ESU (lead acid) 15.0 cents/kW h
No. of vehicles 15
by the PV alone. It needs additional power from the grid;
thus, mode 3 is activated. In the underload condition, the
PVPwr is more than the EVDmd; the surplus energy is sold
to the grid.
The charging algorithm for the PV-standalone system
with the ESU is shown in Figure 11. Similar to the previ-
ous systems, all related datasets, namely the hourly based
predicted PVPwr and the EVDmd are first loaded. Since
a battery is used, the SOC of the ESU needs to be mea-
sured. To avoid overcharging or undercharging of the
ESU, the upper (SOCU) and the lower (SOCL) limits of
SOC are set to 95% and 15% of the full charge, respec-
tively. The required ESU power (ReqESUPwr) is defined
as the power that is needed to reach the SOCU. On the
other hand, the AvlESUPwr is the power available with
the ESU before it reaches the SOCL. Similar to the PV-
grid case, the charging mechanism is divided into the no-
load, the overload and the underload conditions. Under
the no-load condition, when the ESU reaches its SOCU
and the PVPwr exceeds the ReqESUPwr, the energy is
wasted. Also, under the overload condition, when the
AvlESUPwr is less than the difference of the EVDmd
and the PVPwr, the EV demand could not be fulfilled. This
is akin to mde 10, i.e. the combined operation of the PV
and the ESU. However, it should be noted that under this
condition, the PV power is utilized fully. In the underload
condition, the maximum utilization of the PV power is
possible because the difference of the PVPwr and the
EVDmd is less than the ReqESUPwr.
5.2. Results
All three systems are run for five charging days, which
include two holidays, i.e. the first and fifth days. The re-
sults when charging from the grid alone are shown in
Figure 12. Clearly, this system can meet the demand of
the 15 EV at any time. However, at times it has to bear
the high cost, particularly if the charging coincides with
the high GE price. This is unavoidable if continuous de-
mand of the EV is to be met. Besides the higher cost of
charging, another drawback is the grid overloading be-
cause of the high inrush current demanded by the EV,
as shown in the results [103]. This normally occurs
during the peak hours.
Figure 13 shows the results of the PV-grid system. The
positive values of grid power mean the power flows from
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A. R. Bhatti et al. A critical review of PV-EV charging

Figure 9. The flowchart for the grid (only) charging.

Figure 10. The flowchart for the PV-grid charging.

the grid to the EV, i.e. that the grid is selling energy to
charge the EV. This takes place when the EVDmd is more
than the PVPwr. On the other hand, the negative values im-
ply that the power flow is reversed, i.e. the grid purchases
the energy from the PV. This situation occurs when there is
no EV to be charged or the EVDmd is less than the PVPwr.
The selling of the surplus PV energy can be very prof-
itable, particularly when the GE price is high. Another im-
portant point is that the PVPwr consumption, i.e. mode 1,
is given the first priority. The idea is to reduce the grid bur-
den. From Figure 13, it can be observed that the grid power
is utilized only when the PVPwr is insufficient to fulfil the
EVDmd, i.e. in the second, third and fourth days. In this
situation, mode 3 is applied.
The results from the PV-standalone system are shown
in Figure 14. The positive values of the ESU power mean
that the energy is flowing from the ESU to the EV. This oc-
curs when the PVPwr is less than the EVDmd, as shown in
the second and fourth days. On the other hand, the negative
ESU power indicates that the power is flowing from the PV
to the ESU. The aim is to increase the SOC. This happens
only when the PVPwr is greater than the EVDmd, as
shown in the second, fourth and fifth days. Moreover, the
results also suggest that the PV-standalone charging is
not efficient because of the power wastage when there is
no EV to be charged and the ESU is already at full SOC.
This can be seen during the first and the fifth days. On
the other extreme, when the EVDmd is more than the total

454 Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:439–461 © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
A critical review of PV-EV charging
Figure 11. The flowchart for the PV-standalone charging.
Figure 12. The EV charging using the grid only.
Figure 13. The EV charging using the PV-grid.
power of the PV and the ESU, the system fails to deliver.
The situation would be worse if the ESU is not included.
Table V summarizes the annual profit earned by all the
three systems. As mentioned earlier, the grid-only system
is used as a benchmarking. There is no gain because the
purchasing and the selling prices are equal. If the charging
algorithm (i.e. the timing to purchase and sell the power to
the grid) is correctly implemented, the PV-grid system can
Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:439–461 © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
A. R. Bhatti et al.
Figure 14. The EV charging using the PV-standalone.
be highly profitable. In addition, it is more reliable because
of the backup help from the grid. On the contrary, the PV-
standalone is more prone to losses because the surplus
power could not be sold to the grid. If not consumed, the
power is ultimately wasted. Furthermore, the reliability of
the system is low as it depends solely on the ESU and
the availability of the PV power. This should bring more
concern to the users. It has to be noted that these monetary
figures are obtained using the charging algorithms shown
in Figures 9, 10 and 11 under the same weather conditions
and assumptions mentioned earlier. If other algorithms are
used, the values might differ. However, the results can
Table V. The profit-based comparison of the EV charging
alternatives.
System Grid-only PV-grid PV-standalone
Annual Profit (USD) 0 22 440 12 023
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A. R. Bhatti et al. A critical review of PV-EV charging

adequately serve as an indication on the viability of the grid and the PV-standalone charging, a case study is
charging systems. carried out by benchmarking them with the grid-only
charging. It is found that the PV-grid charging could be
profitable. On the other hand, the PV-standalone may not
6. FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS be economically viable because of the limited PV and
the battery capacity. Moreover, with regard to the intermit-
One research area worth considering is the enhancement of tency of the PV, it might not be able to meet the demand
the charging control algorithms, i.e. to optimize the utiliza- of the users. The paper also provides several recommenda-
tion of the PV power and the grid. Besides economic con- tions and the future research works that can be undertaken
sideration, the strategy must also be coupled with the in this area.
objective of reducing the grid burden. There have been
on-going researches, some of which have been highlighted
in Table III. The majority of the methods utilize the soft
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
computing tools such as GA, PSO and fuzzy logic. How-
ever, this approach inherits many disadvantages as men-
The authors would like to thank Universiti Teknologi
tioned in [96]. It is thought that the rule-based heuristic Malaysia and the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia
strategies [96] can handle the system constraints more for providing the facilities and financial support (Research
effectively. Adding to that, the inclusion of more accurate University Grant No. 2409.03G11) to conduct this research.
prediction model for the PV power and the GE price (based
on the dynamic tariff structures) is another aspect to be
explored. It can lead to a more precise scheduling as well NOMENCLATURE
as ensuring maximum return of investment. To cope with
the drawbacks of the fully centralized control, a Abbreviations
decentralized coordinated charging is recommended. In PV = photovoltaic
this approach, the generation side is centrally controlled, EV = electric vehicle
and the grid burden is reduced by adding and controlling PV-grid = grid-connected PV charging
the ESU and the renewable sources [77]. The EV owner system
is provided with full autonomy to immediately start the PV-standalone = PV only charging
charging of the vehicle. It appears that this research area HEV = hybrid electric vehicle
is yet to be exploited. PHEV = plugged-in hybrid electric
On the hardware side, there are now numerous options vehicle
available for renewable sources. It would be exciting to in- BEV = battery electric vehicle
tegrate the PV-EV charging with flywheel, super-capacitor, SOC = state of charge
fuel cell and wind turbines in a smart grid environment SOCU = maximum (upper) limit of SOC
[104]. Perhaps these hybrid systems are far-fetched at the SOCL = minimum (lower) limit of SOC
moment, but it might be economically viable in the future. dc/DC = direct current
Furthermore, the various energy sources help to reduce the ac/AC = alternating current
uncertainties due to the intermittency of renewables. In ad- PMW = pulse width modulation
dition, there are research opportunities (non-chemistry) to LCOE = levelized cost of energy/
increase battery life (either the ESU or the EV battery). electricity
These works are mostly related to the improvement of BMS = battery management system
the battery monitoring through the BMS. Recently, sub- MPPT = maximum power point tracking
stantial investment is made to develop the redox flow bat- ICE = internal combustion engine
tery [105]. With its unlimited longevity and large capacity G = irradiance
to size ratio, it can transform the ESU into a formidable T = temperature
power source and thus increase effectiveness of the PV- ESU = energy storage unit (battery bank)
standalone system. Also, the V2G and the V2V are inter- ANN = artificial neural network
esting future options, although currently their feasibilities PSO = particle swarm optimization
are not certain. V2G =vehicle to grid
V2V = vehicle to vehicle
IPL = intelligent parking lot
7. CONCLUSIONS MG = microgrid
GE = grid energy/electricity
This paper provides an overview of the technology, the DSO = distribution system operator
operation and status of the PV-EV charging systems. It EVDmd = EV power demand
also provides the information on the EV fundamentals, PVPwr = PV power
batteries and a brief overview on the PV. To ascertain AvlESUPwr = available ESU power
the technical and the economical feasibilities of the PV- ReqESUPwr = required ESU power

456 Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:439–461 © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
A critical review of PV-EV charging
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